Chapter 2.
Man and society.
The essence of consciousness.
Understanding the essence of consciousness.
Mind, thinking, soul.
Conscious and unconscious.
Human existence.
Human needs.
The essence of human activity and its diversity.
Labor activity and communication between man and society.
The purpose of man and approaches to the interpretation of his essence.
The purpose and meaning of human life.
Communication and communications.
Man, individual, personality.
Personal abilities and character.
Socialization of personality.
Freedom and responsibility of the individual.
Characteristics of interpersonal relationships.
Conflict situations and ways to resolve them.
The spiritual world of man.
Human worldview.
Values.
The main types of life strategies in modern society.
Interests.
Man as a subject of biological and social evolution.
The relationship between the spiritual and physical, biological and social principles in man. The existence of man, his activities and creativity. The purpose and meaning of a person’s life, his life choices and lifestyle. Self-realization of a person and his self-knowledge. Personality, its self-realization and education. The inner world of a person. Conscious and unconscious. Behavior, freedom and responsibility of the individual. Human cognitive activity. Worldview as a system of views on the world and man’s place in it. Truth and its criteria. Scientific knowledge. Knowledge and faith. The variety of forms of human knowledge. Sciences about man and society. Social and humanitarian knowledge. All this was preceded by a long evolutionary development in man himself of the biological, social and spiritual principles.
Man as a biosocial being.
Man is essentially a being biosocial. It is part of nature and at the same time inextricably linked with society. The biological and social in man are united, and only in such unity does man exist. The biological nature of a person is his natural prerequisite, a condition of existence, and sociality is the essence of a person.
As a biological being, man belongs to the higher mammals, forming a special species, Homo sapiens. The biological nature of a person is manifested in his anatomy and physiology. As a biological species, humans have circulatory, muscular, nervous, skeletal and other systems. While inferior to animals in the development of individual organs, humans surpass them in their potential capabilities. Its biological properties are not strictly programmed, which makes it possible to adapt to various living conditions. The biological in humans does not exist in its pure form; it is socially conditioned. The influence of the social is experienced by human genetics and heredity. This is manifested, for example, in the acceleration of children, in the reduction of the birth rate, infant mortality, etc.
Man as a social being is inextricably linked with society. A person becomes a person only by entering into social relations, into communication with other people. An individual, for certain reasons, cut off from society from birth, remains an animal. Since human activity can only exist as a social activity, the essence of man appears as a set of social relations.
Man is not only a product of socio-historical development, but also a subject whose activity influences the environment.
The social essence of a person is manifested through such properties as the ability and readiness for socially useful work, consciousness and reason, freedom and responsibility, etc.
From the above, we point out the main differences between humans and animals:
1. Man is capable of making tools and use them as a means of producing material goods. Highly organized animals can use natural tools (sticks, stones) for certain purposes. But not a single species of animal is capable of making tools using previously made means.
2. A person is capable of conscious, purposeful creative activity. The animal's behavior is subordinated to instinct, its actions are initially programmed. Human activity is purposeful and has a conscious-volitional character. A person models his own behavior and can choose various social roles. A person has the ability to foresee the long-term consequences of his actions, the nature and direction of development of natural and social processes. Man is characterized by a value-based attitude to reality, but an animal does not separate itself from nature.
3. Animals cannot produce fundamental changes in the conditions of their existence. They adapt to the environment, which determines their lifestyle. Man transforms reality in accordance with his constantly developing needs, creates a world of material and spiritual culture.
3. In the process of his activity, a person transforms the surrounding reality, creates the material and spiritual benefits and values he needs. Carrying out practically transformative activities, a person creates a “second nature” - culture.
4. A person has a highly organized brain, thinking and articulate speech.
The interaction of spiritual and physical, biological and social principles in a person.
With the development of man himself, as well as the sciences that study man, natural scientific (materialistic) ideas about the origin of man arise and develop. A great achievement in this direction was the appearance in the second half of the 19th century of the evolutionary theory of Charles Darwin. His works, especially “The Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection”, “The Origin of Man and Sexual Selection”, laid the foundation for a deep scientific theory, which substantiated the idea of the appearance of various species of animals, including humans, in the course of long evolutionary development. Charles Darwin laid the basis for evolution on natural selection. He and his followers saw the main reason for the variability of organisms in natural selection.
The variability of living things is associated with changes in the environment. In accordance with evolutionary theory, man, as a special biological species, also has a natural origin and is genetically related to higher mammals. The human psyche, his ability to think and work is the result of evolutionary processes. This theory, in a certain sense, dissolved man in the animal kingdom. Darwinism did not give a final answer to the question of what exactly was the reason for the separation of man from the animal world.
F. Engels tried to answer this question in his theory of human origin. He named labor as the main reason for the emergence of man. He believed that only labor activity is characteristic of man and serves as the basis for the existence of human society. Under the influence of labor, specific human qualities were formed: consciousness, language, creative abilities.
Despite existing scientific discoveries, many questions related to human development do not yet have a clear answer. The problem of human origins is still the focus of many sciences today.
The process of human formation and development - anthropogenesis– had a long evolutionary character and was inextricably linked with the formation of society – sociogenesis. The formation of man and the formation of society are two closely related aspects of a single process in nature - anthroposociogenesis, which lasted more than three million years. The modern type of person - Homo sapiens (Homo sapiens) appeared 50-40 thousand years ago.
Many scientists believe that human ancestry goes back to the great apes. Anthropologists have examined the remains of ancient apes. The most distant ancestors in this regard are Dryopithecus, who lived 14-20 million years ago, then go Ramapithecus (10-14 million years ago). They are followed Australopithecus. They, according to many scientists, have come close to the border separating animals from humans. Scientists associate the beginning of anthropogenesis with the appearance of Homo habilis (Homo habilis) 2.5-3 million years ago. He made primitive stone tools and hunted animals. From this moment, human society gradually begins to form. Further evolution led to the appearance Pithecanthropus (800 thousand years ago), and then Neanderthal (150-200 thousand years ago). During anthropogenesis, the transition from Neanderthal man to Homo sapiens (Homo sapiens) coincided with the formation of various human races that still exist today: Caucasoid, Negroid, Mongoloid. The fossil remains found indicate that man is a product of the long evolution of life on Earth. An important milestone in evolution is, first of all, upright walking, which, by changing the center of gravity, entailed a change in the entire organism of the ape-like ancestor of man. The main thing is that it freed up the forelimbs for the systematic manipulation of objects as tools (man learned to process various objects and use them as tools). Another evolutionary leap is the appearance of a relatively large brain. For a modern person, it is on average 1450 cubic meters. see in Man skillful it was 650-680 cubic cm, Pithecanthropa- approximately 974, y Neanderthal– on average 1350. The increase in brain volume was associated with the expansion of the possibilities of interaction between human ancestors and the outside world. Gradually, the decisive difference between man and other animals, even from monkeys, is being established - this is work. Labor activity contributed to the development of communication between people, which led to the emergence and development of language and speech. The development of speech communication was one of the most important factors in anthropogenesis.
A significant milestone in anthropogenesis and sociogenesis was associated with changes in family and marital relations. The herd of anthropoid creatures was based on endogamy - closely related sexual relationships within the herd. Anthropogenesis led to the prohibition of closely related relationships and the transition to exogamy - the establishment of marriage relationships with members of other communities. These and other prohibitions (taboos) were the first simple social and moral prohibitions and marked the transition of humanity to moral guidelines for behavior, which was another important factor in the formation of man and his distance from the animal world.
The final stage of anthroposociogenesis was the so-called " neolithic revolution”, which marked the transition from gathering and hunting to agriculture and cattle breeding, from an appropriating economy to a producing one. The development of human society was subsequently associated with various milestones in the division of labor: historically, the first major social division of labor was the separation of cattle breeding from agriculture, the second was the separation of crafts, and the third was the separation of trade into independent branches of activity. All these changes in economic activity could not but affect social processes - the transition to a sedentary lifestyle (formation of tribal associations), social stratification of society, differentiation of forms of consciousness, etc. - and created the prerequisites for the transition of human society from a primitive state to a civilized one.
In this movement towards civilization a large role culture played a role, which was on one side an accelerator transformations in the material sphere, and on the other hand it shaped the spiritual sphere of man and society Also accelerating the process of humanization of man.
The essence of consciousness.
Philosophy determines consciousness as a higher function of the brain, characteristic only of humans and associated with speech, which consisted in a generalized and purposeful reflection of reality (existence), in the preliminary mental construction of actions and anticipation of their results, in the reasonable regulation and self-control of human behavior.
Consciousness- not only the basic concept of philosophy, but also sociology, psychology, pedagogy and other human sciences. Many thinkers have spoken of consciousness as a miracle of miracles, a divine gift and the eternal curse of man, since, having consciousness, a person is aware of his finitude and mortality, which inevitably leaves an imprint of tragedy on his entire life. There are many positions and approaches to understanding the essence of consciousness.
Consciousness is understood as the highest human form of mental reflection of reality. Regardless of what level it is carried out - biological or social, sensory or rational.
Consciousness has a complex structure. In its structure, first of all, such moments stand out, as awareness (cognition) of things, as well as experience, i.e. a certain attitude towards what a person knows. The development of consciousness involves enriching it with new knowledge about the world around us and the person himself. The awareness of the acquired knowledge has different levels, depth of penetration, i.e., different degrees of clarity of understanding. From here, everyday, scientific, philosophical, aesthetic and religious awareness of the world, as well as sensory and rational levels of consciousness are often distinguished. Thus, in the structure of consciousness it is often its core is distinguished, consisting of sensation, perception, representation, concept and thinking as a whole, and this is nothing more than the human mind. In addition, the structure of consciousness often includes such components as the ability for irrational thinking (fiction, fantasies, illusions), emotional perception of the world and oneself, volitional processes, memory, intuition, etc.
Philosophical debates about human nature have a long history. Most often, philosophers call human nature binary (double), and man himself is defined as a biosocial being with articulate speech, consciousness, higher mental functions (abstract logical thinking, logical memory, etc.), capable of creating tools and using them in process of social labor.
Being a part of nature, man belongs to the higher mammals and forms a special species - Homo sapiens. Like any biological species, Homo sapiens is characterized by a certain set of specific characteristics, each of which can vary in different representatives of the species within fairly large limits. Such a change can be influenced by both natural and social processes. Like other biological species, the species Homo sapiens has stable variations (varieties), which, when it comes to humans, are most often designated by the concept of race. The racial differentiation of people is predetermined by the fact that their groups, inhabiting different areas of the planet, have adapted to the specific features of their environment and have developed specific anatomical, physiological and biological characteristics. But, belonging to a single biological species, Homo sapiens, a representative of any race has biological parameters characteristic of this species that allow him to successfully participate in any sphere of life of the entire human society.
The biological nature of a person constitutes the basis on which the formation of actual human qualities occurs. Biologists and philosophers call the following anatomical, physiological and psychological features of the human body, which form the biological basis of human activity as a social being:
a) straight gait as an anatomical feature that allows a person to take a wider view of the surrounding environment, freeing the forelimbs even during movement and allowing them to be used for work better than four-legged animals can do;
b) tenacious hands with flexible fingers and opposable thumb, allowing complex and delicate functions to be performed;
c) gaze directed forward and not to the sides, allowing you to see in three dimensions and better navigate in space;
d) a large brain and a complex nervous system, allowing for high development of mental life and intelligence;
f) long-term dependence of children on their parents, and therefore a long period of adult guardianship, a slow rate of growth and biological maturation and therefore a long period of training and socialization;
g) the plasticity of innate impulses and needs, the absence of rigid mechanisms of instincts, such as those found in other species, the possibility of adapting needs to the means of satisfying them - all this contributes to the development of complex patterns of behavior and adaptation to various environmental conditions;
h) the stability of sexual attraction, affecting the form of the family and a number of other social phenomena.
Being, of course, a natural being, living according to the laws of the natural world, a person can fully live and develop only in the society of people like him. Such important factors of human life as consciousness and speech are not transmitted to people in the order of biological heredity, but are formed in them during their lifetime, in the process of socialization, i.e., the individual’s assimilation of the socio-historical experience of previous generations. From the moment of his birth, a person is an individual, i.e., a single natural being, a bearer of individually unique traits. An individual is usually called a single specific person, considered as a biosocial being. The concept “person” is usually used to show that a person belongs to the human race (Homo sapiens), as well as the fact that this person has universal traits and qualities characteristic of all people. It is necessary to distinguish the concept of “personality” from these two concepts. (See question No. 4 of this section.)
In order to understand why a person is a biosocial being, one must understand the meaning of the term “biosocial”. The concept implies a system of behavior that is a symbiosis of biological and
In other words, the behavior of biosocial beings (humans) is simultaneously determined by natural instincts and social skills.
Man as a biosocial being is a completely special person. We are an inseparable part of him, but at the same time we influence existence, changing it. We are simultaneously an object and a subject of knowledge.
Not a single isolated science, be it biology, psychology, anatomy, etc. cannot create a complete image of a person. Only philosophy tries to do this, but its knowledge comes down to the study of universal human nature.
Why is this happening?
Precisely because man, as a biosocial being, contains too many aspects. It has the following characteristics:
- Universal human characteristics, i.e. is a representative of a specific species.
- Special, which means that each individual is a representative of a specific race, nationality, or ethnic group.
- Specific: personality, psyche, talents, inclinations, needs.
Man as a biosocial being is also considered because by his origin and nature he is dual. On the one hand, although it is a highly organized animal, it is an animal, i.e. biological organism. On the other hand, it is a creature with social, political, cultural and other unique skills. It is this feature that allows us to consider that man is a biosocial being, or, in the words of Aristotle, a “political animal.”
On the one hand, the life activity of representatives of our species is determined by biological origin. An individual is capable of inheriting the biological characteristics of his species and has a predisposition to a certain life expectancy, diseases, type of behavior, and temperament.
On the other hand, a person does not have a clear predisposition to a diurnal or nocturnal lifestyle, type of nutrition, behavior (herd, for example). Therefore, unlike animals, he is capable of developing in any direction.
Inextricably linked with its nature. Only nature manifests itself in the body, instincts (for example, the need to eat, reproduce, etc.), and the social - in consciousness. However, both the natural principle and the social form a single conglomerate, which, in its essence, is being.
By the way, there is debate about human nature in science. Some scientists believe that nature is determined solely by the genetics of the species: upright walking, breathing with the help of the lungs, etc., while others include the individual’s psyche and its development in the concept. This also confirms the complexity of human nature.
Moreover, consciousness is a psychological manifestation that is a creation of the brain, and the brain is of biological origin. This is yet another proof of the truth that man as a biosocial being can only be viewed simultaneously from several points of view.
The problem of man is the central problem of social science.
There are different concepts of human origins. The earliest is religious, which endows a person with a soul - a manifestation of the divine, which makes a person human. The natural science concept put forward by Charles Darwin in his work “The Descent of Man and Sexual Selection” puts forward a hypothesis about the origin of man from animals in the process of evolution. This theory is developed by F. Engels in his work “The Role of Labor in the Transformation of Ape into Man.”
The research of Louis Pasteur, who proved the impossibility of the spontaneous generation of life, led to new searches. As a result, the paleovisit theory emerged.
At the moment, the main one is the natural science concept, on the basis of which the concept of the biosocial nature of man was born.
In the statements of thinkers about man, his essence, two main points of view stand out - pessimistic(without faith in the best in man) and optimistic(with faith in a person and his capabilities). “Pessimists”, first of all, note the animal side of man. “Optimists,” on the contrary, believe that man is a spiritual being, striving for divine heights of consciousness and behavior. Both good and evil are intertwined in a person.
Man by nature is biosocial being, since at the same time it is part of nature and, at the same time, inextricably linked with society.
Biological nature of a person is manifested in his anatomy, physiology, and gene pool, which is the carrier of hereditary information. The biological influences the processes of childbirth, the overall life expectancy of a person and also affects the development of some of his abilities - forms of reaction to the outside world.
Under social in a person they understand such properties as consciousness and reason, the ability to act practically, freedom and responsibility, citizenship, etc.
In resolving the issue of the relationship between the biological and the social in humans, two extreme positions have emerged: biologizing and sociologizing.
A common feature of biologizing concepts is the interpretation of the essence of man primarily from the standpoint of biology. Their representatives strive to explain human social actions by his biological and genetic characteristics and see the key to understanding humans in molecular genetics.
Sociologizing concepts absolutize the meaning of social relations. Representatives of this movement believe that all people are born with the same genetic inclinations, and society plays the main role in the development of their abilities. This understanding of man was widespread among supporters of Marxism.
Most scientists in solving the biosocial problem tend to avoid extremes and consider man as a complex synthesis, an interweaving of biological and social principles. They believe that a born child is a biological living system that does not yet possess thinking and speech. Its physiological organization only has the potential, under certain social conditions, to realize the ability to think and speak. However, it is emphasized that qualities such as the ability to think and act practically have a social origin.
To study human essence in philosophy, there is a variety of concepts, the most important of which are man, individual, individuality, personality. These concepts characterize an individual from various aspects.
Concept Human reflects common features (biological organization, consciousness, language, ability to work) inherent in the entire human race. This concept emphasizes the presence in the world of such a special historically developing community as the human race, humanity, which differs from all other material systems only in its inherent way of life.
Concept individual denotes a person as a single representative of the human race. This is a generalized image of a specific person. The concept of an individual does not capture any special properties of a person.
Concept individuality characterizes the originality, uniqueness, originality of the individual. Each person has a biological and socio-psychological individuality (temperament, abilities)
In concept personality has an even narrower meaning. Personality is an individual taken in the aspect of his social qualities (views, abilities, moral beliefs, etc.). The concept of “personality” reflects everything socially significant in a person.
Internal personality structure:
1. Temperament. Determined genetically. There are four types of temperament: phlegmatic (psychological stability, balance and perseverance in achieving goals); choleric (unbalanced, superficial person); sanguine (impressionable, fast, persistent, but only when he is interested); melancholic (impressionable, constantly analyzes and criticizes himself).
2. Character. Translated from Greek, “character” is “minting”, “sign”. Indeed, character is the special characteristics that a person acquires while living in society. Just as the individuality of a person is manifested in the peculiarities of mental processes (good memory, rich imagination, intelligence, etc.) and in temperamental traits, it also reveals itself in character traits.
Character is a set of stable individual characteristics of a person that develops and manifests itself in activity and communication, determining the individual’s typical modes of behavior.
Character is determined and formed throughout a person’s life. The way of life includes the way of thoughts, feelings, motives, actions in their unity. Therefore, as a certain way of life of a person is formed, the person himself is formed. A big role here is played by social conditions and specific life circumstances in which a person’s life path takes place.
Any character trait is some stable stereotype of behavior. However, character traits cannot be taken out of the typical situations in which they appear; in some situations, even a polite person can be rude. Therefore, any character trait is a stable form of behavior in connection with specific situations typical for a given type of behavior.
A character trait includes a certain way of thinking and understanding. When committing a characteristic act, volitional mechanisms are activated and feelings are involved.
The formation of character traits cannot be separated from the formation of behavioral motives. Motives of behavior, realized in action, consolidated in it, are fixed in character. The path to the formation of character traits lies, therefore, through the formation of appropriate motives of behavior and the organization of actions aimed at consolidating them.
The most common character traits are arranged along the axes:
strength - weakness;
hardness - softness;
integrity - inconsistency;
breadth - narrowness.
If strength of character is understood as the energy with which a person pursues his goals, his ability to become passionately carried away and develop great tension when encountering difficulties, the ability to overcome them, then weakness of character is associated with the manifestation of cowardice, indecisiveness in achieving goals, instability of views, etc. .d.
A person’s character is manifested in a system of relationships:
In relation to other people (in this case, one can highlight such character traits as sociability - isolation, truthfulness - deceit, tactfulness - rudeness, etc.);
In relation to business (responsibility - dishonesty, hard work - laziness, etc.);
In relation to oneself (modesty - narcissism, self-criticism - self-confidence, etc.);
In relation to property (generosity - greed, frugality - wastefulness, neatness - sloppiness, etc.).
A person’s attitude towards society and people plays a decisive role in the formation of character. The character of a person cannot be revealed and understood outside the team, without taking into account his attachments in the form of camaraderie, friendship, love, etc.
Man as a biosocial being.
Plan:
1. The concept of “person”. Theories of human origin.
2. Binary human nature. Biosociality and its essence.
3. Distinctive features of a person.
Man is a holistic biopsychosocial being , which is also an organism (representative of Homo Sapiens), the creator and bearer of culture, as well as the main participants in the historical process.
The problem of man is one of the main ones in philosophy. Of great importance for understanding the essence of man and the paths of his development is clarification of the question of his origin.
The theory of the origin of man, the essence of which is to study the process of his emergence and development, is called anthropogenesis (from the gr. anthropos - man and genesis - origin).
There are several approaches to solving the question of human origins:
- Religious theory (divine; theological). Implies the divine origin of man. The soul is the source of humanity in man.
- Paleovisit theory. The essence of the theory is that man is an extraterrestrial being; aliens from outer space, having visited the Earth, left human beings on it.
- Charles Darwin's Theory of Evolution (materialistic). Man is a biological species, his origin is natural. Genetically related to higher mammals. This theory belongs to materialistic theories (natural science). Natural science theory of F. Engels (materialistic). Friedrich Engels states that the main reason for the emergence of man (more precisely, his evolution) is work. Under the influence of work, a person’s consciousness was formed, as well as language and creative abilities.
Man is the highest stage of development of living organisms on Earth. Man is essentially a biosocial being. Binary human nature manifests itself in the fact that it is part of nature and at the same time inextricably linked with society. The biological and social in man are fused together, and only in such unity does he exist.
The biological nature of a person is his natural prerequisite, a condition of existence, and sociality is the essence of a person.
Man is a biological being | Man is a social being. |
Man belongs to the higher mammals, forming a special species, Homo sapiens. The biological nature of a person is manifested in his anatomy and physiology: he has circulatory, muscular, nervous and other systems. Its biological properties are not strictly programmed, which makes it possible to adapt to various living conditions | Inextricably linked with society. A person becomes a person only by entering into social relations, into communication with others. The social essence of a person is manifested through such properties as the ability and readiness for socially useful work, consciousness and reason, freedom and responsibility, etc. |
Absolutization of one of the aspects of human essence leads to biologization or sociologization.
The main differences between humans and animals:
Human | Animal |
1. A person has thinking and articulate speech. Only a person can reflect on his past, critically assessing it, and think about the future, making plans. | 1. Some species of monkeys also have communicative capabilities, but only humans are capable of transmitting objective information about the world around them to other people |
2. A person is capable of conscious, purposeful creative activity: Models his behavior and can choose various social roles; Has predictive ability, i.e. the ability to foresee the consequences of one’s actions, the nature and direction of the development of natural processes; Expresses a value-based attitude to reality. | 2. An animal’s behavior is subordinate to instinct; its actions are initially programmed. It does not separate itself from nature. |
3. A person, in the process of his activity, transforms the surrounding reality, creates the material and spiritual benefits and values he needs. Carrying out practically transformative activities, a person creates a “second nature” - culture. | 3. Animals adapt to the environment, which determines their way of life. They cannot make fundamental changes in the conditions of their existence. |
4. Man is capable of making tools and using them as a means of producing material goods. In other words, a person can make tools using previously made means of labor. | 4. Uses ready-made natural materials without transforming them |
A person reproduces not only his biological, but also his social essence and therefore must satisfy not only his material, but also his spiritual needs. Satisfaction of spiritual needs is associated with the formation of a person’s inner (spiritual) world.
Thus, a person is unique creature ( open to the world, unique, spiritually incomplete); universal being(capable of any type of activity); whole being(integrates (combines) the physical, mental and spiritual principles).
