Japan lies east of China and Korea and is spread over countless small islands and four large ones. There is a legend that the chain of islands appeared thanks to drops that fell into the ocean from the spear of a god. The first inhabitants of the islands were immigrants from Asia. They were able to survive in adverse conditions due to their ability to raise livestock and grow rice. They had to repel attacks from local tribes, but over time they populated all the large islands in the archipelago. Since ancient times, the Japanese way of life, culture and history have been significantly influenced by China and Korea. Interesting features of medieval Japan will be discussed further.
Historical information
As the history of medieval Japan tells, the very first mentions of the country’s rulers date back to the 7th century BC. e. Although scientists claim that the first state arose here only in the 3rd-4th centuries on the territory of the Yamato tribe. Over the next three centuries, the Yamato leaders were able to conquer the tribes living on the islands of Honshu and Kushu, and their attacks on the lands of Korea are also known.
Local residents are still confident in the divine origin of the imperial dynasty. According to legend, the sun goddess presented signs of power to the first emperor. Although the ruler enjoys boundless respect, he almost never had real power.
As history tells us, medieval Japan was always ruled by representatives of a few of the richest and most respected families, passing power from generation to generation. In 645, supporters of the emperor staged a coup, as a result of which the Soga clan was removed from rule. Such a step should strengthen state power so that all residents obey the same laws, and local authorities unconditionally carry out the orders of the emperor.
Country in the Middle Ages
The country has always developed separately, because it was located on the periphery of the rest of the world. Scientists believe that the formation of Japan separately from Chinese civilization began around 100-400, so the culture of medieval Japan can be classified as an island form of Chinese culture. The Japanese adopted a lot from Chinese civilization - religion, writing, Buddhism, rituals, art, ceremonies. A little later, Japanese civilization began to differ. It was so organically able to combine the traditions of China with its acquisitions that it became a separate, distinctive culture.
Rulers of medieval Japan
In the 8th century, representatives of the Fujiwara clan became the real rulers, who turned the imperial families into hostages in their own palaces. Until the end of the 12th century, the former power of the monarchs began to decline. An alternative samurai government appears - the shogunate in Kamakura. In 1221, the palace aristocracy was completely defeated in the anti-shogun uprising, and the emperor turned exclusively into a master of ceremonies and rituals. To maintain the magnificent royal court, honorary positions are sold to all willing samurai.
After the fall of the shogunate, Emperor Go-Daigo carried out the Kemmu Restoration to return to the 9th century state model, but it caused a socio-political crisis. The imperial house split into two dynasties: Northern and Southern. Only 30 years later, the unity of the house was restored through the efforts of the samurai shogunate of Muromachi, but the monarchs lost power over the country. Tragic events led to the decline of the imperial house. For several centuries, no Imperial Harvest ceremony was held and no heir was appointed - the Great Son of the Emperor. Only with the rise to power of the Tokugawa shogunate in the 18th century were imperial rituals and ceremonies restored.
Religious preferences
In medieval Japan there was a mixture of several religious movements. The most pronounced is Shintoism or the “way of the gods.” The majority of the population firmly believed in myths, so everything was attributed to divine origins. The spirits of the sky were considered the ancestors of the monarchs, and the common people were descended from spirits of lower origin. In Shintoism, they worship the spirits of their ancestors, and after death they prepare to turn into spirits themselves. Incorporeal entities are omnipresent, they invisibly change the course of life and are able to influence ongoing events. Thanks to Shintoism, another distinctive feature of the Japanese is manifested - the love of the harmony of nature.
Buddhism came from China to Japan. The court nobility was the first to decide to join this newfangled teaching. Philosophical teaching was supposed to unite the country and support the authority of the central government. Religion in medieval Japan became part of the samurai code of honor: discipline, composure, detachment and self-control. Buddhist monasteries began to appear, training real dispassionate warriors. With Buddhism, the Japanese borrowed hieroglyphic writing, which is needed when copying sacred Buddhist instructions.
Two religions coexisted peacefully in the country, in some cases they intertwined with each other. The population could simultaneously follow the principles of the prescriptions of Shinto and Buddhism, which did not conflict with each other. Buddhism was considered the state religion in medieval Japan, but Shintoism also appeared as a national religion. A separate branch, Confucianism, separated from Buddhism in the 12th century. According to the new ideology, children should not only obey the decisions of their parents, but also love them unconditionally.
Law concept
The very first constitution of Shotoku-taishi, dating back to the early Taika era in 604, is known. The concept of law at that time was poorly defined, one can only say about the norms of punishment, designated by the concepts of punishment or God's wrath. It was necessary to follow certain standards of behavior called giri. There were several giris in the country: father and son, older and younger brothers, husband and wife. Also highlighted were weights that were not related to family relationships, that is, between traders and buyers, master and subordinate, and the like. They were followed as unwritten laws, taking into account condemnation in case of bad or incorrect attitude towards loved ones or subordinates.
Own customary law (buke-ho) was designated in the military caste (buke or samurai). Within the military community there was a code of rules based on the exclusive loyalty of the subordinate to his overlord. If the latter showed excessive cruelty, then the vassal had no rights to protection and was entirely dependent on the will of his master. A little later, against the arbitrariness of the overlords, a special Collection of customs of the military caste was compiled, which indicated the norms of criminal law and the code of honor for the military.
In medieval Japan, law prescribed only one thing - the subordination of the lower strata of the population to masters higher in the hierarchy. In the state, each social group had clearly defined functions; the clarification of responsibilities was described in collections of ritsu-ryo. The term “ritsu” indicated repressive norms, and the term “ryo” indicated administrative norms.
Economy
In the 17th century, the military leader Tokugawa Ieyasu managed to form a shogun dynasty. Although the emperor was considered the head of the country, the shogun dynasty controlled all aspects of Japan. The need arose to create our own currency. The economy of medieval Japan depended only on rice. The standard unit of measurement was the amount of rice that a person needed to eat for one year. Taxes were also paid in rice. From the mid-16th century, the Portuguese often began to come to the country, preferring to pay in gold coins instead of rice. Local feudal lords also felt the benefits of precious metals. Tokugawa continued the work of his predecessor Toyotomi Hideyoshi, who took over most of the country's gold and silver. This is how the oban gold coin appeared, but it was not used to pay for transactions, but was given or awarded.
The Japanese nobility sought to tie the peasants to the land allotment. Large landowners tried to solve the problem of how to pacify the peasant uprising or bring back subordinates who had escaped. Special detachments of trained warriors appear, who over time formed their own closed community of samurai. A code of honor for warriors, or bushido, began to be observed, which was based on the idea of \u200b\u200bloyalty to the master. The warrior was obliged to defend his master at the cost of his life, and in case of dishonor to commit ritual suicide, or hara-kiri.
Political structure
From the 12th century the feudal hierarchy became stronger. Due to feudal fragmentation, the country is in a state of constant internecine strife. Even after the establishment of the supreme power of the shoguns, clashes between small feudal lords did not stop. Among such conditions, the worldview of a samurai is created, ready to sacrifice himself to his overlord. The samurai becomes a model of courage, honor and loyalty.
After the appearance of large feudal farms, the formation and growth of cities began. A city began to be built near the ruler's castle, where the trade and craft population predominated. Large latifundia are replacing private landholdings.
Culture of medieval Japan
In the mature Middle Ages, new cities began to be built, ties with China strengthened, crafts developed and trade expanded. Completely different aesthetic preferences appear, based on folk motifs. Japan is gradually acquiring distinctive features and moving to another level of development. In the artistic culture of medieval Japan, the emphasis is on the human perception of the world, the dramatic background of the actions performed. Dramatic works began to appear for theater productions. In painting and sculpture, landscape and portrait stand out as independent genres. The fine art of medieval Japan is influenced by the harsh everyday life of an era filled with conflicts. Art is permeated with a touch of Buddhism, the Zen sect is especially thriving. Previously, it was necessary to carry out incomprehensible, complex religious rituals, but the Zen sect translated the service into a simpler and more understandable form. Any Buddhist literature and multiple rituals are rejected, replaced only by the desire to understand one’s spiritual essence. Everyone could take the path of truth through contemplation and deepening into themselves.
Chanting the Samurai
At that time, samurai did not yet strive for the luxury and delicacy of palaces. They often had to engage in civil strife battles, repel attacks of foreign tribes, so the main thing for them was military valor, courage and honor. The warrior class liked the concepts of Zen Buddhism, because heaven can be achieved through discipline and one simple prayer. Gunka stories are written about warriors, conveying a feeling of anxiety, but devoid of the pomp of interiors and pomposity. The exploits of the samurai are described in scrolls, the cult of sword and armor appears, and Buddha statues are erected, executed with all severity. They wrote poems about how samurai go hunting, shoot and practice horseback riding. Nara art, expressed in the construction of the Kamakura Buddha statue, is especially held in high esteem. In medieval Japan, they are beginning to restore Nara temples that were destroyed during the war or those that were in dilapidated condition.
Architectural preferences
What is special about the architecture of medieval Japan? In the 12th century, Buddhist temples began to be built among picturesque nature. Nature was considered a deity, so architectural structures had to fit harmoniously into the surrounding landscape. Estates and palaces were built in the form of a rectangle, with its southern side facing the square, framed on both sides by galleries with outbuildings. On the southern part of the building they always tried to arrange a landscape garden consisting of lakes, rocks, bridges and islands. Gardens should evoke thoughts of solitude, set the mood for silence and a calm mood. Instead of the rapid flow of a waterfall, they preferred to build ponds with stagnant water, and delicate lotus flowers should sway on the surface. The charm of a secluded garden was created in Heian parks, when at every turn of the path a change in the landscape awaited. Instead of air bridges, smooth stones appeared that created mosaic paintings. Gardens that decorate all four seasons of the year are popular with the nobility.
The most popular places at that time were palaces, castles and houses for tea ceremonies. There is a tendency towards simple architectural lines. Wooden structures were not always covered with paint. Knots on the surface of the wood were used as decorative elements. The buildings were erected in the form of a rectangular pavilion surrounded by a gallery, and the roof should have a curved shape. Multi-tiered pagodas are being built, albeit small in size. If the building is painted, do not use more than one or two colors. In Japan, the very first sacred temples were considered to be storerooms where rice supplies were stored. The pantries were raised on high pillars to prevent moisture from spoiling the rice. The first temples were built like grain storehouses. The climate in Japan is quite humid, but wooden temples have survived to this day. They owe this longevity to the Japanese custom of dismantling sacred temples every 20 years and building new ones in that place from a different material.
Secular construction
Since the 16th century, feudal castles were built, capable of holding back the attacks of enemy armies behind their reliable walls. These multi-tiered structures were erected from wood, and stone foundations were laid at the base. Additionally, bastions and low walls were built around, and moats surrounded the perimeter of the castle. The most impressive castle of the time is Himeji Castle near Kobe, consisting of 80 different types of buildings.
The Edo era brought a calm after the destructive internecine wars. Instead of castles, the construction of palaces is taking place. They are one-story buildings, although the very first ones still have a fortification system, but later they are built like a garden and park ensemble. Traditionally, palace walls do not have structural functions, so they are replaced by openings or removable partitions. The builders tried to achieve maximum naturalness and unity with nature.
Painting
Since the 7th century, the painting of medieval Japan has remained very simple. The level of craftsmanship can be judged by the paintings decorating the Tamamushi Ark from Horyuji Temple. The author painted the ark with yellow, red and green paint on a black base. As Buddhism spread, more and more places of worship appeared, so there was a demand for highly skilled artists. Now the masters collectively worked on one drawing according to their specialization. One artist just sketched, the second did the coloring, and the third traced the outline of the finished painting. On emakimono panels in the 8th century, the designs are symbolic in nature; there is no dynamics here. Landscape and genre painting begins to develop. A striking example is the painted screen “Woman with Bird Feathers”, where the lines become smoother and lighter, creating an expressive image. Since the 9th century, Buddhist painting has been developing, which is characterized by depicting a mandala. To draw a mandala, more expensive materials were used, such as silver and gold.
At the end of the 16th century, a number of painting schools appeared: Tosa, Soga, Kano, Kaiho, Unkoku. During this period, many unique paintings were created, belonging not only to famous masters, but also to unknown artists.
The history of Japan does not start from any specific date. The settlement of the territories began about 40 thousand years ago, although, of course, there was no talk of any state at that time. The ancient Japanese lived in small communities of 20-30 people, hunting, fishing and gathering. About three centuries BC, rice growing and blacksmithing technologies were brought to the islands from Korea and China. Agriculture implied a sedentary lifestyle, and the cultivation of rice, which required constant watering, led to communities moving into river valleys. It was with the advent of agriculture that tribal unions began to unite into the semblance of small states.
The first mentions of states located on the territory of modern Japan appeared in Chinese chronicles of the 1st century AD. Three dozen out of a hundred mentioned in the historical chronicles of those years established contacts with China, sending their embassies and tribute there.
Under the rule of the Yamato tribe, the country began to gradually unify. It was Yamato that gave Japan the imperial dynasty, the first representative of which was Emperor Jimmu, who allegedly ascended the throne in 660 BC. However, most historians are inclined to consider Jimma a mythological character, and the very emergence of the dynasty is attributed to the period no earlier than the middle of the 1st century BC.
Kofun period
By the end of the 3rd century AD, the unification of small states into a kind of federal entity under the rule of the emperor, who lived with his court in the capital, was practically completed. Each new emperor moved to a new capital, since custom did not allow him to live in the place where the grave of his predecessor remained. It was only in 710 that the permanent capital of the state, the city of Heijō-kyo (modern Nara), was founded, and just 9 years earlier the first legislative code was drawn up, which was formally in force until the adoption of the Constitution in 1889.
Around the middle of the 6th century, the spread of Buddhism began. Despite the opposition of Shinto priests, which led to conflicts and several wars, over time the teaching gained popularity in the upper echelons of aristocratic society and became the state religion. However, the lower strata of society continued to practice Shintoism.
In 645, the aristocratic Fujiwara clan came to power, concentrating actual power in their hands, while the emperor remained only in the role of high priest.
Nara and Heinan period
The period begins with the construction of the capital Heijo on the territory of the modern city of Nara. At this time, more than 60 provinces were subordinate to the capital, each of which was headed by its own governor appointed from the center. According to a set of laws adopted several years earlier, the land and the population living on it were considered the property of the state. During the Nara period, which lasted about 80 years, the influence of Buddhism increased greatly. The largest churches and monasteries were built in the capital. One Buddhist monk from a seedy provincial family managed to subjugate the then-living Empress Koken, who received the name Shotoku upon her re-entry to the throne, to such an extent that he even desired to become emperor. However, the death of the empress interfered with his plans, and in order to avoid the influence of Buddhists on members of the imperial family, the capital was moved to the city of Heian. Not a single Buddhist temple was built in the new capital.
During the Heian period that followed, effective power was concentrated in the hands of the Fujiwara clan. Over the course of several centuries, girls from this clan married members of the imperial dynasty, increasingly strengthening family ties. This led to the fact that key positions were often occupied by people incapable of government activities.
At the end of the 9th century, Japan ceased official relations with China, which had been quite limited until that time. If until this moment China was considered a kind of standard, then in subsequent centuries, thanks to the absence of Chinese influence, Japan developed a unique and isolated culture, reworking all previous borrowings in its own way.
Emperor Gosanjo, who ascended the throne in the middle of the 11th century, had no family ties with the Fujiwara family and wanted to rule the country on his own. Having abdicated the throne in 1086 in favor of his minor son, he effectively ruled the state from the monastery. Subsequent rulers did the same, and until 1156 the country was ruled by monastic emperors.
Kamakura period
Starting from the 12th century, provincial military clans began to have an increasing influence on the political life of the state. The main rivalry is between the Taira and Minamoto clans. The more successful Taira, who established ties with the imperial dynasty, aroused the discontent and envy of their rivals, which led to a protracted war in which the latter were victorious. The representative of the Minamoto clan, Yoritomo, who consistently eliminated all competitors, receives from the emperor the position of seiyi taishogun and de facto dual power is established in Japan for many centuries. The administration of external rituals remains with the imperial house, and all real power belongs to the military rulers, the shoguns. A new government (shogunate) was founded in Yoritomo's hometown of Kamakura.
In 1274, the Mongols, having conquered China, set off to conquer Japan. The 30,000-strong fleet, having previously plundered the islands of Iki and Tsushima, heads to Hakata Bay. The Japanese troops, inferior to the Mongols both in numbers and in weapons, were doomed to defeat, but the typhoon that struck scattered the enemy fleet, and it did not come to a direct collision. A second attempt by the Mongols in 1281 ended with the same result - a storm buried most of the Mongol ships. It was then, apparently, that the concept of “kamikaze” was born, which literally translates as “divine wind” that destroys enemies.
Muromachi period
In 1333, the rift between Emperor Godaigo and his former associate Ashikaga Takauji erupted into open military confrontation. Victory remains with Takauji, and the emperor has to flee. He chooses Yoshino as his new residence and establishes the Southern Court. At the same time, another emperor ascends to the throne in Kyoto, supported by the Ashikaga clan. The Muromachi district, where government buildings were located, gave its name to this period of the country's history. Until 1392, in Japan there were two parallel emperors and two courts - Northern and Southern, each of which appointed its own shoguns.
However, neither the Ashikaga clan nor the Minamoto dynasty of shoguns that preceded them had full power - the provincial military houses were in constant competition for positions and patronage of the ruling house. Naturally, someone remained deprived, which eventually resulted in an armed confrontation. As a result of a ten-year military conflict of 1467-1477, the capital of Kyoto was destroyed, and the Ashikaga shogunate lost power. The loss of central control led to the strengthening of provincial military clans, each of which began to issue their own laws within their domains. Japan entered a period of feudal fragmentation that lasted more than 100 years.
It was at this time that the first Europeans entered the country, who turned out to be merchants who, among other goods, brought with them muskets. Based on the purchased samples, the Japanese set up the actual production of firearms. Following the traders, missionaries arrive and convert some Japanese feudal lords to Christianity. The religious tolerance of the Japanese fully allowed for the practice of several religions at the same time; the adoption of Christianity did not mean a rejection of the faith of their ancestors, but it contributed to the establishment of strong contacts with Europeans.
Azuchi-Momoyama period
It is called so because of the Azuchi and Momoyama castles, which were owned by Oda Nobunaga and Toyotomi Hideyoshi.
The troubled period of feudal fragmentation ended in 1573 with the expulsion of the last shogun Ashikaga from Kyoto for participating in a conspiracy against one of the future unifiers of Japan, Oda Nobunaga. Beginning in 1568, Oda systematically and consistently destroyed his enemies, fighting, among other things, with Buddhist schools, which completely controlled some provinces. After Nobunaga's death, the unification of the country was continued by his associate Toyotomi Hideyoshi, who subjugated the northern provinces, as well as the islands of Shikoku and Kyushu, to his power.
Hideyoshi confiscated weapons from monks and peasants, forced samurai to move to cities, and conducted an audit of state lands and a population census. A special decree expelled all Christian missionaries from the country, and to intimidate them, several dozen Catholic monks even had to be executed.
After the unification of the country, Hideyoshi began planning expansion to the mainland, dreaming of conquering China and Korea. However, his death marked the end of an unsuccessful military campaign on the Korean Peninsula, after which Japan abandoned attempts to invade other countries until the end of the 19th century.
Edo period
The unification of Japan was completed by Tokugawa Ieyasu, who ruled his lands from Edo Castle. In 1603, he became the founder of the last shogun dynasty. During this period, a 5-class system was created: samurai, peasants, artisans, merchants and “eta” - pariahs of Japanese society who did the dirtiest work. It was impossible to change the status.
After the Tokugawa dealt with his last opponents in 1615, a time of peaceful calm ensued. An attempt at a peasant revolt in Shimabara, based on Christian slogans, led to the shogunate issuing a decree prohibiting Europeans from entering the country and Japanese from leaving its borders. From 1639 until the middle of the 19th century, Japan entered a period of voluntary self-isolation.
Peaceful life led to the flourishing of culture, creativity and various crafts. Literature and theater actively developed.
However, not everyone liked the restriction of contacts with the outside world. The merchants needed markets, and the outside world did not want to ignore the existence of Japan. In 1853-54, the American officer Parry forced the Japanese government to open several sea trading ports. His actions, coupled with a complex of accumulated problems, led to discontent with the shogunate, which, under pressure from the military, was forced to transfer power to the emperor. The 6-century reign of the military houses ended.
Meiji period
After the Restoration, the emperor moved to the new capital - Tokyo. A period of active reforms begins: social classes are abolished, freedom of religion is declared, and compulsory primary education is introduced. The government buys land from feudal landowners and carries out administrative reform. Universal conscription is introduced. The transport system and communications are developing. Many students are sent to the West, and foreign teachers are invited to Japan. In 1889, the first Constitution was adopted and parliament was created.
The conflict of interest leads to a war with Russia, in which Japan wins and increases its territory. In 1910, it increases even more due to the annexation of Korea.
World War II and post-war period
A policy of aggressive militarism leads to the occupation of Manchuria in 1931, followed by the bombing of Shanghai. In 1937, the Second Sino-Japanese War began and lasted until 1945. Only defeat in World War II and the signing of unconditional surrender by the emperor put an end to Japan's militaristic aspirations.
The war-ravaged country, which survived two atomic bombings and was occupied by the Americans, also lost part of its territory. Under the leadership of the American General MacArthur, reform of the political and economic system of the state began. In 1947, a new Constitution was adopted that prohibited Japan from having its own armed forces.
Formation of the Japanese state. The name Japan or Nippon (Source of the Sun) goes back to the mythological tradition and appears under this name around the 8th century. The state was formed on the Pacific Islands, near the coast of East Asia. The island position and the absence of land borders with other states influenced the formation of Japanese statehood.
The settlement of the Japanese islands took place through the mixing of Mongoloid Manchu-Tungus, Paleo-Asian and Malay tribes. These ethnic groups have been layered on top of others for thousands of years, mixing or pushing each other aside.
The early stage of Japanese history is the time of the existence of the Neolithic culture jomon(“rope ornament”), the main occupation of the tribes of this period was hunting and fishing. Gradually this culture begins to supplant the culture Yayoi(water rice crops). The main occupation of the population of this period was agriculture and animal husbandry, hunting and fishing were auxiliary occupations. Settlers from China and Korea brought technology for the production of copper, bronze and iron, as well as new methods of farming, weaving and other crafts.
The basis of the social organization of ancient Japanese society was formed by individual clans (uji). The central, dominant house or family gave the clan its name. Clan members (ujibito) divided into social and professional groups bae or tomo, In addition, powerless slaves or Yatsuko not related to the clan by blood and located at the very bottom of the hierarchical ladder. Everyone, without exception, had to submit to the authority of the clan leader (uji-no kami) or (uji-no-osa), who was the absolute leader and priest of the clan. The clans were rather isolated associations divided, including along ethnic lines, but their relationships were far from peaceful, as evidenced, in particular, by the numerous ancient weapons found in the burial mounds. The Chinese chronicles said about the ancient peoples living on the Japanese islands: “They are divided into more than a hundred states. They come every year and bring us tribute.”
The beginning of the formation of statehood and centralization of power dates back to the 3rd century. n. e., when a large tribal union is formed Yamato, whose leader in the 5th century. already unites most of the country's territory under its supremacy. In the VI and VII centuries. Under the influence of Chinese thought and institutions and the spread of Buddhism, a number of social, political, religious and cultural changes occur. In general, the 6th century. was turbulent for Japan, the long struggle of clans for leadership culminated in 587 with the victory of the clan Soga and the accession of Suiko in 592 with the appointment of the young Shotoku Taishi Prince Regent.
This period is usually called Asuka period, after the name of the river where the residence of the rulers of Yamato was usually located. From the end of the 6th – beginning of the 7th centuries. The processes of institutionalization of Japanese statehood were quite active. State reforms were aimed at limiting the old tribal organization of management of society and creating a new territorial management system. The unsuccessful campaign in Korea, in order to regain the previously lost Japanese outpost in this country, and the possibility of a retaliatory threat of invasion from China or Korea, largely dictated the creation of a new system of governing the country. The creation of a new state was accompanied by the growth of the bureaucracy and its subsequent reorganization. From 603 according to – “Nihon Shoki” all officials were divided into 12 ranks. The rank system was individual, not inherited, ranks were given to individuals who carried out special assignments of the palace. In parallel with it, the old system of hereditary titles continued to exist "boar" which were inherited according to the patrimonial principle. In subsequent years, the ranking system underwent changes, the number of ranks increased to 13 in 647, then there were 19 in 649, and in 685 there were already 48 degrees. In 701, a classical system was established, modeled on the Chinese, which included 30 degrees, combined into 9 rank categories.
Created in 604 Laws 17 articles incorporated in "Nihon Shoki" were instructions on public administration. The Chinese concept of emperor was adopted - "Son of Heaven", which in governing the state must rely on the help of officials. Shotoku, and it is he who is credited with the authorship of this work, intended to create a class of enlightened aristocratic managers, for this he sent promising young officials, scientists and Buddhist priests to study in China and Korea. The laws of the 17 articles (which are often called the first Japanese constitution in Russian literature) were, to a greater extent, a set of political, moral and religious teachings; the influence of Confucianism and Buddhism affected their general concept. They proclaimed the principle of the supreme sovereignty of the ruler and the strict subordination of the younger to the elder. The whole society was divided into three classes: rulers - nobles - people. The basis of the legal order was proclaimed “universal law” by its spokesman, the ruler. Clan feuds and private property were condemned, and state ownership of land was proclaimed.
The reforms undertaken by Shotoku and aimed at creating a strong centralized state could not yet eliminate clan strife. As a result of the ongoing struggle, Kamatari, the head of the ancient clan Nakatomi overthrew the power of the Soga family. The clan itself was subjected to euphemism (all men bearing the name Soga, including the elderly and children, were put to the sword). Kamatari nominally returned power to the emperor, who accepted the title tenno(“son of Heaven”), but reserved for himself and the members of his clan all important government positions. By decree of the emperor, the Nakatomi clan received the name Fujiwara and gradually he becomes the most powerful among other clans.
But also a revolution "Tayka" 645(“Taika” - lit. “great changes”) did not stop the political struggle, and for the second half of the 7th century. A typical phenomenon was bloody battles for power between members of the expanding imperial family, the bureaucracy and clan leaders and, as a consequence, increased internal unrest. Rulers often had to ruthlessly destroy their opponents to strengthen their own power. Under these conditions, the undertaken reform of the state structure and society was delayed for a long time. The continuation of the Taika reform was the adoption of codes "Taiho ritsuryo" 701 - 702 And "Yoro ritsuryo" 718, but the latter came into force only in 757, such a delay was apparently caused by a temporary weakening of the Fujiwara position. Each of these codes consisted of two sections - the criminal code (ritsu) and regulations relating to the state-bureaucratic structure and land use system (ryo). These transformations were largely carried out according to the Chinese model, but taking into account local Japanese traditions, and laid the foundations for the political and social structure of Japan of that period.
Public administration. The head of state was considered the emperor, who accepted the title tenno(ruler pleasing to Heaven), in his reign he relied on the powerful Fujiwara clan, which supplied not only regents (co-rulers of the emperor), but also wives to the emperors, thus influencing the strengthening of his power through dynastic marriages. The emperor had supreme rights in the field of administration, appointment of officials, conduct of foreign relations and command of the army. Three highest state institutions were directly subordinate to the emperor: the Chamber of the Great Council of State (Daijokan), Chamber of Heavenly and Earthly Deities (Jingikan) and the Office of Censor Inspections (Danjootai).
The supreme administration of the country was carried out by the State Council (Daijokan), who determined the general direction of state policy, sent out imperial decrees and orders throughout the country. Headed the council "chief minister" who was the emperor’s mentor in matters of government and ensured “peace, tranquility and harmony” in the country. This position could sometimes be vacant if there was no suitable candidate who had a certain charisma and impeccable reputation. Based on Chinese tradition, the management function was carried out by two senior ministers left (senior) And right (junior) they obeyed "senior advisors" And "junior advisors" giving recommendations on “big and small matters” respectively. They were responsible for the current affairs of government in the state and were directly responsible for this to the State Council.
Inside Daijōkan consisted of the Supreme Political Council (Giseikan), which was formed from representatives of old aristocratic families and its composition changed depending on the balance of political forces. At its meetings, important state and military issues were discussed, this was reported to the emperor, and after that the development of relevant decrees and orders began.
The State Council had eight ministries under its authority (sho): central (general) affairs ( Chuomusho), ceremonial or ranks (Shikibusho) management (Jibusho) people's affairs (Mimbusho) military affairs (Hyoobusho) criminal cases or punishments ( Geobusho), financial or treasure (Ookurasho) Imperial court (Kunaisho). The departments were subordinate to the ministries (shiki), departments (ryo or tsukasa) and bureau (shi or tsukasa) having a fairly wide staff of officials. For example, the Ministry of Central (General) Affairs consisted of ten departments: the Empress's Palace, the main archive, astrology, painting, court etiquette, the main department of palace storerooms, etc. Despite the many ministries and departments, there were no clear delineations of powers between them.
In addition to the State Council, he played a great role in public administration - Jingikan, whose main functions were to conduct temple services, religious festivals and ceremonies on a national scale.
Danjootai– monitored the implementation of legislative norms in the capital and locally, carried out inspections of provincial and district governments, and investigated violations of the law.
Local control. The whole country was divided into three parts: the area of the imperial palace (casey), a group of provinces around Casey - "home provinces" (throw it) and outer provinces (sneeze). Home and outer provinces were divided into cunnilingus(provinces) led by the provincial governor (kokushi), counties (gun) headed by the head of the district (gunzi) and sat down (ri or sato) headed by the headman (richoo), who was appointed from local residents. His responsibilities included: encouraging the development of agriculture and sericulture, encouraging the payment of taxes and fulfilling duties, preventing violations of laws and monitoring village residents. 50 households were subordinate to the village headman (ko) with the heads of the households (kosiu). Five yards (ho) were headed wow. Members of the pentadvorka were bound by mutual responsibility, performed duties to the state, and had to monitor each other so that others did not break the laws. To strengthen control, special state inspectors were sent to the counties.
The creation of a new strict system of local government was aimed at eliminating clan traditions and influence and introducing a new taxation system.
Army. The military force of this period was the guard in the capital (efu), in the provinces army (gundan), at the most important strategic points in the western direction there were border guards (sekimori). According to the law, each peasant household had to supply a recruit of three adult men. Service in the most dangerous and important areas was urgent. She served in the border, guards and patrol units for three years. The army was built according to the decimal system, led by fifty-hundreds, centurions and two-hundreds.
Social system. In the 7th century Japan's population was approximately 6 million people and was divided into two main categories: ryomin(“good people)” and Sammin(“mean people”) TO ryomin included: capital (naikan) and provincial (gaykan) bureaucracy; free community members (byakuchoo); artisans (sinabe and zakko).
The bureaucracy, as stated earlier, was divided by rank and had a complex and hierarchical structure. The differences between the highest and lowest ranks were very great. Officials received economic and legal benefits and privileges for their service in accordance with their ranks and classes. Economic benefits included the right to receive land (rank fields), households for feeding, rank and seasonal salaries. Legal privileges included: the right to apply for a position in the administrative apparatus, the right to mitigate punishment for crimes committed, the right for children and grandchildren of officials from the first to fifth rank to occupy the ranks represented to them without certification (“shadow” rank).
The peasantry was the largest class (about 90% of the total). Code "Taiho ryo" determined the economic and legal status of the peasantry. However, legislation in relation to peasants was not always implemented to the proper extent. Thus, from the age of six, a land plot should have been issued for a period of six years, however, as a rule, this was not observed, and at best, the land plot was presented at nine years of age, and sometimes even fifteen years of age. Taxes from peasants were of three types: land tax, which was paid in rice (co), tax paid on household crafts, fabrics, seafood, metals (Theo) and performed labor duties (buyaku). Compulsory labor service was the main form of exploitation of the peasantry by the state, its duration was up to 70 days a year, during which time workers were given food. Peasants were mainly used to build irrigation systems, roads, Buddhist temples, etc.
Craftsmen made up a small proportion of the population (about 1% of the total). Division by shinabe And zacco occurred on a professional basis. TO shinabe included potters, winemakers, dyers, etc., and zacco those who were directly involved in the production of military equipment. Craftsmen were not completely cut off from the land; in accordance with the allotment system, they received land, which at times was the only source of their existence. As civil servants (minor), they were exempt from paying taxes and labor duties, and they carried state duties in the form of producing handicrafts. In terms of their social status, they were lower than the peasants and occupied an intermediate position between ryeomin and semmin.
TO Sammin(“mean people”) (4 -10%) included: criminals and their families, slaves (public and private). The position of the slaves was different; they were divided into five groups. Marriages between them were to be concluded only within these groups, inter-group marriages were to be dissolved, and those who married were to return to their previous groups.
Outside the class division were the untouchables (this). They settled separately, had a tiny piece of land, and were mainly engaged in crafts, slaughtering livestock, leather processing, i.e. an activity that was prohibited by Buddhism.
A strong centralized state with reforms of the 7th – 8th centuries. still failed to create. The Chinese model of state power taken as a basis turned out to be not strong enough. Emperor since the end of the 8th century. he reigned more and more than he ruled. From the middle of the 9th century. the regency era begins Fujiwara, who appointed themselves regents (sessho) and chancellors (kampaku) and essentially until the middle of the 11th century. The country was ruled by an oligarchy of this kind. Later, a system of “monastic rule” was created (insei) according to which the emperor seemed to renounce power, accepted monastic rank, but influenced the affairs of the state from his remote residence. A certain standard of dual, and sometimes even triple power was established in the country. One political center was in the old capital Nara, another in the new capital Heian(Kyoto), the third political center was grouped around insei. The first permanent capital was built in 710 in Nara, the new capital, built in 794 in Kyoto, was called Heiankyo, or “Capital of Peace and Tranquility,” but did not bring peace to the country. This period was called "Heian era" and was characterized not only by constant internecine war between aristocratic clans (kugyo) with each other or with warlike monks, but also with a further weakening of imperial power.
The weakening of imperial power was not an accidental phenomenon; the reforms of the 7th - 8th centuries. They were never able to eliminate the clan disunity of society; many clans retained influence and a real opportunity to participate in the struggle for the distribution of power. They did not create a class of government officials-administrators (bureaucracy), who would be the support of imperial power. The system of forming a court bureaucracy on the Chinese model with a system of regular reproduction through competitive examinations never took root in Japan. A strong imperial army was not formed either. And the centralization itself was carried out quite limitedly, through the introduction of land registration, a unified taxation system and control over the governors of provinces and districts. The basis of the entire organization was to be the state-allotment system of land use, which from the very beginning turned out to be ineffective and, as the future showed, short-lived.
The resulting power vacuum was quickly filled at the central level by the influential Fujiwara clan, and at the local level, the posts of governors and district chiefs soon became almost the hereditary right of local noble houses. It was at this time that a new feudal system began to take shape. The feudalization of Japan proceeded at a fairly rapid pace, in contrast to state ownership of land already in the 8th century. estates begin to spring up (season)– private possessions of the aristocracy and temples. By the middle of the 10th century. The state-allotment system actually ceased to exist; it was replaced by a feudal system of land tenure, the dominant form of which was the estate. The class structure of Japanese society also changed. A closed class of samurai warriors (bushi) is formed. From the 11th century military-aristocratic groups of feudal lords are emerging and beginning to actively interfere in the process of political struggle for power.
Shogunate. Clan power Fujiwara in the 12th century weakened more and more and against the background of this weakening the confrontation between two aristocratic houses became more and more noticeable Minamoto And Tyra. This confrontation ended in victory Minomoto Yoritomo in 1185. After defeating his enemies and eliminating his rival allies, Yoritomo assumed the title sei taishogun literally - “the great commander who conquers the barbarians.” From 1192, under Minomoto Yoritomo, this title became the hereditary right of his house, and was subsequently adopted by one after another military dictators who ruled Japan in the name of the emperor until 1867. These rulers began to be called by a shortened version of this title - shogun, who is sometimes translated as military ruler or great general. The shogun's headquarters was initially the city of Kamakura. This period during which power belonged to the military government founded by Yoritom (bakufu) known as Kamakura shogunate(1192 - 1333) The imperial throne at this time was under the direct control of the shoguns. The shogun appointed military governors (shugo) in the province and local chiefs (jito) to feudal estates that were subject to taxation. Over time, the shugo began to be given greater military, police and judicial powers.
After the overthrow of the Kamakura shogunate in June 1333, ex-Emperor Godaigo restored his power and created a government Cammu, but he could not retain power. In 1336, one of the victors of the Kamakura shogunate, Ashikaga, changed Godaigo and announced the transfer of power to the Bakufu. The formation of the Ashikaga shogunate took place in an atmosphere of intense political struggle and ended in 1392 with the reconciliation of the warring parties. The time of Ashikaga's political dominance is called Muromachi shogunate(1336 - 1573) after the name of the area in Kyoto where the residence of the shoguns was located.
During the Muromachi period (1335 - 1573), along with the collapse of the Shoens, the formation of principalities took place as the socio-economic basis of developed feudalism.
The formation of the third shogunate is associated with the name of the legendary Ieyasu Tokugawa. Having defeated the coalition of feudal princes united against him in the Battle of Sekigahara in 1600, Tokugawa actually began to rule the country. In 1603, he conferred the title of shogun and founded the third shogunate with its capital in Edo (modern Tokyo). Era between 1600 and 1867 often called the Tokugawa period. During the Tokugawa period, Japan began to isolate itself. The Japanese, under penalty of death, were forbidden to leave the country and build large ships. Foreigners were also prohibited from entering Japan, with exceptions made only for the Dutch, as well as Koreans and Chinese. Twice a year, Dutch, Chinese and Korean ships were allowed to enter the only port of Nagasaki. The Christian religion was subjected to particular persecution; by decree of 1614, a ban on the new religion was introduced. Many Christians, including the Japanese, were executed and persecuted.
Social system of the shogunate period. The formation of the main social strata took place in Japan during the Ashikaga (Muromachi) (1336 - 1568) and Momoyama (1568 - 1600) periods and culminated in the Tokugawa era with the creation of a rigid class system based on the laws of the country and strictly protected by the shogunate.
This division into estates was officially determined by the formula "si-no-ko-sho": samurai (si), peasants (But), artisans (ko) and traders (sho). Outside the classes, at the very bottom of feudal society, there was a group of pariahs (eta, quinine). But in fact it was a rather complex and much ramified class system. The inherited moral standards of China, which evolved in Japan, determined the nature of social relations. The moral principles that determined the relationship between father and son were transferred to social relations between master and subordinate. The relationship between master and subordinate determined not only the structure and responsibilities of various classes, but also determined the intra-class hierarchy and subordination of relationships. That is why in feudal Japan there was no more terrible crime than rebellion against one's master or father. Tokugawa created a social structure that distributed the country's population according to their importance. Advantage was given to the military class, to which all other social classes obeyed.
Samurai. At the very top of the class pyramid was the military class (samurai, bukyo). In a broad sense, samurai meant the entire noble class from the ruling princes (daimyo) to minor nobles. In the narrow and most commonly used sense, samurai are a military class of poor nobles.
The hierarchical structure of Japanese society was headed by the Tokugawa clan, headed by the shogun. Shogun had unlimited power as a military dictator over the population of the provinces that were under his direct control. Then came the clans led by feudal rulers (daimyo). Daimyo owned personal lands, had their own armies, and constantly fought with each other during the era of early and middle feudalism. Japanese rulers in the second half of the 16th century. spent a lot of effort to subjugate and unite them into a rather fragile union. Through the daimyo, the shogun controlled the remaining provinces of Japan. The comparative independence of the feudal rulers determined the shogun's special policy towards them. To weaken the daimyo, the practice of sending special censors to their lands was often used. (metsuke). The institution of hostage was introduced, according to which they had to leave their wives and children in Edo. Forced, strictly regulated visits to the shogun's court at yearly intervals and other actions.
During Tokugawa times, the number of daimyo was 260, but their status varied. Three high-ranking families (sakkyo) those with collateral family ties to the Tokugawa house occupied the first steps of the hierarchy. They governed the provinces closest to Edo, and from among them were appointed to the most privileged and important positions in the central government. They were followed by hereditary daimyos (fudai), former vassals of the shogun even before the decisive battle of Sekigahara. The next step was occupied tozama, once former opponents of the Tokugawa clan, but after the famous battle they submitted and recognized its authority. Sakkyo, fudai and tozama were subject to further delimitation according to territorial, property, military and other principles.
Upon receiving the title, the daimyo swore an oath of allegiance to the shogun, which determined a number of obligations: maintaining a regular army, providing troops for guard duty, maintaining peace in the territories he controlled, providing funds, materials and workers to carry out work as directed by the shogun.
The daimyo, as the highest representative of the military class after the shogun, was obliged to strictly follow "Thirteen Laws on Military Houses"(Bukyo Shohatto), published by Ieyasu. He had to capture and hand over rebels to the representatives of the shogun (vv. 3, 4); prevent outsiders from entering the territory of your fief (Article 5); send denunciations about any signs of conspiracy noticed in neighboring properties (Article 7). He had the right, as insignia, to wear official dress of a special color and cut, and to travel in special palanquins (v. 11). But he could not carry out major repairs of his castle or the castle of his vassal and erect new fortifications and castles without the permission of the shogun (Article 6). He did not have the right to establish family ties with other clans through marriage without the permission of the shogun (Article 8). He could not surround himself with a large number of vassals when traveling to Edo, unless this escort consisted of the personal forces of the shogun (v. 9).
Military vassal: samurai. Term samurai(literally can be translated “one who serves”) began to spread over time to all warriors who were allowed to wear long and short swords on their belts and who were in the service of their master.
Initially, the bulk of the samurai were formed from the wealthy peasant elite. The second way is to allocate land to household servants. The duty of the samurai was to carry out unquestioningly all the orders of the one to whom they swore allegiance. As a representative of the military class (busi) the vassal had to serve his master as a warrior. He had to carry out all orders instantly without fear or shadow of doubt. The samurai's philosophy was built on the concept of disregard for one's own safety, and even life. A contemptuous attitude towards death was instilled in the child from early childhood. To cultivate willpower and the qualities inherent in a warrior, the child was exposed to the cold in winter and forced to endure the summer heat, while he had to endure physical pain without the slightest sign of emotion. One of the main goals of training young warriors was to prepare for the ritual suicide ceremony of seppuku or hara-kiri.
A special position in feudal Japan was occupied by ronin- samurai without a master. The reasons for the change in status from samurai to ronin were many and varied. Much more dangerous were the consequences of this change. Some ronin were forced to switch either to the position of townspeople (choonin) and engage in crafts, trade, or become people of liberal professions - teachers, doctors, etc. Taking into account the special worldview of the samurai, based on the medieval code of conduct - bushido(the path of the warrior), such a change in his way of life was not just ideologically difficult, but sometimes simply psychologically impossible.
Peasants. In terms of their position on the social ladder, the peasants were located immediately after the samurai and enjoyed a certain prestige. This was no accident, since agriculture (rice production) was considered the basis of the national economy. At the early stage of class formation, class boundaries were largely blurred, so that warriors of lower ranks and categories often came from peasant backgrounds and, if necessary, could always return back to this class. A special position was occupied by the “peasant aristocracy” - the head of the district (ojiya) and the village elder (nanushi). They had the right to carry swords and send their children to provincial schools. In terms of their status, they were much higher than ordinary foot soldiers and were significantly different from the simple peasantry, which, according to the decree of 1588, Hideyoshi "about sword hunting" It was forbidden to carry weapons. Myself Hideyoshi The most talented commander came from a peasant background, but it was this decree of his that largely marked the beginning of the formation of clearly defined class boundaries. Three years after the decree “on sword hunting,” a decree was issued to consolidate social differences, which marked the process of separating the samurai from the merchants and peasants.
The peasants ran their farms independently on the basis of hereditary holdings. The feudal lord could not sell or buy a peasant, but there was a personal dependence - attachment to land plots. Peasants were forbidden to leave their homes and move to another area under pain of severe punishment. They paid rice rent (nengu) daimyo or samurai. This rent was constant, and its size did not depend on the vagaries of nature or crop failure. In special cases, the government could reduce rent for a limited period, but the peasants still had a certain amount of debt. Peasant uprisings were quite common; over the more than two-hundred-year period of rule of the Tokugawa clan, more than a thousand peasant uprisings occurred. As a rule, such protests were brutally suppressed, and their instigators were immediately executed.
The peasants were bound by mutual responsibility and were united by the system "five-yard" borrowed from China. Five peasant families under the collective responsibility system (goningumi) were responsible for any actions deemed illegal by the authorities. Punishment for all occurred even if illegal actions were committed by individual members without the knowledge of the rest. Each five-yard had its own head (kumigashira), who was subordinate to the village headman (nanushi, shoya), who in turn was responsible and reported the state of affairs in the village to the representative of the military government (gundai or daikan).
There were many poor people among the farmers, but the upper layer of the peasantry differed from the main mass, and in terms of living standards they approached the average representatives of the samurai class.
Craftsmen (shokunin, ko) and merchants (akindo, sho). Craftsmen and merchants made up a large part of Japanese cities. Legally, they had fewer rights than other classes, but the growing economic power of wealthy merchants and artisans provided them with increasing influence in the country. During the Tokugawa period, the comparative independence of these classes was eliminated, and they were placed at the very bottom of the emerging social structure of Japanese society, below the peasants who were subject to them in the Muromachi period.
According to their legal status, cities were divided into three categories: those belonging to the shogunate, owner-occupied (daimyo) and “free”. Cities governed by the government (bakufu) were under the most stringent conditions of administrative control and did not even have a guarantee against further infringement of their legal status. Ruled the city governor, endowed with special powers that could be strengthened depending on the situation. Nagasaki, the only city where foreigners could arrive, was governed by two appointed prefect governors (bugyo), each performed their duties for six months without meeting each other. If one ruled the city, then the other was in Edo at that time.
In some cities (Nara, Kyoto, Sakai, Hakada, Matsuyama) corporations had their own self-government bodies. Some traders even became provincial rulers unrecognized by the central government. However, the independence of these cities was limited by government officials.
Strict control over classes was introduced in the cities; traders and artisans were subject to registration in the relevant guilds and corporations, which they could not change on their own without permission from the authorities. The city was divided into quarters (za), managed by quarterly and special officials. Each quarter was surrounded by a moat or wall, and entry was through a strictly guarded gate. At night the city gates were closed, and it was possible to leave the quarter only with a special pass. The blocks were divided into streets (at least two) which were governed by prefects. The headman lived on the same street and was responsible for collecting taxes from the tax-paying population. The street's homeowners, in turn, united in five-fold works(similar to peasants) were bound by mutual responsibility and had to spy on each other. Homeowners and city officials were responsible to three city elders (machi-doshiyori). These elders did not belong to the military class, held the position for life and could even pass it on by inheritance; they were directly subordinate to two city judges (machi-bugyo) who were appointed from representatives of the samurai class.
The position of artisans, in contrast to traders, was even more strictly regulated and controlled. They united into workshops that had a monopoly on the production of individual goods. The workshops had a clear hierarchy and a hereditary principle of craft. The government endowed the workshops with special privileges and powers, but at the same time strictly regulated and controlled craft production.
During the crisis of the Tokugawa shogunate regime, large merchants and artisans were given partial direct and indirect control over the country's financial resources. Some trading clans in the late Takugawa period achieved great influence over the state economy. Therefore, making decisions without their participation, especially regarding issues affecting their interests, was politically unjustifiable. Merchant capital gained increasingly stronger positions, as guilds of wholesale traders enjoyed great influence, sometimes monopolizing certain areas of the country. For example, the Osaka companies Higaki Kaisen and Taru Kaisen served the Edo and Osaka areas. The Matsmaebune company transported goods in the Hokkaido region and in areas of northern and central Honshu.
Senmin (pariahs). At the very bottom of the social ladder were pariahs (senmin). They were divided into quinine, or "those below the four social classes" (actors, executioners, beggars and brothel keepers), and this(outcastes), sometimes living in separate villages and engaged in the production and sale of leather goods, lamp wicks and sandals.
Heian era
In the 8th century, aristocratic nobility and Buddhist monks began to compete for influence over the government. The power of the emperor gradually weakened.
To get rid of the control of the Buddhists of the capital region of Nara, Emperor Kammu in 794 made the city of Heian, the “capital of peace and tranquility”, which later received the name Kyoto, the new capital. The period of time from the beginning of the construction of Heian to the creation of the first shogunate is usually called the Heian era (794-1185).
Fujiwara reign (794-1185)
After moving the capital to the new city, the emperor began to carry out reforms, the main task of which was to update the “rule of law” and reduce the despotism of the nobility in the provinces. The government closely monitored how the “Law on the issuance of land plots” was implemented in the regions. Universal conscription ceased to apply to peasants, and instead of them, the functions of protecting the regional government were obliged to be performed by the local aristocracy, formed into military detachments of kondei. There was also an attack on the autochthons living in the south of Kyushu and the northern part of Honshu, the purpose of which was to expand the territories of the Japanese empire.
The pacification of the autochthons
After the imperial court moved to the new capital and after the strengthening of the executive vertical, imperial power strengthened and the need for his personal participation in all state affairs disappeared. However, at the same time, the influence of the emperor’s advisers, who became the most noble Japanese from the Fujiwara clan, strengthened. They alienated representatives of other famous clans from the throne; the Fujiwara women became the main imperial wives, thus this clan entered into family relations with the emperor. The rulers of the Fujiwara clan received the title sessho - regent of the child emperor, and kampaku - adviser to the adult emperor. In fact, they received full power in Japan and created a board of regents and advisers in the person of the emperor. The pinnacle of the Fujiwara reign was the 11th century, the period of the rule of Fujiwara no Yorimichi, the son of Fujiwara no Michinaga, during which this family owned many private estates (shoen) and held all the main positions in the government.
In the tenth century, a shortage of state fund lands arose, which is why the implementation of the “Law on the issuance of land plots” stalled. The imperial court gave the right to collect tribute to the provincial kokushi, who began to enrich themselves from this. At the same time, wealthy peasants began to abandon state-owned land plots and began to cultivate virgin lands in order to then turn these territories into private estates. The government levied a large tax on such properties, so their owners donated their property to high-ranking nobility and Buddhist temples to reduce the amount of tax. In exchange, the new owners made the donors managers of their territories. This is how a layer of new provincial aristocracy was formed from former peasants.
The Rise of the Samurai and the Insei Institute
During the Heian era, due to the lack of internal or external danger to the governing power, Japan did not have a regular army. However, the degree of security in remote provinces was low. To protect their possessions from attacks, the regional aristocracy created military detachments of “service people” - samurai. The heads of such armed groups were usually representatives of the capital's nobility, who were in a master-subordinate relationship with their fighters. The most famous leaders were representatives of the Minamoto and Taira clans.
Armed Aristocrat
Minamoto no Yoshiie with his wife
Yabusame shooting
In the mid-11th century, Emperor Go-Sanjo received the throne. Since Go-Sanjo was not related to the Fujiwara family, he sought to reanimate unlimited imperial power. His endeavors were continued by the next ruler, Shirakawa. In 1086, he relieved himself of imperial powers, passing the throne to his son, and he himself began to serve as an adviser and guardian, thereby reducing the influence of the Fujiwara regents and advisers on the emperor. Thanks to this, the “rule of ex-emperors” was founded, the so-called insei institution, whose task was to protect the monarch from too strong influence of the nobility. Thanks to the successful implementation of such rule, the Fujiwara family, which for two hundred years used kinship with monarchs to control the state, lost its position at the imperial court.
Along with the nobility, high-ranking samurai began to be appointed to military positions in the ruling house. Little by little, an independent samurai class emerged. In the second half of the tenth century, provincial samurai had great power, for example, in the Kanto province under the leadership of Taira no Masakado and in the nearby Inland Sea under the command of Fujiwara no Sumitomo, rebellions were raised against the imperial house. Since the empire did not have a standing army, it pacified the uprisings with the help of other samurai, thereby raising their authority. At the end of the 11th century, uprisings broke out twice in the northeastern part of Japan (the Hogen Rebellion and the Heiji Rebellion), which were suppressed by an army of samurai from Kanto. Their leader, Minamoto no Yoshiie, was awarded the laurels of the most successful military leader in eastern Japan.
Heian period culture
At the beginning of the ninth century, a large number of young monks became disillusioned with the use of Buddhism for government purposes and politics. In search of true Buddhism, two monks - Saicho and Kukai - went to the Tang Empire and underwent training there. After returning, Saicho built the Enryaku-ji temple on the top of Mount Hiei, which became the habitat of followers of the Tendai teachings, and Kukai erected the Kongobu-ji monastery on Mount Koya-san, which became the foundation of the Shingon sect. The unusual esoteric Buddhism brought by these abbots required solitude in the mountains to learn the truth.
In 894, due to cooling relations with the Chinese Tang Empire and the policies of the Japanese advisor Sugawara no Michizane, Japan stopped sending delegations to China. Innovations from other countries stopped coming to Japan, so the Japanese began to create their own forms of art. A new independent culture of the Kokufu nobility was formed, which began to enjoy particular popularity during the reign of the Fujiwara clan. An original style of building palaces and estates with gardens and galleries was created. The clothing of the population acquired distinctive Japanese features. A new style of painting, Yamato-e, appeared in art, the main motives of which were the everyday life of the nobility and picturesque landscapes. At the same time, the Japanese kana alphabet arose, in which works of fiction were first written. Among them, the most famous are “Notes at the Bedside” by Sei-Syonagon, “The Tale of Old Man Taketori”, “Collection of Old and New Songs of Japan”, “The Tale of Genji” by Murasaki Shikibu and “Diary of a Journey from Tosa to the Capital” by Ki no Tsurayuki . The bulk of the works were illustrated with pictures and became especially popular among the nobility.
Phoenix Hall Byodoin (Uji, Kyoto)
An Illustrated Tale of Genji
Enryakuji Pagoda
Constant natural disasters, epidemics and instability in the society of mid-tenth century Japan gave rise to eschatological views among the people. The new Buddhist belief of the Pure Land has gained popularity in the state, according to which everyone who worships Amida Buddha goes to heaven after death - the so-called “Pure Land of Incredible Joy.” This worldview was preached by the monks Kuya and Genshin. The nobility, in the hope of going to heaven after death, began to erect temples and monasteries throughout Japan to worship Amida. The most famous examples of such architectural structures were the “Phoenix Hall” in the Byodo-in Temple near the capital and the mausoleum of the Chusonji Temple, located in the northeastern part of Japan. At the same time, the foundations of Japanese Shinto and Buddhist syncretism were formed.
Article genre - History of Japan
It originates from the Paleolithic era. At this time, Japan was connected to the mainland by isthmuses, and the Sea of Japan was an inland sea between modern Japan, Manchuria and Korea. The population of ancient Japan was engaged in hunting and gathering, making the first rough stone tools.
About 10 thousand years ago, the ancient Japanese began making ceramics that are considered to be some of the oldest in the world. Among the ceramics of that time, kitchen utensils in the form of deep-bottomed jugs for storing food, frying and boiling food predominated. A characteristic feature of these products was the “lace ornament”, which in Japanese is called jomon.
The first written mentions of ancient Japan are contained in historical chronicles of the 1st century AD. e. Chinese Han Empire. They indicate that the ancient Japanese Wajin lived on islands in the East Sea, had 100 small countries, and by 108 BC. e. about 30 of them established contact with the Chinese, and sometimes sent tribute to China. The Book of Later Han contains a message about the embassy of the Japanese Wang (between 26 and 56 AD) from the country of Na (the southernmost in Japan), who in 57 received a gold seal from the Chinese Emperor.
In the 4th century, written notices about Japan disappear. China plunged into civil strife, which led to the weakening of its international authority. At the same time, three states emerged on the Korean Peninsula - Goguryeo, Silla and Baekje, which began the struggle for the unification of Korea. Against this background, unifying tendencies also intensified in Japan. Their exponent was the state of Yamato, located in the region of the same name in modern Nara Prefecture. There is no written evidence of the initial history of this state, but archaeologists associate its strengthening with the spread of the kofun culture in central Japan.
At the end of the 6th century, the Japanese government was headed by a member of the Japanese imperial family, Prince Umayado, better known as the legendary Prince Shotoku. In 593, he was appointed regent for Empress Suiko. The Asuka period (538-710), named after the political and cultural center of the country in the area of the village of Asuka in modern Nara Prefecture, dates back to the beginning of the prince's reign.
Prince Shotoku set a course for transforming the aristocratic federation of Yamato into a centralized state of a continental model. In 600, he sent the first embassy to the Chinese Sui dynasty, seeking to learn from the experience of state building. Three years later, the prince founded a system of 12 ranks in Japan, with the help of which he tried to create a continental-style bureaucracy, linked directly to the throne. Shotoku's next step was the publication in 604 of the "Constitution of 17 Articles", a moral and ethical code of officials, in which a centralized monarchy was proclaimed as the ideal of the country.
In the mid-11th century, Emperor Go-Sanjo, who was not related to the Fujiwara aristocrats, ascended the throne, and therefore set a course to restore the absolute power of the monarch. His reforms were supported by the next Emperor Shirakawa. He limited the influence of the Fujiwara regents and advisers on the monarch by resigning early in 1086, passing the throne to his son, and he himself became his guardian and adviser. Thus was the beginning of the so-called “rule of ex-emperors,” the institution of insei, which was designed to protect the dynasty from excessive interference by the aristocrats. Thanks to the successful implementation of such rule, the Fujiwara family, which for 200 years used family ties with the imperial house to usurp power, lost its position in the government.
Along with aristocrats, noble samurai began to be accepted into military positions at the imperial court. Gradually they began to be recognized as a separate class. By the mid-10th century, regional samurai were so powerful that they led rebellions against the central government - in the Kanto region under Taira no Masakado and near the Inland Sea under Fujiwara no Sumitomo. Since the state did not have a regular army, it suppressed the actions of other samurai, thereby contributing to the growth of their authority. In the second half of the 11th century, riots broke out twice in the northeast of the country (the Hogen Troubles and the Heiji Troubles), which were defeated by samurai forces from Kanto. Their commander, Minamoto no Yoshiie, gained fame as a successful commander throughout Eastern Japan.
In the 14th century, with the decline of the shogunate, the Hojo clan took a course towards centralizing control, which caused discontent among the samurai in the regions. This was taken advantage of by Emperor Go-Daigo, a supporter of a strong monarchical state, who rebelled against the Kamakura government, but was defeated and was exiled to the Oki Islands. His son Prince Moriyoshi continued the fight and, with the support of provincial samurai led by Kusunoki Masashige, resisted the armies of Hojo for a long time. When Emperor Go-Daigo escaped from exile in 1333, the regional nobility defected to his side. One of its leaders, Ashikaga Takauji, liquidated the authorities of the shogunate in Kyoto, and another, Nitta Yoshisada, attacked Kamakura and destroyed the shogunate itself along with the Hojo clan.
In 1338, Ashikaga Takauji was appointed shogun by the northern dynasty. A second samurai government emerged, called the Muromachi shogunate, named after the district of the capital of the same name, where the shogun's residence was located. The period of existence of this government is called the Muromachi period (1338-1573). Unlike previous regimes, the new shogunate set a course for decentralization. He gave the shugo military governors in the provinces the right to appropriate half of the taxes from the region, forcing them to personally support the local land-poor samurai. These initial reforms helped bring the Japanese nobility to the side of the government in the war of the two dynasties, but turned military governors into powerful provincial overlords who often flouted orders from the center.
In the 15th century, the era of great geographical discoveries began in Western Europe. A hundred years later, its inhabitants - merchants, missionaries and military men - began to penetrate East Asia. In 1543, the first Europeans reached the Japanese island of Tanegashima. They handed over firearms to the islanders, the production of which was soon established throughout Japan. In 1549, the Jesuit Francis Xavier arrived in Kagoshima and introduced Christianity to the Japanese for the first time. Throughout the century, Japan was visited by Portuguese and Spanish merchants who acted as intermediaries in East Asian trade, exchanging Chinese and European goods for Japanese silver. Because Europeans came from the southern colonies, the Japanese called them "southern barbarians."
In the first half of the 19th century, Japan was struck by a great famine caused by years of crop failures. Instead of saving the population, the shogunate began buying rice from the regions and sending it to its government headquarters. This policy caused armed protests not only from peasants, but also from local samurai, on whose support the government rested. To calm society, the shogunate began the "Tempo reforms" in 1841 under the leadership of Mizuno Tadakuni. Their goal was a return to traditional methods of management: conservation of the village and inhibition of trade. However, the reforms turned out to be unpopular, which again hit the prestige of the shogunate.
In 1866, the inexperienced Tokugawa Yoshinobu became the new shogun. At the same time, instead of the late Emperor Komei, the 14-year-old Emperor Meiji ascended the throne. The shogun planned to create a new government instead of the shogunate with the participation of the Kyoto aristocracy and regional rulers, in which he himself would receive the post of prime minister. To this end, he abdicated his position and on November 9, 1867 returned full state power to the Emperor. The anti-shogunal opposition took advantage of this, and on November 3, 1868, it unilaterally formed a new government and adopted a decree on behalf of the emperor on the restoration of imperial rule. The Tokugawa shogunate was liquidated, and the ex-shogun was removed from power, losing titles and lands. This event ended the Edo period and marked the end of five centuries of samurai dominance in Japanese politics.
Using Western political, judicial, and military systems as a basis, the Japanese Cabinet created the Privy Council, prepared the Meiji Constitution for adoption, and convened a parliament. The Meiji Restoration transformed the Japanese Empire into an industrialized world power. After victory in the Sino-Japanese (1894-1895) and Russian-Japanese (1904-1905) wars, Japan secured dominance in the Sea of Japan and the Yellow Sea and annexed Korea, Taiwan and southern Sakhalin.
At the beginning of the 20th century, the short democratic period of Taisho gave way to the growth of militarism and expansionism. Japan took part in the First World War on the side of the Entente, expanding its political influence and territory. In 1931, continuing its policy of expansionism, it occupied Manchuria and created the puppet state of Manchukuo. After Lytton's report in 1933, the League of Nations condemned her actions and Japan defiantly left the League. In 1936, Japan signed the Anti-Comintern Pact with Nazi Germany, and in 1941 joined the Axis countries. At the same time, Japan signed the Neutrality Pact between the USSR and Japan, pledging to respect the territorial integrity and inviolability of the Mongolian People's Republic and Manchukuo.
In 1937, Japan invaded other parts of China, starting the Second Sino-Japanese War (1937-1945), after which the United States imposed an oil embargo on it. On December 7, 1941, Japan attacked Pearl Harbor and declared war on the United States and Great Britain. This leads to US involvement in World War II. The Japanese Empire conquered Hong Kong, the Philippines and Malacca, but in 1942 defeat at the Coral Sea ended its naval advantage. After the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki on August 6 and 9, 1945 by US aircraft, as well as after the USSR joined military operations against Japan, Japan signed the Act of Unconditional Surrender on September 2, 1945.
In 1947, Japan adopted a new pacifist constitution that emphasized liberal democracy. The Allied occupation of Japan ended with the San Francisco Peace Treaty, which came into force in 1952, and Japan joined the UN in 1956. Japan later achieved record economic growth that lasted four decades and averaged 10% annually. In 1991, economic growth gave way to a crisis, from which the country managed to emerge only in 2000.
