mental operations. The main types of mental operations Operations of thinking in psychology

Thinking in psychology is defined as a process of human cognitive activity, which is a mediated and generalized reflection of reality by a person in its essential connections and relationships.

Types of thinking are distinguished according to various criteria. The main accepted classification distinguishes the following three types: 1) visual-effective thinking; 2) visual-figurative thinking; 3) verbal-logical (or conceptual) thinking. It is in this order that the types of thinking develop in the process of phylo- and ontogenesis.

Visual and effective thinking is a kind of thinking based on the direct perception of objects. The solution of the problem within its framework is carried out in the course of a real, physical transformation of the situation, in the process of actions with objects. Through physical contact with objects, their properties are comprehended. In the process of phylogeny, people solved the problems that confronted them, at first precisely within the framework of practical, objective activity. Only then did theoretical activity stand out from it. This also applies to thinking. Only as practical activity develops does theoretical thinking activity stand out as relatively independent. A similar process is observed not only in the course of the historical development of mankind, but also in ontogeny. The formation of thinking in a child occurs gradually. First, it develops within practical activity and is largely determined by how the ability to handle objects develops.

The next type of thinking that appears in ontogeny is visual-figurative thinking. This type is already characterized by reliance on images of objects, on ideas about their properties. A person imagines a situation, imagines the changes that he wants to receive, and those properties of objects that will allow him to achieve the desired result in the course of his activity. In this kind of thinking, action with the image of objects and situations precedes real actions in terms of objects. A person, solving a problem, analyzes, compares, generalizes various images. The image can contain a versatile vision of the subject. Therefore, this type of thinking gives a more complete picture of the properties of the object than visual-effective thinking.

The transition to the conceptual stage is associated with the formation of the following type of thinking - verbal-logical. It represents the latest stage in the development of thinking in phylo- and ontogenesis. Verbal-logical thinking is a type of thinking carried out with the help of logical operations with concepts. Concepts are formed on the basis of linguistic means. The forerunner of verbal-logical thinking is inner speech.

Forms of thinking. There are three logical forms of thinking: concept, judgment, conclusion.

concept- this is a reflection in the human mind of the distinctive features of objects and phenomena, their general and specific features, expressed by a word or a group of words. The concept is the highest level of generalization, inherent only in the verbal-logical type of thinking. Concepts are concrete and abstract. Concrete concepts reflect objects, phenomena, events of the surrounding world, abstract ones reflect abstract ideas. For example, “man”, “autumn”, “holiday” are specific concepts; “truth”, “beauty”, “good” are abstract concepts.

The content of concepts is revealed in judgments which also always have a verbal form. Judgment is the establishment of links between concepts about objects and phenomena or about their properties and features. Judgments are general, particular and singular. In general, something is asserted about all objects of a certain group, for example: "All rivers flow." A private judgment applies only to some of the objects of the group: "Some rivers are mountainous." A single judgment concerns only one object: "The Volga is the largest river in Europe." Judgments can be formed in two ways. The first is a direct expression of the perceived relationship of concepts. The second is the formation of a judgment in an indirect way with the help of inferences. Thus, a conclusion is the derivation of a new proposition from two (or more) already existing propositions (premises). The simplest form of inference is a syllogism - a conclusion made on the basis of a particular and general judgment. Any process of proving, for example, a mathematical theorem, is a chain of syllogisms that sequentially follow one from the other. A more complex form of inference is inference deductive and inductive. Deductive - follow from general premises to a particular judgment and from particular to singular. Inductive ones, on the contrary, derive general judgments from single or particular premises. On the basis of such methods of reasoning, one can compare with each other certain concepts and judgments that a person uses in the course of his mental activity. Thus, for the productive flow of mental activity, logical forms of thinking are necessary. They determine the persuasiveness, consistency, and, consequently, the adequacy of thinking. The idea of ​​logical forms of thinking passed into psychology from formal logic. This science also studies the process of thinking. But if the subject of formal logic is primarily the structure and result of thinking, then psychology explores thinking as a mental process, it is interested in how and why this or that thought arises and develops, how this process depends on the individual characteristics of a person, how it is connected with others. mental processes.

mental operations. The process of thinking is carried out with the help of a number of mental operations: analysis and synthesis, abstraction and concretization, classification, systematization, comparison, generalization.

Analysis- this is a mental decomposition of an object into its component parts in order to isolate its various aspects, properties, relations from the whole. Through analysis, irrelevant connections given by perception are discarded.

Synthesis is the reverse process of analysis. This is the union of parts, properties, actions, relationships into one whole. This reveals significant links. Analysis and synthesis are two interrelated logical operations. Analysis without synthesis leads to a mechanical reduction of the whole to the sum of the parts. Synthesis without analysis is also impossible, since it restores the whole from the parts selected by analysis.

Comparison- this is the establishment between objects of similarity or difference, equality or inequality, etc. Comparison is based on analysis. In order to carry out this operation, it is first necessary to select one or more characteristic features of the compared objects. Then, according to the quantitative or qualitative characteristics of these features, a comparison is made. It depends on the number of selected features whether the comparison will be one-sided, partial or complete. Comparison (like analysis and synthesis) can be of different levels - superficial and deep. In the case of a deep comparison, a person's thought moves from external signs of similarity and difference to internal ones, from the visible to the hidden, from the phenomenon to the essence. Comparison is the basis of classification - the assignment of objects with different characteristics to different groups.

Abstraction(or abstraction) is a mental distraction from secondary, non-essential in a given situation, sides, properties or connections of an object and the allocation of one side, property. Abstraction is possible only as a result of analysis. Thanks to abstraction, a person was able to break away from the individual, concrete and rise to the highest level of knowledge - scientific theoretical thinking.

Specification is the opposite process. This is the movement of thought from the general to the particular, from the abstract to the concrete in order to reveal its content. Concretization is also addressed in the case when it is necessary to show the manifestation of the general in the individual.

Systematization i is the arrangement of individual objects, phenomena, thoughts in a certain order according to any one sign (for example, chemical elements in the periodic table of D. I. Mendeleev).

Generalization It is a combination of many objects according to some common feature. In this case, single signs are discarded. Only essential links remain. Abstraction and generalization are two interrelated sides of a single thought process, through which thought goes to cognition.

Similar information.

Mental operations (thinking operations). Mental activity is carried out in the form of mental operations passing into each other. These include: comparison-classification, generalization-systematization, abstraction-concretization. Thinking operations are mental actions.

Comparison- a mental operation that reveals the identity and difference of phenomena and their properties, allowing for a classification of phenomena and their generalization. Comparison is an elementary primary form of knowledge. Initially, identity and difference are established as external relations. But then, when comparison is synthesized with generalization, ever deeper connections and relationships are revealed, essential features of phenomena of the same class. Comparison underlies the stability of our consciousness, its differentiation.

Generalization. Generalization is a property of thinking, and generalization is the central mental operation. Generalization can be carried out at two levels. The elementary level of generalization is the combination of similar objects according to external features (generalization). But the generalization of the second, higher level, when in a group of objects and phenomena there are significant common features.

Human thinking moves from facts to generalizations and from generalizations to facts. Thanks to generalizations, a person foresees the future, orients himself in a specific situation. Generalization begins to arise already during the formation of representations, but in full form it is embodied in the concept. When mastering concepts, we abstract from the random features and properties of objects and single out only their essential properties.

Elementary generalizations are made on the basis of comparisons, and the highest form of generalizations is made on the basis of isolating the essential-general, revealing regular connections and relationships, that is, on the basis of abstraction.

Abstraction- the operation of the transition from sensory reflection to the selection of individual properties that are essential in any respect (from lat. abstractio- distraction). In the process of abstraction, a person, as it were, "cleanses" the object from side features that make it difficult to study it in a certain respect. Correct scientific abstractions reflect reality deeper and more fully than direct impressions. On the basis of generalization and abstraction, classification and concretization are carried out.

Classification- grouping objects according to essential features. The classification is based on signs that are significant in any respect. Systematization sometimes it allows the choice as a basis of signs of little importance (for example, alphabetical catalogs), but operationally convenient.

At the highest stage of cognition, there is a transition from the abstract to the concrete. Specification(from lat. concretio- fusion) - knowledge of a holistic object in the totality of its essential relationships, theoretical reconstruction of a holistic object. Concretization is the highest stage in the cognition of the objective world.

Cognition starts from the sensory diversity of reality, abstracts from its individual aspects and, finally, mentally recreates the concrete in its essential fullness. The transition from the abstract to the concrete is the theoretical assimilation of reality.

Forms of thinking.

Formal structures of thoughts and their combinations are called forms of thinking. There are three types of thinking - judgment, inference and concept.

Judgment- a certain knowledge about the subject, the assertion or denial of any of its properties, connections and relations. The formation of a judgment occurs as the formation of a thought into a sentence. A judgment is a sentence that asserts the relationship of an object and its properties. Depending on the content of the objects reflected in the judgment and their properties, the types of judgment are distinguished: private and general, conditional and categorical, affirmative and negative.

Judgment expresses not only knowledge about the subject, but also subjective attitude a person to this knowledge, a different degree of confidence in the truth of this knowledge (for example, in problematic judgments like “Perhaps the accused Ivanov did not commit a crime”). Judgments can be systematically combined. The truth of a system of judgments is the subject of formal logic. Psychologically, the connection of an individual's judgments is considered as his rational activity.

The operation of the general, which is contained in the individual, is carried out through conclusions. Thinking develops in the process of constant transitions from the general to the individual and from the individual to the general, that is, on the basis of the relationship of induction and deduction (Fig.).

Determine the starting and ending points of the route of the owner of this suitcase. Analyze the types of inferences you have used.

Deduction- reflection of the general connections of phenomena.

Professor of Medicine at the University of Edinburgh Bell once struck Conan Doyle (the future creator of the image of the famous detective) with his subtle powers of observation. When another patient entered the clinic, Bell asked him:
- Did you serve in the army? - Yes sir! the patient replied.
- In the mountain rifle regiment? “Yes, Mr. Doctor.
Have you recently retired? - Yes sir! the patient replied.
- Were you in Barbados? - Yes sir! said the retired sergeant. Bell explained to the astonished students: this man, being courteous, did not shine his hat at the entrance to the office - the army habit affected, as for Barbados - this is evidenced by his disease, which is common only among the inhabitants of this area.

inductive reasoning- this is a probabilistic conclusion: according to individual signs of some phenomena, a judgment is made about all objects of a given class. Hasty generalization without good reason is a common error in inductive reasoning.

concept- a form of thinking that reflects the essential properties of a homogeneous group of objects and phenomena. The more essential features of objects are reflected in the concept, the more effectively human activity is organized. (Thus, the modern concept of "the structure of the atomic nucleus" made it possible to use atomic energy in practice.)

So, in thinking, the objective essential properties and interconnections of phenomena are modeled, they are objectified and fixed in the form of judgments, conclusions and concepts.

Types of thinking.

Practical-active, visual-figurative and theoretical-abstract - these are the interconnected types of thinking. In the process of historical development, the human intellect was originally formed as a practical intellect. (So, in the course of practical activity, people learned to measure land plots empirically, and then, on this basis, a special theoretical science, geometry, gradually arose.)

Genetically original kind of thinking - visual action thinking; actions with objects play a leading role in it (animals also have this type of thinking in its infancy).

On the basis of visual-effective, manipulative thinking arises visual-figurative thinking. This species is characterized by operating with visual images in the mind.

The highest level of thinking is abstract, abstract thinking. However, here, too, thinking retains a connection with practice.

The type of thinking of individuals can also be divided into predominantly figurative (artistic) and abstract (theoretical). But in different types of activity, one and the same person comes to the fore one or another type of thinking. (Thus, everyday affairs require visual-effective and figurative thinking, and a report on a scientific topic requires theoretical thinking.)

The structural unit of practical (operational) thinking is action; artistic - image; scientific thinking concept.

Depending on the depth of generalization, empirical and theoretical thinking are distinguished. empirical thinking(from Greek. empeiria- experience) gives primary generalizations based on experience. These generalizations are made at a low level of abstraction. Empirical knowledge is the lowest elementary level of knowledge. Empirical thinking should not be confused with practical thinking.

As noted by the famous psychologist V.M. Teplov (“The Mind of a Commander”), many psychologists take the work of a scientist, a theorist, as the only example of mental activity. Meanwhile, practical activity requires no less intellectual effort. The mental activity of the theoretician is concentrated mainly on the first part of the path of cognition - a temporary retreat, a retreat from practice. The mental activity of the practitioner is concentrated mainly on the second part - on the transition from abstract thinking to practice, that is, on that introduction into practice, for the sake of which the theoretical departure is made.

A feature of practical thinking is subtle observation, the ability to concentrate attention on individual details of an event, the ability to use to solve a particular problem that special and singular that was not completely included in theoretical generalization, the ability to quickly move from thinking to action.

In the practical thinking of a person, the optimal ratio of his mind and will, the cognitive, regulatory and energy capabilities of the individual is essential. Practical thinking is associated with the operational setting of priority goals, the development of flexible plans, programs, great self-control in stressful conditions of activity.

theoretical thinking reveals universal relations, explores the object of knowledge in the system of its necessary connections. Its result is the construction of theoretical models, the creation of theories, the generalization of experience, the disclosure of the patterns of development of various phenomena, the knowledge of which ensures the transformative activity of man. Theoretical thinking, inextricably linked with practice in its origins and final results, has a relative independence - it is based on previous knowledge and serves as the basis for subsequent knowledge.

In the early stages of a child's mental development, as well as in underdeveloped individuals, thinking can be syncretic(from Greek. sinkretisrnos- connection). At the same time, phenomena are connected on the basis of their external similarity, and not essential connections: the connection of impressions is taken for the connection of things.

Depending on the standard-non-standard nature of the tasks being solved and operational procedures, there are algorithmic, discursive, and:

• algorithmic thinking is carried out in accordance with pre-established rules, the generally accepted sequence of actions necessary to solve typical problems;
• discursive(from lat. discursus- reasoning) - thinking based on a system of interrelated inferences - rational thinking;
• — productive thinking, solving non-standard tasks;
• creative thinking is thinking that leads to new discoveries, fundamentally new results.

The structure of mental activity in solving non-standard problems.

Mental activity is divided into reproducing - solving typical problems by known methods (reproductive) and search (productive). Productive mental activity- a thought process aimed at solving a non-standard cognitive task. Mental activity in solving non-standard problems also has a certain structure; it takes place in the form of a sequential series of stages (Fig.).

First stage search cognitive activity - the individual's awareness of the emerging problem situation. Such situations are associated with the unusual nature of the current situation, sudden difficulties in resolving certain issues. The act of thinking in this case begins with the awareness of the inconsistency, ambiguity of the initial conditions of activity, the need for cognitive search. Awareness of the cognitive barrier that has arisen, the insufficiency of available information gives rise to the desire to fill the information deficit. First of all, the need to objectify the unknown is formed - the search for the formulation of a cognitive question begins, finding out what you need to know or be able to do in order to get out of the problem situation that has arisen. The problematic situation, as it were, prompts the subject to the corresponding sphere of knowledge.

The problem in Greek means a barrier, difficulty, and psychologically - awareness of the question to be investigated. It is important to separate the real problem from the pseudo-problem. Problem Statement- the initial link in the interaction of the subject with the object of knowledge. If the problem interacts with the cognitive base of the subject of cognition, allows him to outline what he is looking for, which he can find through some transformations of the initial conditions, a problem arises. A problem is a structurally organized problem. At the same time, the unknown is sought due to its hidden objective relationships with the known. The cognitive task is subdivided into a system of operational tasks. To define a system of tasks means to single out the starting conditions for cognitive activity in a problem situation.

The transformation of a problematic situation into a problem, and then into a system of operational tasks is the first, initial act of cognitive-search activity.

The division of the main question into a number of hierarchically related questions − formation of a problem solving program. This establishes what can be learned from the available data and what new information is needed to complete the entire search program.

The tasks that a person solves can be simple and complex for him. It depends on the stock of knowledge of the individual, mastering it by ways of solving this class of problems.

Task types are defined by those ways of mental activity that underlie their decision. All cognitive-search tasks according to the objective content are divided into three. class: 1) recognition tasks (determining whether a given phenomenon belongs to a certain class of objects), 2) design tasks, 3) tasks for explanation and proof.

Explanation- the use of methods for establishing the reliability of judgments regarding any phenomena. Most often this is a logical consequence.

Proof- the mental process of asserting the truth of any position (thesis) by a system of other axiomatic judgments. In this case, the initial argument is first sought, and then the system of connecting arguments leading to the final conclusion. Problems of proof are solved by reference to the organization of an object, its inherent stable structural relationships, and the identification of functional relationships between objects.

Thinking tasks are divided into simple and complex. Simple Tasks- tasks are typical, standard. Known rules and algorithms are used to solve them. Intellectual search here consists in identifying the type of task by its identification features, correlating a particular case with a general rule. With the systematic solution of such problems, appropriate intellectual skills and habitual schemes of actions are formed.

TO complex tasks include non-standard, non-standard tasks, to the most difficult- heuristic tasks, tasks with incomplete initial data that arise in multivalued initial situations (for example, when investigating non-obvious crimes). In this case, the primary heuristic action is to expand the information field of the problem by transforming the original information. One of the methods of such a transformation is the fragmentation of the problem into a number of particular problems, formation of a "tree of problems".

The central link in solving a problem is the identification of a principle, a general scheme, and a method for solving it. For this, it is necessary to see the concrete as a manifestation of certain general relationships, to explain the possible causes of the phenomenon by high-probability assumptions - hypotheses. If the task is an information system with its elements mismatched, then the hypothesis is the first attempt to coordinate its elements. On this basis, a person mentally changes the problem situation in various directions.

Hypothesis(from Greek. hipothesis- sentence) - a probabilistic assumption about the essence, structure, mechanism, cause of a phenomenon - the basis of the hypothetical-deductive method of cognition, probabilistic thinking. A hypothesis is used in cases where the causes of a phenomenon are inaccessible to experimental research and only its consequences can be investigated.. The advancement of a hypothesis (version) is preceded by a study of all the signs of the phenomenon available for observation, the preceding, accompanying and subsequent circumstances of the event. Hypotheses (versions) are formed only in certain information situations - in the presence of conceptually comparable inputs, serving as the basis for high-probability assumptions. In various branches of practice, specific features of solving problems by the inductive-hypothetical method arise. Thus, in investigative practice are widely used general and private, specific and typical versions.

Hypotheses arise on the basis of preliminary mental actions with the object of knowledge. Such preliminary hypotheses are called workers. They are characterized by the looseness of M, the assumption of the most unexpected assumptions and their prompt verification.

Here is how P.K. Anokhin mental activity of I.P. Pavlova: “What was striking about him was that he could not work for a minute without a completed working hypothesis. Just as a climber who has lost one point of support immediately replaces it with another, so Pavlov, when one working hypothesis was destroyed, immediately tried to create a new one on its ruins, more consistent with the latest facts ... But a working hypothesis was for him only a stage through which he passed, rising to a higher level of research, and therefore he never turned it into a dogma. Sometimes, thinking hard, he changed assumptions and hypotheses with such speed that it was difficult to keep up with him.

Hypothesis- an information-probabilistic model, a mentally represented system that displays the elements of a problem situation and allows you to transform these elements in order to fill in the missing links of the reconstructed system.

Forming a model-probabilistic image of the event under study, the cognizing subject uses various methods: analogy, interpolation, extrapolation, interpretation, thought experiment.

Analogy(from Greek. analogia- similarity) - the similarity of various phenomena in some respects, on the basis of which a conclusion is made about the possible presence of certain properties in the object under study. The method of analogy contributes to the reflection in our minds of the most common connections and relationships. Objects that are similar in one respect, as a rule, are similar in another. However, by analogy, only probabilistic knowledge can be obtained. Assumptions by analogy should be subject to verification actions. The more objects are similar in essential features, the higher the probability of their similarity in other respects. Different analogy properties and analogy relations.

method interpolation(from lat. interpolation- substitution) for a series of given values, a function of intermediate values ​​\u200b\u200bis found. (So, having established a certain dependence in a numerical sequence, we can fill in the numerical gap: 2, 4, 8, 16, ?, 64.) Problem situations resolved by the interpolation method allow finding logically reasonable intermediate elements. However, the interpolation method for eliminating the "gap" is possible only under certain conditions: the interpolation function must be sufficiently "smooth" - have a sufficient number of derivatives that do not increase too rapidly. With their excessively rapid increase, interpolation becomes more difficult (for example: 2.4, ?, 128).

method extrapolation(from lat. extra- outside and polire- to finish off) tasks are solved that allow the transfer of knowledge about one group of phenomena to another group, generalization of the phenomenon as a whole in its part.

Method interpretations(from lat. interpretatio- interpretation, clarification) means interpretation, disclosure of the meaning of an event.

The general way to solve non-standard problems is probabilistic information modeling. Probabilistic information models link individual aspects of the incident in spatio-temporal and cause-and-effect relationships. When investigating incidents with criminal signs, the following questions are clarified: What actions should have been taken under these conditions? Under what conditions could these actions be carried out? What traces, signs, consequences and where should they have appeared? So, probabilistic modeling is the second necessary step in solving non-standard problems.

Third stage problem solving - hypothesis testing, assumptions. To do this, all possible consequences are derived from the version, which correlate with the available facts. In investigative practice, investigative actions prescribed by law are used: examination of material evidence, examination of the scene of an incident, interrogation, search, investigative experiment, etc. At the same time, the investigator develops a strategy for investigating this event, establishes a system of necessary investigative actions and a system of tactics in each of them. In this case, the recreating imagination of the investigator is of essential importance - his ability to figuratively represent the dynamics of a real event, those signs of it that must inevitably be reflected in the environment, the ability of the investigator to evaluate and explain the fragments of the phenomenon in the light of the logic of the whole.

If, when putting forward a hypothesis, a version, a thought goes from the particular to the general, then when it is tested, it goes from the general to a system of particular manifestations, that is, it is used deductive method. At the same time, all necessary and possible manifestations of the general in the particular should be analyzed.

On fourth and final stage problem solving, the obtained results are compared with the initial requirement. Their agreement means creation of a reliable information-logical model the object under study, the solution of the problem. The model is formed as a result of the nomination and verification of such a version, all the consequences of which are really confirmed and give all the facts the only possible explanation.

Creative thinking.

Creative thinking- decision thinking fundamentally new problems leading to new ideas, discoveries. A new idea is always a new look at the interconnections of phenomena. Often a new idea arises on the basis of a new "coupling" of previously known information. (So, A. Einstein, as you know, did not conduct experiments, he only comprehended the available information from a new perspective, re-systematized it.)

New ideas arise on the basis of certain prerequisites in the general development of a particular branch of knowledge. But this always requires a special, non-standard mindset of the researcher, his intellectual courage, the ability to move away from the dominant ideas. Old, classical concepts are always surrounded by a halo of universal recognition and, therefore, prevent the emergence of new views, ideas and theories.

Thus, the geocentric concept of duty prevented the establishment of a scientific view of the motion of the Earth around the Sun; conditioned reflex "arc" I.P. Pavlova for a long time made it difficult to accept the idea of ​​a “ring” put forward by P.K. Anokhin back in 1935.

One of the main components of creative thinking is its imagery, imagination. It is no coincidence that the thought experiment method is so widely used in science. Pyramids, cathedrals, and rockets exist not because of geometry, building mechanics, and thermodynamics, but because they were originally a visible picture in the minds of those who built them.

In creative thinking, the right path to a discovery is sometimes found after it has been made. The initial take-off of thought should not have restrictions! Free consciousness initially embraces everything that can be explained and classified without any need. A fundamentally new phenomenon cannot be understood by means of laws and generalizations known to the subject. All critical stages of cognition are inevitably associated with the “shock of novelty”.

In creativity, the free play of human forces is realized, the creative intuition of a person is realized. Each new discovery, creative act acts as a new recognition by a person of the world around him. Creativity is, as it were, a pulsation of a person's superconsciousness above his consciousness.

Creative individuals are nonconformists: they accept the demands of the environment only to the extent that they coincide with their own positions. Their ideas about life, society, the world around them are non-standard, they are not held captive by dogmas. The intelligence of creative people synthetic- they seek to establish connections in a variety of phenomena. In addition, their thinking divergently— they strive to see the most diverse combinations of the same things. For the rest of their lives they retain an almost childlike capacity for surprise and admiration, they are sensitive to everything unusual.

Creativity, as a rule, is associated with intuitive, little-conscious processes. Intuition(from lat. intueri- peering) - the ability to directly, without resorting to detailed reasoning, find answers to complex questions, comprehend the truth, guessing about it; a leap of reason unburdened by the fetters of strict reasoning. Intuition is characterized by sudden insight, conjecture; it is connected with the individual's ability to extrapolate, to transfer knowledge to new situations, with the plasticity of his intellect. A "leap of the mind" is possible with a high level of generalization of experience and professional knowledge.

The mechanism of intuition consists in the simultaneous unification of disparate signs of phenomena into a single complex search landmark. This simultaneous coverage of various information distinguishes intuition from logically consistent thinking.

The intuitive act is highly dynamic, it is distinguished by a large number of degrees of freedom in using the initial data of the problem. The leading role in intuition is played by the semantic meanings related to the tasks of this class. (This is the basis of professional intuition.)

Patterns of thinking.

1. Thinking arises in connection with the solution of a problem; the condition for its occurrence is a problematic situation - a circumstance in which a person encounters something new, incomprehensible from the point of view of existing knowledge. This situation is characterized lack of initial information, the emergence of a certain cognitive barrier, the difficulties that must be overcome by the intellectual activity of the subject - the search for the necessary cognitive strategies.

2. The main mechanism of thinking, its general pattern is analysis through synthesis: highlighting new properties in an object (analysis) through its correlation (synthesis) with other objects. In the process of thinking, the object of cognition is constantly “included in ever new connections and, because of this, appears in ever new qualities, which are fixed in new concepts: from the object, in this way, all new content is, as it were, scooped out; it seems to turn every time with its other side, all new properties are revealed in it.

The learning process begins with primary synthesis- perception of an undivided whole (phenomenon, situation). Further, on the basis of the analysis, a secondary synthesis is carried out. When analyzing the initial problem situation, it is necessary to focus on key initial data that allow revealing hidden information in the initial information. At the same time, signs of possibility-impossibility and necessity are revealed.

In conditions of lack of initial information, a person does not act by trial and error, but uses a certain search strategy - the optimal scheme for achieving the goal. The purpose of these strategies is to cover a non-standard situation with the most optimal general approaches - heuristic search methods. These include: temporary simplification of the situation; the use of analogies, the solution of leading problems; consideration of "extreme cases", reformulation of the requirements of the problem; temporary blocking of some components in the analyzed system; making "jumps" through information gaps.

So, analysis through synthesis is a cognitive "deployment" of the object of knowledge, its study from various angles, finding its place in new relationships, mental experimentation with it.

3. Every true thought must be substantiated by other thoughts, the truth of which has been proven. If there is "B", then there is its base - "A". Requirement soundness of thinking due to the fundamental property of material reality: every fact, every phenomenon is prepared by previous facts and phenomena. Nothing happens without a good reason. The law of sufficient reason requires that in any reasoning, a person's thoughts be internally interconnected, follow one from the other. Each particular thought must be substantiated by a more general thought. Only on the basis of correct generalizations, understanding the typicality of the situation, a person finds a solution to problems.

4. Selectivity(from lat. selectio- choice, selection) - the ability of the intellect select the knowledge necessary for a given situation, to mobilize them to solve the problem, bypassing the mechanical enumeration of all possible options (which is typical for computers). To do this, the knowledge of the individual must be systematized, summarized in a hierarchically organized structure.

5. Anticipation(from lat. anticipation- anticipation) means anticipation of events. A person is able to foresee the development of events, predict their outcome, schematically represent the most probable outcomes of their actions. Forecasting events is one of the main functions of the human psyche.

6. reflexivity(from lat. reflexio- reflection). The thinking subject constantly reflects - reflects the course of his thinking, evaluates it critically, develops self-assessment criteria. (Reflection refers to both the self-reflection of the subject and the mutual reflection of communication partners.)

Tests for analytical thinking.

Thinking- socially determined, inextricably linked with speech, the mental process of searching for and discovering something new, i.e. the process of generalized and indirect reflection of reality in the course of analysis and synthesis.

Thinking as a special mental process has a number of specific characteristics and features.

The first such sign is generalized a reflection of reality, since thinking is a reflection of the general in objects and phenomena of the real world and the application of generalizations to individual objects and phenomena.

The second, no less important, sign of thinking is indirect knowledge of objective reality. The essence of indirect cognition lies in the fact that we are able to make judgments about the properties or characteristics of objects and phenomena without direct contact with them, but by analyzing indirect information.

The next most important characteristic feature of thinking is that thinking is always associated with the decision of one or another tasks, arising in the process of cognition or in practical activity. The process of thinking begins to manifest itself most clearly only when a problem situation arises that needs to be solved. Thinking always starts with question, the answer to which is goal thinking

An exceptionally important feature of thinking is the inextricable connection with speech. The close connection between thinking and speech finds its expression primarily in the fact that thoughts are always clothed in speech form. We always think in words, that is, we cannot think without uttering the word.

Types of thinking.

There are the following types of thinking:

- Visual-effective - here the solution of the problem is carried out with the help of a real transformation of the situation on the basis of a motor act. Those. the task is given visually in a specific form and the way to solve it is a practical action. This type of thinking is typical for a child of preschool age. This kind of thinking also exists in higher animals.

Visual-figurative - a situation necessary for solving a problem, a person recreates in a figurative form. Begins to form at the senior preschool age. In this case, in order to think, the child does not have to manipulate the object, but it is necessary to clearly perceive or visualize this object.

- Verbal-logical(theoretical, reasoning, abstract) - thinking appears primarily in the form of abstract concepts and reasoning. Begins to develop at school age. Mastery of concepts occurs in the process of assimilation of various sciences. At the end of school education, a system of concepts is formed. Moreover, we use concepts that sometimes do not have a direct figurative expression (honesty, pride). The development of verbal-logical thinking does not mean that the previous two types do not develop or disappear altogether. On the contrary, children and adults continue to develop all kinds of thinking. For example, in an engineer, designer, visual-effective thinking achieves greater perfection (or when mastering new technology). In addition, all types of thinking are closely interconnected.

From the point of view of the originality of the tasks being solved, thinking can be: creative(productive) and reproducing (reproductive). Creative is aimed at creating new ideas, reproductive is the application of ready-made knowledge and skills.

Forms of thinking - concepts, judgments, conclusions.

concept- a thought that reflects the general, essential and distinctive features of objects and phenomena of reality (for example, the concept of "man"). Distinguish concepts worldly(acquired in practical experience) and scientific(acquired during training). Concepts arise and develop in the process of development of science and technology. In them, people record the results of experience and knowledge.

Judgment - reflection of connections between objects and phenomena of reality or between their properties and features.

inference- such a connection between thoughts (concepts, judgments), as a result of which we obtain another judgment from one or several judgments, extracting it from the content of the original judgments.

Thinking processes.

There are several basic mental processes (mental operations), with the help of which mental activity is carried out.

Analysis- mental division of an object or phenomenon into its constituent parts, the allocation of individual features in it. Analysis is practical and mental.

Synthesis- mental connection of individual elements, parts and features into a single whole. But synthesis is not a mechanical combination of parts.

Analysis and synthesis are inextricably linked and provide a comprehensive knowledge of reality. Analysis provides knowledge of individual elements, and synthesis, based on the results of analysis, provides knowledge of the object as a whole.

Comparison- comparison of objects and phenomena in order to find similarities or differences between them. Thanks to this process of thinking, we know most things, because. we cognize an object only by equating it with something or distinguishing it from something.

As a result of comparison in the compared objects, we highlight something in common. That. Thus, on the basis of comparison, a generalization is built.

Generalization - mental association of objects into groups according to those common features that stand out in the process of comparison. Through this process, conclusions, rules and classifications are made (apples, pears, plums - fruits).

Abstraction consists in the fact that, by isolating any properties of the object under study, a person is distracted from the rest. Concepts (length, breadth, quantity, equality, value, etc.) are created by abstracting.

Specification involves the return of thought from the general and abstract to the specific in order to reveal the content (give an example for the rule).

Thinking as a process of problem solving.

The need for thinking arises first of all when, in the course of life, a new problem appears before a person. Those. thinking is necessary in those situations in which a new goal arises, and the old methods of activity are no longer sufficient to achieve it. Such situations are called problematic . In a problem situation, the process of thinking begins. In the course of activity, a person encounters something unknown, thinking is immediately included in the activity, and the problem situation turns into a task that is realized by the person.

Task - the goal of an activity given in certain conditions and requiring the use of means adequate to these conditions for its achievement. Any task includes: target, condition(known) desired(unknown). Depending on the nature of the ultimate goal, tasks are distinguished practical(aimed at transforming material objects) and theoretical(aimed at cognition of reality, for example, study).

The principle of solving the problem : the unknown is always connected with something known, i.e. the unknown, interacting with the known, reveals some of its qualities.

Thinking and problem solving are closely related to each other. But this connection is not unambiguous. Problem solving is carried out only with the help of thinking. But thinking is manifested not only in solving problems, but also, for example, for the assimilation of knowledge, understanding of the text, setting the task, i.e. for knowledge (mastery of experience).

Individual features of thinking.

The thinking of each person has some differences in certain properties.

Independence- the ability of a person to put forward new tasks and find the right solutions without resorting to the frequent help of other people.

Latitude- this is when a person's cognitive activity covers various areas (broad-minded).

Flexibility- the ability to change the solution plan planned at the beginning, if it no longer satisfies.

Rapidity- the ability of a person to quickly understand a difficult situation, quickly think and make a decision.

Depth- the ability to penetrate into the essence of the most complex issues, the ability to see a problem where other people do not have a question (you need to have a Newton's head to see a problem in a falling apple).

criticality- the ability to objectively evaluate one's own and other people's thoughts (not to consider one's thoughts absolutely correct).

The information received by a person from the surrounding world allows a person to represent not only the external, but also the internal side of an object, to represent objects in the absence of themselves, to foresee their change in time, to rush with thought into boundless distances and the microcosm. All this is possible through the process of thinking. In under thinking understand the process of cognitive activity of an individual, characterized by a generalized and indirect reflection of reality. Objects and phenomena of reality have such properties and relationships that can be known directly, with the help of sensations and perceptions (colors, sounds, shapes, placement and movement of bodies in visible space).

The first feature of thinking- its mediated nature. What a person cannot cognize directly, directly, he cognizes indirectly, indirectly: some properties through others, the unknown through the known. Thinking is always based on the data of sensory experience - representations - and on previously acquired theoretical knowledge. Indirect knowledge is also indirect knowledge.

The second feature of thinking- its generalization. Generalization as knowledge of the general and essential in the objects of reality is possible because all the properties of these objects are connected with each other. The general exists and manifests itself only in the individual, in the concrete.

People express generalizations through speech, language. Verbal designation refers not only to a single object, but also to a whole group of similar objects. Generalization is also inherent in images (representations and even perceptions). But there it is always limited visibility. The word allows you to generalize without limit. Philosophical concepts of matter, motion, law, essence, phenomenon, quality, quantity, etc. - the broadest generalizations expressed in a word.

The results of people's cognitive activity are recorded in the form of concepts. A concept is a reflection of the essential features of an object. The concept of an object arises on the basis of many judgments and conclusions about it. The concept as a result of the generalization of people's experience is the highest product of the brain, the highest stage of cognition of the world.

Human thinking proceeds in the form of judgments and conclusions.. Judgment is a form of thinking that reflects the objects of reality in their connections and relationships. Each judgment is a separate thought about something. A consistent logical connection of several judgments, necessary in order to solve any mental problem, to understand something, to find an answer to a question, is called reasoning. Reasoning has practical meaning only when it leads to a certain conclusion, a conclusion. The conclusion will be the answer to the question, the result of the search for thought.

inference- this is a conclusion from several judgments, giving us new knowledge about the objects and phenomena of the objective world. Inferences are inductive, deductive and by analogy.

Thinking is the highest level of human cognition of reality. Sensual basis of thinking are sensations, perceptions and representations. Through the sense organs - these are the only channels of communication between the body and the outside world - information enters the brain. The content of information is processed by the brain. The most complex (logical) form of information processing is the activity of thinking. Solving the mental tasks that life puts before a person, he reflects, draws conclusions and thereby cognizes the essence of things and phenomena, discovers the laws of their connection, and then transforms the world on this basis.

Thinking is not only closely connected with sensations and perceptions, but it is formed on the basis of them. The transition from sensation to thought is a complex process, which consists, first of all, in the selection and isolation of an object or its attribute, in abstraction from the concrete, individual and the establishment of the essential, common to many objects.

Thinking acts mainly as a solution to problems, questions, problems that are constantly put forward before people by life. Solving problems should always give a person something new, new knowledge. The search for solutions is sometimes very difficult, so mental activity, as a rule, is an active activity that requires focused attention and patience. The real process of thought is always a process not only cognitive, but also emotional-volitional.

For human thinking, the relationship is not with sensory cognition, but with speech and language. In a stricter sense speech- the process of communication mediated by language. If language is an objective, historically established system of codes and the subject of a special science - linguistics, then speech is a psychological process of formulating and transmitting thoughts by means of language.

Modern psychology does not believe that inner speech has the same structure and the same functions as extended outer speech. By internal speech, psychology means an essential transitional stage between the idea and expanded external speech. A mechanism that allows you to recode the general meaning into a speech statement, i.e. inner speech is, first of all, not an extended speech statement, but only preparatory stage.

However, the inseparable connection between thinking and speech does not at all mean that thinking can be reduced to speech. Thinking and speaking are not the same thing. Thinking does not mean talking about yourself. Evidence of this is the possibility of expressing the same thought in different words, as well as the fact that we do not always find the right words to express our thought.

The objective material form of thinking is language. A thought becomes a thought both for oneself and for others only through the word—oral and written. Thanks to the language, people's thoughts are not lost, but are transmitted in the form of a system of knowledge from generation to generation. However, there are additional means of transmitting the results of thinking: light and sound signals, electrical impulses, gestures, etc. Modern science and technology widely use conventional signs as a universal and economical means of transmitting information.

Thinking is also inextricably linked with the practical activities of people. Any type of activity involves thinking, taking into account the conditions of action, planning, observation. By acting, a person solves any problems. Practical activity is the main condition for the emergence and development of thinking, as well as a criterion for the truth of thinking.

thought processes

The mental activity of a person is a solution to various mental problems aimed at revealing the essence of something. A mental operation is one of the ways of mental activity through which a person solves mental problems.

Thinking operations are varied. These are analysis and synthesis, comparison, abstraction, concretization, generalization, classification. Which of the logical operations a person will use will depend on the task and on the nature of the information that he subjects to mental processing.

Analysis and synthesis

Analysis- this is a mental decomposition of the whole into parts or a mental separation from the whole of its sides, actions, relations.

Synthesis- the reverse process of thought to analysis, it is the unification of parts, properties, actions, relations into one whole.

Analysis and synthesis are two interrelated logical operations. Synthesis, like analysis, can be both practical and mental.

Analysis and synthesis were formed in the practical activity of man. People constantly interact with objects and phenomena. Practical development of them led to the formation of mental operations of analysis and synthesis.

Comparison

Comparison- this is the establishment of similarities and differences between objects and phenomena.

The comparison is based on analysis. Before comparing objects, it is necessary to select one or more of their features, according to which the comparison will be made.

The comparison can be one-sided, or incomplete, and multi-sided, or more complete. Comparison, like analysis and synthesis, can be of different levels - superficial and deeper. In this case, a person's thought goes from external signs of similarity and difference to internal ones, from the visible to the hidden, from the phenomenon to the essence.

abstraction

abstraction- this is a process of mental abstraction from some signs, aspects of the concrete in order to better know it.

A person mentally highlights some feature of an object and considers it in isolation from all other features, temporarily distracted from them. An isolated study of individual features of an object, while simultaneously abstracting from all the others, helps a person to better understand the essence of things and phenomena. Thanks to abstraction, a person was able to break away from the individual, concrete and rise to the highest level of knowledge - scientific theoretical thinking.

Specification

Specification- a process that is the opposite of abstraction and is inextricably linked with it.

Concretization is the return of thought from the general and abstract to the concrete in order to reveal the content.

Thinking activity is always aimed at obtaining some result. A person analyzes objects, compares them, abstracts individual properties in order to reveal what is common in them, in order to reveal the patterns that govern their development, in order to master them.

Generalization, therefore, is the selection in objects and phenomena of the general, which is expressed in the form of a concept, law, rule, formula, etc.

Types of thinking

Depending on what place the word, image and action occupy in the thought process, how they relate to each other, distinguish three types of thinking: concrete-effective, or practical, concrete-figurative and abstract. These types of thinking are also distinguished on the basis of the characteristics of tasks - practical and theoretical.

Actionable Thinking

Visual and effective- a type of thinking based on the direct perception of objects.

Specifically effective, or objectively effective, thinking is aimed at solving specific problems in the conditions of production, constructive, organizational and other practical activities of people. Practical thinking is, first of all, technical, constructive thinking. It consists in the understanding of technology and in the ability of a person to independently solve technical problems. The process of technical activity is the process of interaction between mental and practical components of work. Complex operations of abstract thinking are intertwined with the practical actions of a person, inextricably linked with them. Characteristic features concrete-effective thinking are bright strong observation, attention to detail, particulars and the ability to use them in a particular situation, operating with spatial images and schemes, the ability to quickly move from thinking to action and vice versa. It is in this kind of thinking that the unity of thought and will is manifested to the greatest extent.

Concrete-figurative thinking

Visual-figurative- a type of thinking characterized by reliance on ideas and images.

Concrete-figurative (visual-figurative), or artistic, thinking is characterized by the fact that a person embodies abstract thoughts, generalizations into concrete images.

Abstract thinking

Verbal-logical- a kind of thinking carried out with the help of logical operations with concepts.

Abstract, or verbal-logical, thinking is mainly aimed at finding common patterns in nature and human society. Abstract, theoretical thinking reflects general connections and relationships. It operates mainly with concepts, broad categories, and images, representations play an auxiliary role in it.

All three types of thinking are closely related to each other. Many people have equally developed concrete-active, concrete-figurative and theoretical thinking, but depending on the nature of the tasks that a person solves, then one, then another, then a third type of thinking comes to the fore.

Types and types of thinking

Practical-active, visual-figurative and theoretical-abstract - these are the interconnected types of thinking. In the process of the historical development of mankind, the human intellect was initially formed in the course of practical activity. So, people learned to measure land plots by experience, and then on this basis a special theoretical science gradually arose - geometry.

Genetically, the earliest kind of thinking is action-oriented thinking; actions with objects are of decisive importance in it (in its infancy it is also observed in animals).

On the basis of practical-effective, manipulative thinking arises visual-figurative thinking. It is characterized by operating with visual images in the mind.

The highest level of thinking is abstract, abstract thinking. However, here, too, thinking retains a connection with practice. As they say, there is nothing more practical than a correct theory.

The thinking of individuals is also divided into practical-effective, figurative and abstract (theoretical).

But in the process of life, one and the same person comes to the fore first one, then another kind of thinking. So, everyday affairs require practical-effective thinking, and a report on a scientific topic requires theoretical thinking, etc.

Structural unit of practical-effective (operational) thinking - action; artistic - image; scientific thinking concept.

Depending on the depth of generalization, empirical and theoretical thinking are distinguished.

empirical thinking(from the Greek. empeiria - experience) gives primary generalizations based on experience. These generalizations are made at a low level of abstraction. Empirical knowledge is the lowest, elementary level of knowledge. Empirical thinking should not be confused with practical thinking.

As noted by the well-known psychologist V. M. Teplov (“The Mind of a Commander”), many psychologists take the work of a scientist, a theorist, as the only model of mental activity. Meanwhile, practical activity requires no less intellectual effort.

The mental activity of the theoretician is concentrated mainly on the first part of the path of cognition - a temporary retreat, a retreat from practice. The mental activity of the practitioner is mainly concentrated on the second part of it - on the transition from abstract thinking to practice, that is, on that "hit" in practice, for the sake of which the theoretical digression is made.

A feature of practical thinking is subtle observation, the ability to focus attention on individual details of an event, the ability to use to solve a particular problem that special and singular that was not completely included in theoretical generalization, the ability to quickly move from thinking to action.

In the practical thinking of a person, the optimal ratio of his mind and will, the cognitive, regulatory and energy capabilities of the individual is essential. Practical thinking is associated with the operational setting of priority goals, the development of flexible plans, programs, great self-control in stressful conditions of activity.

Theoretical thinking reveals universal relations, explores the object of knowledge in the system of its necessary connections. Its result is the construction of conceptual models, the creation of theories, the generalization of experience, the disclosure of the patterns of development of various phenomena, the knowledge of which ensures the transformative activity of man. Theoretical thinking is inextricably linked with practice, but in its final results it has relative independence; it is based on previous knowledge and, in turn, serves as the basis for subsequent knowledge.

Algorithmic, discursive, heuristic and creative thinking are distinguished depending on the standard/non-standard nature of the tasks being solved and operational procedures.

Algorithmic thinking is focused on pre-established rules, the generally accepted sequence of actions necessary to solve typical problems.

discursive(from lat. discursus - reasoning) thinking based on a system of interconnected inferences.

heuristic thinking(from the Greek heuresko - I find) - this is productive thinking, consisting in solving non-standard tasks.

Creative thinking- thinking that leads to new discoveries, fundamentally new results.

There are also reproductive and productive thinking.

reproductive thinking- reproduction of previously obtained results. In this case, thinking merges with memory.

Productive Thinking- thinking that leads to new cognitive results.

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In the process of evolution of views on the nature and essence of the thought process, the issue of the formation of mental operations attracted special attention of scientists. , unlike other physiological processes, is performed on the basis of a certain logic. This allows us to single out individual structural elements: abstraction, analysis and synthesis, classification and categorization, concretization, generalization, comparison, and to characterize them. The patterns of functioning of the named operations of thinking are, in fact, the main internal, specific foundations of thinking. Their study helps to obtain a detailed explanation of all external manifestations of mental activity.

• abstraction
• Analysis and synthesis
• Classification and categorization
• Specification
• Generalization
• Comparison

abstraction

Abstraction (abstraction) is one of the main processes of human mental activity, cognition based on the allocation of essential, regular features, properties, connections of an object of an object or phenomenon, distraction from non-essential aspects. In everyday life, the ability to abstract is most often associated with the ability to focus on finding and solving the most important aspect of the problem under consideration.

Depending on the goals of abstraction, there are formal and meaningful abstractions. Formal abstraction is the selection of properties of an object that do not exist independently of it (for example, shape or color). It serves as the basis for the assimilation of knowledge by children, describing objects according to their external properties, which serves as a prerequisite for theoretical thinking. Meaningful abstraction is the isolation of those properties of an object that in themselves have relative independence (for example, a cell of an organism). This type of abstraction develops the ability to operate on properties separately.

Analysis and synthesis

In any kind of intellectual work - in the field of mathematics, political science, painting, etc. - analysis and synthesis are widely used. This is not about scientific methods, but about interconnected mental operations.

The etymology of the word "analysis" comes from the ancient Greek "to break", "to dismember". As a mental operation, analysis involves the study of a thing, property, process or relationship between objects by real or mental division of the whole into components. This operation is one of the basic ones in the process of cognition and subject-practical human activity.

An example of a practical analysis is the chemical process of splitting a kitchen salt molecule into Sodium and Chlorine ions in order to study the composition and molecular bonds. The mental operation of analysis involves the theoretical ability to operate with the constituent parts of an object or phenomenon and, on the basis of this, draw certain conclusions. For example, thanks to mental analysis, a child learns to distinguish geometric shapes as a set of separate characteristics: a square consists of four straight lines, a triangle differs from a square in the number of angles and lines.

Synthesis (from the ancient Greek “connection”, “folding”) is the study of something through the unification of things, concepts, judgments about a phenomenon or object in order to obtain a comprehensive and versatile idea of ​​it. An example of synthesis can be the case when, while writing a history essay on the topic “Common Features of the Economic Systems of the USSR and China”, a student, relying on knowledge of two different topics, determines what was common in the development of the two main socialist countries in a given period.

John Locke, in his Essay on the Human Mind, believed that knowledge is created by combining perception, representation, and other kinds of knowledge. Immanuel Kant in his Critique of Pure Reason argued that there are two mutually complementary operations: analysis - understanding through the study of parts, synthesis - understanding through connection, unification of components, ascent from the individual to the plural. In ordinary language, analysis and synthesis are two sides of the same coin.

Classification and categorization

We constantly encounter classification and categorization in everyday life, it is so firmly ingrained in it that most people do not even think about it when they resort to such a mental operation. Throughout life, concepts and knowledge about objects, we almost subconsciously attribute them to one category or another, which leads to ease of use of information. Almost everything around us obeys a certain logic: be it departments in a supermarket or road signs.

Most modern dictionaries use the terms "classification" and "categorization" interchangeably. There is also a different opinion that "category" is a broader concept than "class", but even in this case, the definition of the term itself remains the same. Classification is a logical operation of dividing the scope of a concept based on its characteristics. An example is a table known to us from the school bench:

Specification

Concretization (from the Latin “established”) is a method of cognition, a logical operation associated with the transfer of a certain general statement to a specific object or phenomenon. For example, it is known that corrosion of metals occurs as a result of the influence of the environment, in particular oxygen, on the metal. Therefore, having discovered a new metal, it can be assumed that it will also corrode under the influence of oxygen.

Generalization

Generalization is a logical operation opposite to specification. It implies the transfer of a particular statement applicable to one or more objects to other objects, as a result of which it ceases to be specific, acquiring a general character. So, having studied photosynthesis on the example of several plants, we can conclude that the process is impossible without sunlight in other plants.

Comparison

Everyone at least once heard the conclusion: "Everything is known in comparison." Indeed, it is possible to determine what is good and what is better, to compare the properties of two objects only by resorting to a comparison operation - the process of quantitative or qualitative comparison of different properties (similarities, differences, advantages and disadvantages) of objects. Comparison is the most important mental category on the basis of which our idea of ​​the world around us is formed.

All of the above logical operations are complementary, help to receive and transform information, quickly use it at the right time.

Development of the ability to perform mental operations

Few adults today think about the fact that many children's games and tasks offered in elementary school are designed in such a way as to develop basic mental operations. Logic chains, rebuses, riddles and puzzles aim to develop the skills of abstract and logical thinking from childhood, to teach how to identify similarities and differences in objects, define concepts, and eliminate superfluous things. Growing up, we perform these operations without thinking, but sometimes we encounter difficulties in solving. This is precisely due to the fact that over the years of professional activity, our brain improves the performance of certain tasks related to the occupation to automatism. But as soon as we meet with another area, difficulties arise. To prevent this from happening, you need to constantly improve, developing all the basic mental operations. Help in this exercise on the ability to understand, identify and apply these operations.

Classic examples of such games are chess, backgammon, scrabble. In Soviet times, puzzles with matches were quite popular, which today have gained a new life thanks to the popularization in social networks. You can try your hand at this kind of puzzles with the help of.

An interesting and effective exercise for the development of mental operations can be an IQ test. There are many varieties of it, the most popular of which is the Eysenck test. You can find recommendations for passing such tests, which are also popular nowadays when applying for a job.

Detailed information about the development of different types of thinking, as well as exercises for training them, are collected in the course. Take it if you are interested in developing your thinking!