Product life cycle model in international trade.
Theories of the impact of technology on international trade.
INTERNATIONAL TECHNOLOGY EXCHANGE
Topic 7
In most cases, technology is one of the developed factors of production that have a greater ability for international mobility compared to the basic ones. The development of technology is based on technical progress.
Among the many theories of the impact of technology on international trade, the following stand out:
· model of technical progress;
· technology gap model;
Model of technological progress(John Hicks, 1904-1989): Technical progress is divided into neutral, labor-saving and capital-saving. With neutral technical progress, the amount of labor and capital per unit of goods produced decreases. With labor-saving technical progress, capital replaces labor. Capital-saving progress increases labor productivity.
Almost all theories that consider technology as a factor of production explain, using differences in the endowment of technology, international trade in goods produced on its basis. Many theories explain how changing technology affects international trade. One of them - technology gap model (Michael Posner, 1961). According to this model, the development of a new technology gives countries a temporary monopoly in the production and export of the product based on it.
The product life cycle model in international trade assumes that some countries specialize in the production and export of technologically new goods, while others specialize in the production of established goods. According to the theory, a product goes through five stages of life in international trade:
stage 1 – new product stage;
stage 2 – product growth stage;
stage 3 - stage of product maturity;
stage 4 – stage of decline in production of goods;
stage 5 – the stage of cessation of domestic production of goods.
The development of international technological exchange is due to significant differences in the technical level of individual countries. On the other hand, knowledge and technology in backward countries must develop in the direction in which they develop in advanced countries, since the world economy as a technical and economic category is based on machine production, regardless of the level of development of a particular national economy. Thus, even if there is an autarkic model of the economy of a particular country, technical thought is still developing in the same direction as in more developed countries.
However, more often technically backward countries develop as a result of acquiring new knowledge and technologies from outside. High rates of scientific and technological progress in the second half of the twentieth century. have led to the fact that over the past decades, international trade has been characterized by the involvement of a special product in trade turnover - scientific and technical achievements, i.e. active technological exchange is taking place. The concept of international technological exchange, as a rule, is interpreted in two ways: in a broad sense, it means the penetration of any scientific and technical knowledge and the exchange of production experience between countries, and in a narrow sense, it means the transfer of scientific and technical knowledge and experience related to the reproduction of specific technological processes.
Technologies- a complex of scientific and technical knowledge, including three groups of technologies: product technology, process technology and management technology.
International technology transfer is the interstate movement of scientific and technical knowledge on a commercial and non-commercial basis.
Technology is one of the developed factors of production that have great international mobility.
Technology transfer stages:
1. Selection and acquisition of technology.
2. Mastery and adaptation.
3. Use and improvement.
Technology transfer channels:
1. Foreign trade.
2. In-house.
3. Intercompany.
All four spheres of human activity are widely involved in international technological exchange: science, technology, production and management.
In most countries, new technology is protected by legal instruments: patents, licenses, copyright, trademark.
Patent- a certificate issued by the competent government agency to the inventor and certifying his monopoly right to use this invention.
License– permission given by the owner of a technology (licensor), whether protected by a patent or not, to an interested party (licensee) to use this technology for a specified time and for a specified fee.
Copyright(reproduction right) – the exclusive right of the author of a literary, audio or video work to display and reproduce his work.
Trademark– a symbol of a certain organization, which is used to individualize the manufacturer of a product and which cannot be used by other organizations without official permission.
Technologies are transferred both commercially and non-commercially. Technological exchange in a broad sense is carried out, as a rule, in non-commercial forms:
Scientific and technical publications;
Holding exhibitions, fairs, symposiums;
Exchange of delegations and meetings of scientists and engineers;
Migration of specialists;
Training of undergraduate and graduate students;
Activities of international organizations for cooperation in the field of science and technology, etc.
Technological exchange in a narrow sense is carried out, as a rule, in commercial forms:
Transfer of rights to use inventions (patents, know-how, registered trademarks, industrial designs), technical documentation under the terms of licensing agreements;
Supply of machines and various industrial equipment;
Providing technical assistance;
Engineering services;
Export of complete equipment;
Training and internship of specialists;
Management contracts;
Scientific, technical and industrial cooperation, etc.
The transfer of technology in commercial forms implies that the technology is a specific commodity. The buyer of a new technology receives at his disposal scientific and technical developments and/or created production and technological processes. The use of such developments and processes as elements of productive capital makes it possible to produce commercial products that have increased competitiveness and receive additional profits over a more or less long period due to their uniqueness or lower production costs per unit of finished product.
The increased competitiveness of products produced using a new technology is inversely related to the scale of distribution (availability) of this technology. Additional profits disappear as soon as technical improvements become the property of the majority of enterprises in this industry or an even more advanced technology appears. The higher the degree of monopolization of scientific and technical knowledge and production and management experience, the stronger the position of the owner of the technology in the product market. Thus, it is quite understandable that countries and individual firms that have achieved a high technical level want to maintain their monopoly on new technologies.
At the same time, technology as a commodity usually has a very high cost, determined by the large costs of R&D and their implementation. The transfer of this cost to the final product occurs gradually, after huge costs have already been incurred. The owners of a new technology are interested in reimbursing the costs incurred, which can be achieved either by expanding their own production of goods based on it, or by selling this technology before it becomes obsolete. All this pushes the owner of the new technology to use it as much as possible, both in his own production and by selling similar goods to other manufacturers.
Technologies are transferred to two main groups of buyers:
Foreign branches or subsidiaries of TNCs;
Independent companies.
New technologies are mainly provided by TNCs to their branches or subsidiaries. So, for example, in the 90s. This group of buyers accounted for about 4/5 of the total technology sales of American TNCs. This is due to the fact that as a result of technology transfer to affiliates:
The contradiction between the need for widespread use of new technology in order to obtain maximum profit and the threat of loss of monopoly ownership of scientific and technical achievements that arises in connection with this is largely overcome:
Specific R&D costs are reduced and at the same time, leaks of classified information outside TNCs are eliminated;
The profits of parent companies increase, since in many countries payments for new technology received are exempt from taxation.
Host countries often restrict imports of goods and sometimes foreign direct investment in various forms. When selling technology, it provides an opportunity to penetrate the closed market of another country, since following the technology, goods and services enter the host country
Selling technology to independent companies means losing the monopoly right to use it. In addition, a technology buyer with significant scientific and technical potential may subsequently become a serious competitor. By selling technology to independent companies, sellers seek to obtain equity, combine technology transfer with the supply of their equipment, and compensate for the loss of a technology monopoly by maximizing the proceeds from the sale. Most often, technologies from those industries in which the share of R&D expenses is low (metallurgy, metalworking, textile and clothing industry, etc.) are sold to independent firms. In these industries, the monopoly on technical improvement cannot be maintained for long, since innovations are easily reproducible. The owner of a new technology, without waiting for the improvements to be copied by foreign competitors, forces its sale not only to controlled companies, but also to independent firms.
All forms of technological exchange do not exist on their own, but are determined by the content of technology and reflect the dialectical process of its origin, flourishing, aging and replacement with a new one. The following types correspond to the stages of the technology life cycle:
Stage 1 - unique;
Stage 2 - progressive;
3 and stage - traditional;
Stage 4 - morally outdated.
TO unique technologies include inventions and other scientific and technical developments protected by patents, which makes it impossible for them to be used by competing organizations. These technologies are novel, have the highest technical level, and can be used in production under the conditions of an exclusive monopoly. Such technologies are created as a result of R&D and inventive activities of specialists. When determining the price of a unique technology on the market, its ability to create maximum additional profit for its buyer is taken into account.
TO progressive technologies include developments that have novelty and technical and economic advantages compared to analogous technologies used by potential buyers of the new technology and their competitors. Unlike unique technology, which has absolute superiority over any technology in the relevant industry, the advantages of advanced technology are relative. The progressiveness of a particular technology can manifest itself within the borders of individual countries, different companies, and in different conditions of its application. These technologies are not protected by patents and do not have pronounced know-how, but the fairly high production advantages provided by such technologies guarantee their customers additional profits. Progressive technologies can be created as a result not only of the scientific, technical and inventive activities of scientists and engineers, but also of the “evolution” of unique innovations that gradually lose their novelty.
Unique and advanced technologies can bring additional profits to their buyers, so they are sold at prices that exceed the average price level for similar technologies in the relevant industry.
Traditional(conventional) technology represents developments that reflect the average level of production achieved by most product manufacturers in a given industry. This technology does not provide its buyer with significant technical and economic advantages and product quality compared to similar products from leading manufacturers, and one cannot count on additional (above average) profits in this case. Its advantages for the buyer are the relatively low cost and the opportunity to purchase technology tested in production conditions. Traditional technology is created, as a rule, as a result of obsolescence and large-scale dissemination of advanced technology. Such technology is usually sold at prices that compensate the seller for the costs of preparing it and obtaining an average profit.
Morally outdated technology refers to developments that do not ensure the production of products of average quality and with technical and economic indicators that are achieved by most manufacturers of similar products. The use of such developments perpetuates the technological backwardness of its owners.
One of the most common methods of technology transfer is licensed trade.
Essential Questions to Study
6.1. The essence of international scientific and technological exchange and its forms.
6.2. Main forms and channels of technology transfer.
6.3. Types and features of trade in engineering services.
The essence of international scientific and technological exchange and its forms
A new stage of scientific and technological revolution, which began in the 50s. XX century, provided a revolution in the structure of the international division of labor and led to the emergence of a new form of international economic relations - international scientific and technological exchange.
International scientific and technological exchange- this is a set of economic relations between foreign counterparties regarding the use of the results of scientific and technical activities that have scientific and practical value.
The process of international technology transfer includes:
a) selection and acquisition of technology;
b) adaptation and development of acquired technology;
c) development of local capabilities to improve technology, taking into account the needs of the national economy.
International legal interpretation of the concept of “technology”: - a set of design solutions, methods and processes for the production of goods and the provision of services;
Materialized or embodied technology, for example, in the form of equipment, machinery, etc.
Stages of development international technological exchange:
1) the use of new technologies only at their own enterprises and the sale of new products on the market (before the industrial revolution of the 18th century);
2) the use of new technologies not only at their own enterprises, but also their sale to other manufacturers in conditions of complicated financial, production and market situations (XVIII-XIX centuries);
3) international technology exchange is increasing to volumes that made it possible to distinguish it as a separate form of international economic relations, the emergence of a global technology market (mid-20th century).
Causes, which led to the rapid development of international technology exchange:
1) at the country level - this is the uneven development of different countries of the world in the scientific and technical field, associated primarily with the insufficient amount of R&D expenditures in most countries and with the difference in the purposes of their use:
For developed countries, the acquisition of technology contributes to the modernization of the production apparatus in various industries;
For developing countries, this is a means of overcoming technological backwardness and creating their own industry focused on meeting domestic needs;
2) at the organization (company) level, the acquisition of technology contributes to:
Solving specific economic, scientific and technical problems;
Overcoming the limited scientific and technical base of an individual enterprise, lack of production capacity and other resources;
Obtaining new strategic development opportunities. Economic feasibility of technology export is determined by the fact that:
1) the sale of technology is a source of income;
2) technology transfer abroad is a form of struggle for the product market;
3) this is a way to circumvent the problems of exporting the product in question;
4) this is a way of establishing control over a foreign company through such terms of a licensing agreement as production volume, profit sharing, and the like;
5) provision of technology - a way of providing access to other innovations for “cross-licensing”;
6) this is an opportunity to more effectively improve the licensed object with the participation of the buyer.
Economic feasibility of importing technology is determined by the fact that technology import is:
1) access to innovations of a high technical level;
2) a means of saving R&D costs;
3) a means of reducing foreign exchange costs for commodity imports and ensuring the use of national capital and labor;
4) a condition for expanding the export of products produced using imported technologies;
5) a guarantee of mastering a product or process with the help of a seller, who, as a rule, provides technical adaptation of the innovation.
Subjects of the global technology market are:
States;
Universities;
Individuals (scientists and specialists). The objects of the global technology market are:
Results of intellectual activity in embodied form (units, equipment, tools, technological lines, etc.);
The results of intellectual activity in non-subject form (technical documentation, knowledge, experience, etc.).
Global technology market segments:
1. Market for patents and licenses.
2. Market for scientific and technological products.
3. High-tech capital market.
4. Market for scientific and technical specialists.
The leading role in the global technology market is played by developed countries: Great Britain, Germany, USA, France and Japan, which control more than 60% of this market. However, the United States and the European Union occupy only 7th and 11th positions in the planetary ranking in terms of the share of R&D expenditures in GDP, respectively, which is unlikely to ensure the maintenance of their current positions in the global technology market in the future.
Rice. 6.1.
Features of modern international technology exchange:
1. The global technology market contributes to the intellectualization of the international economy as a whole.
2. The main subjects of the technology market at the international level are TNCs, which ensure the sharing of R&D results between parent and subsidiary companies.
3. TNCs themselves concentrate research in their own hands, which contributes to the monopolization of the international technology market.
4. The strategy of behavior of TNCs in the global technology market for independent entities (countries and companies) is determined by the life cycle of the technology:
Stage I - preference is given to the sale of finished products in which new ideas are implemented;
Stage II - technological exchange is accompanied or carried out in the form of foreign direct investment (FD);
Stage III - pure licensing, that is, the acquisition of ownership rights to the technology and its use.
5. The leading role is played by intra-company international technology exchange (Fig. 6.2).
6. The technological gap exists between different groups of countries and determines the multi-stage structure of the global technology market:
a) high technologies (unique and progressive) are objects of exchange between developed countries;
Rice. 6.2.
b) low (morally obsolete) and medium (traditional) technologies of developed countries are new for developing countries and countries with economies in transition.
World economic crisis 2007-2010 She highlighted the problems of mono-oriented development of developing countries and countries with economies in transition. Economic growth in previous years was largely due to the export of low-tech products, the demand for which is price inelastic. So, a slight reduction in demand for products from the mining, metallurgical, oil, agricultural, and chemical industries led to a significant drop in prices, a noticeable reduction in export earnings and a deep crisis in national economies. The need for accelerated development of knowledge-intensive industries and the formation of our own corporations focused on the production of high-tech products for final demand is becoming urgent. Structural restructuring of national economies can only be achieved through the implementation of a set of government support measures for the creation of our own high technologies and their import.
The regulatory framework for the functioning of international technology exchange is provided by:
International Code of Conduct on Technology Transfer;
WTO Agreement on Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights;
Committee on Technology Transfer of the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development;
World Intellectual Property Organization;
Export Control Coordination Committee;
Meeting of security and technology specialists.
Introduction
Concept and current trends in international technology exchange
Russia's participation in international technology exchange
Conclusion
Introduction
In the last century, the world experienced a scientific, technological and information revolution, which significantly changed the conditions and nature of economic development of various parts of the planet and the structure of international exchange. In the most developed countries, a post-industrial “new economy” is emerging - a technological and economic structure in which knowledge and information play the role of the main production resource. The emergence of this structure largely determines the general situation in the world economy and the place of countries in the international division of labor.
Conquering markets and maintaining positions in them now increasingly depends on the ability of countries (their economic agents) to withstand dynamic technological and organizational competition, which is based on innovation.
The formation and development of the “new economy” entailed an accelerated growth in the international exchange of technically complex products and a change in the nature of competition in world markets.
Trends in the development of the world economy indicate that possession of advanced technologies and the scientific component of the economy are a necessary condition for social and economic progress. They determine what place a country occupies in the hierarchy of countries in the world. In this regard, today in Russia the issue of developing and implementing an innovative policy for the development of the domestic economy comes to the fore, in the context of which the need for economic integration of our country into the system of international technological exchange on a mutually beneficial and equal basis becomes obvious.
This determines the relevance of writing and our abstract work devoted to theoretical issues of studying the system of international technology exchange and Russia’s participation in it.
1. Concept and current trends in international technology exchange
The dominant role in the economy is closely related to globalization, which accelerates the international exchange of technology, on the one hand, and intensifies competition in the world market, on the other hand, gradually moving it from the sphere of material goods and services to the world of knowledge, ideas and information. In this situation, the nature of industrial policy is changing and the role of industrial policy is increasing, which, being the main component of the state’s economic policy, is increasingly subordinate to the task of developing a clear innovation strategy aimed at the development of progressive technological structures, the use of the entire arsenal of direct and indirect stimulation tools in the interests of public-private partnership innovation process, as well as the formation of an effective infrastructure using the latest communication and information technologies.
Considering theoretical approaches to the innovation process and technology exchange, it can be noted that at the end of the last century, economic science paid close attention to scientific and technological progress as a factor of economic growth. In this regard, the formation and development of theoretical views on innovation as a mechanism of organic connection and interpenetration of scientific, technical and economic spheres took place. Of the numerous definitions of “technology,” the following can be generalized: it is a set of systematized scientific and technical (otherwise) technological knowledge about the methods of organizing and functioning of a specific production process, sales process or consumption.
Technology exchange is a specific form of international economic relations, which is a set of relations regarding the production, distribution, exchange and use of innovative goods - knowledge and information. The objects of the technology market are the results of intellectual activity in materialized (equipment, technical documentation, etc.) and non-materialized forms (knowledge, experience, techniques, etc.).
In the field of law, the economic category “technology” is transformed into the concept of “intellectual property”, while the results of intellectual activity can be objects of exclusive right - i.e. protected by patents. A patent is evidence of the exclusive right of its owner to manufacture, use and sell new goods and production methods (technologies) for a certain period.
The global technology market occupies an increasingly significant place in international economic relations, which is facilitated by the main feature of modernity - the growth of the knowledge intensity of the goods and services themselves, as well as the uneven development of countries in the world economy in the scientific and technological sphere, the pace and nature of regional production and investment activity, which demand additional demand for new technologies and information, changes in the instruments and regulations of these markets.
In the internationalization of innovation activities and the system of international technology exchange, the dominant role is played by transnational corporations - TNCs, which account for 4/5 of the world's technological flows. If we talk about such a channel for the international dissemination of technology as foreign direct investment, it should be noted that most of it migrates within industrialized countries. Another channel through which international technology exchange takes place is international labor migration (mainly highly qualified specialists).
In addition to traditional mergers and acquisitions, which involve the final legal combination of businesses, in the modern world economy, technological exchange is carried out through joint ventures and strategic alliances, which represent a compromise between cooperation and competition. Managing technology alliances, the purpose of which is primarily or in part, joint technological development, is complicated by the need to maintain a balance between reducing costs and increasing the efficiency of research and development and limiting the disclosure of information and knowledge, because the partner is often also a competitor.
The main form of scientific and technological exchange between countries in modern conditions is international trade in licenses, which is due to a number of factors: the desire to accelerate the introduction of new products to the market, increasingly intensifying competition in the world market, protectionism, which prevents the free exchange of goods between countries, cost savings on our own R&D.
A distinctive feature of the international exchange system in recent years is that international technology exchange is increasingly beginning to take on the character of an intra-corporate exchange of goods, services and technologies carried out through TNC channels. Under the influence of this process, at the present stage there is a convergence of national economies. In the context of the globalization of the world economy, TNCs are turning into the main link of the scientific and technical infrastructure of the modern economy, performing the functions of its scientific, technical and information services.
2. Russia’s participation in international technology exchange
Russia has long been taking part in international technology exchange; the first experience was mastered during the Soviet era. In the 19070s. last century, Russia successfully traded licenses for inventions on the international market. After the collapse of the USSR in 1991, the management of patent and licensing trade was abolished, and a large mass of contracts for the exchange of technologies began to be carried out directly - between Russian companies and foreign firms.
Among the new legislative acts of the Russian Federation regulating operations in logistics and logistics is the Fourth Part of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation with amendments to and other regulatory legal acts that replaced the scattered laws of the 1990s. (laws on patents, copyright and related rights, on the protection of databases, etc.)
Examples of Russia’s successful participation in international technological cooperation include: the creation in 1994 of the International Science and Technology Center - ISTC jointly with the EU, USA and Japan, the implementation of the Partnership program in the ISTC, in 2004 the Russian-American Innovation Council for High technologies, implementation of international space projects (European VLBI network, MIR, T-170M Telescope), a project to build an international experimental thermonuclear reactor, exchange of technologies and personnel with the USA, EU, Iraq, neighboring countries, etc.
At the same time, as we can see, the form of technology exchange is varied:
sale and transfer of licenses for industrial property objects through licensing agreements, as operations of foreign economic activity;
transfer of technological experience, knowledge, know-how through the preparation of special contracts, when the owner does not patent his invention, but can freely dispose of it, including selling it;
transfer of technological knowledge and experience along with the sale, rental or leasing of equipment, machinery, etc.;
technological cooperation and partnership within the framework of joint scientific, technical, construction and other projects, including in TNCs;
provision of engineering and consulting services;
technological and industrial international cooperation with the transfer of confidential data;
transfer of knowledge, experience, technology within the framework of international investment cooperation;
non-commercial exchange through scientific and technical meetings, conferences, symposiums, exhibitions, fairs, etc.
At the same time, international trade in technology and patent-licensing agreements are very poorly developed in Russia. The procedures for selling licenses abroad are quite lengthy (about a year), which provokes unauthorized free use of intellectual and industrial property of the Russian Federation in circumvention of its laws and regulations.
Russia's presence in the international market of high-tech products and in international technology exchange is unjustifiably low. The internal and external economic situation is complicated by the technological backwardness of the economy, as well as insufficient attention to the problem of building an innovative economy. Effective technology transfer to the national economy and to foreign markets is constrained by a number of factors. The main ones include: low innovative demand in the national economy, primarily for domestic technologies; lack of a wide range of small high-tech enterprises; an unadapted and not market-oriented system of knowledge and technology; lack of preferential treatment for high-tech businesses; lack of a methodological basis and strategic justification for the choice of priority areas of scientific and technological development.
At the same time, one cannot help but recognize the presence of a number of serious problems in the Russian research sphere. “Forecast of scientific and technological development of the Russian Federation for the long term” states that in recent years the state of Russian science has continued to deteriorate. Despite the increase in funding for science, the number of organizations conducting research is decreasing: in 2007 - 3957, in 2008 - 3666, i.e. more than 290 organizations in one year. The number of personnel engaged in research and development continues to decline: from 801,136 people. in 2007 to 761,252 people. in 2008, and the reduction in the number of actual researchers over the same period amounted to more than 17 thousand people.
The second significant problem should be recognized as Russia’s lag behind the most developed countries of the world in terms of the main indicators of funding for the research sector. Thus, according to data for 2008, internal costs for research and development in Russia amounted to 23,471.2 million dollars. USA, while in Great Britain - 38,892.8, Germany - 71,860.8, France -42,232.6, USA - 368,799.0, Japan - 147,800.8 million. This gap becomes even more apparent when one compares per capita spending on science. In Russia this figure is 165.3 dollars. per capita per year, while in the UK - 639.9, in Germany - 873.6, in France - 680.1, in the USA - 1220.8, in Japan - 1156.8 dollars. per capita per year.
Russia still does not have a clear strategy for the technological development of the country, the absence of which makes any options for forming a national innovation system practically untenable. The formation of an innovation-oriented economy requires the definition of long-term strategic guidelines for both the public sector and private business and the creation of mechanisms and incentives for achieving them. Therefore, in order to preserve and develop the country’s scientific and industrial potential, the guiding and regulatory role of the state must be strengthened. In the conditions of an innovative economy, it must develop and implement an appropriate strategy for scientific, technical and industrial development, which would be based on the existing scientific, technical and production potential and would be aimed at promoting structural transformations in the economy towards overcoming export dependence on raw materials and ensuring consistently high dynamics and quality of economic growth due to:
involving accumulated and newly obtained results of fundamental research and applied developments into economic circulation;
use of intellectual property and implementation of innovations that are competitive in the domestic and global markets;
Consolidation and concentration of resources and efforts of government bodies of all levels, scientific and technical organizations, and the business sector of the economy.
Prospects for the development of international technological cooperation
The most promising thing for Russia in the next decade is cooperation in logistics with the leading countries in this area - the USA, Japan, the EU and new leaders - China, India, etc. A special place in these plans is occupied by the exchange of technologies with the EU. The positive characteristics of the state of the scientific research sphere in Russia at the present stage include the following. Russia still maintains a satisfactory scientific and technological potential; research is being carried out in almost all areas of science and technology. Research and development is carried out by 3,666 organizations. The number of personnel engaged in research and development is 761,252 people, of which 375,804 are actual researchers. The country has significant advances in a number of areas of science and technological developments. Russia is among the world leaders in a number of important areas and developments, including in such areas as nanotechnology, nuclear and hydrogen energy, energy-saving systems, development of application programs, environmental protection, which are relevant for the scientific and technical activities of European countries. Positive factors also include the presence in certain areas of a strong scientific, experimental and testing base, which in some cases is at the level of the world's best analogues or is unique.
Russia has experience of participating in EU Framework Programs. According to the results of the Sixth Framework Program (2002-2006), it became the leader among third countries (non-EU members and non-associate members) in terms of the number of grants won and participants, ahead of China, the USA and Japan. EU funding amounted to more than 45 million euros.
The results of the first competitions of the Seventh Framework Program (FP7) (2007-2013) confirmed this trend: Russia continued to maintain a leading position among third countries. As part of the past 170 FP7 competitions, 1,639 applications were submitted with the participation of Russian organizations. 323 projects with Russian participation received support. The success rate of Russian participation ranges from 27% in the thematic area "Transport", 23% - "Health", 15% - "Environment" to 4% in socio-economic and human sciences and averages 19%.
In addition, in 2004, the international project of the European Commission ADMIRE-P was launched to involve Russian scientific groups in international cooperation within the framework of scientific and technological programs of the European Union.
Taking into account that the EU countries have a long experience of participating in European scientific, technological and educational programs and the high level of success of this participation, it seems useful to study and use the European experience and the activities of similar structures in the EU countries.
Most European countries are characterized by a multi-level system of support for international scientific and technological cooperation, ensuring the fullest and most effective involvement of researchers in scientific, technological and educational programs.
China can also become an important potential partner for the Russian Federation in the system of international technology exchange. Over the past ten years, China and Russia have effectively collaborated in the development and production of control systems, hardware and software.
Particular attention should be paid to TNCs operating in the Russian markets. Thus, in Russia, the Boeing Corporation, Networks, Motorola, Intel and a number of others contributed to the establishment and optimization of international technological exchange by creating scientific and technical centers and design organizations in our country. The only problem is that many foreign corporations, as well as Russian scientists, do not want to share information about their cooperation, transferring the process of technology exchange to the “shadow” semi-legal sector.
From the standpoint of accelerating the integration of the Russian economy into the world economy, it is important to note that the use of cooperation with TNCs as an international logistics channel should meet the interests of the socio-economic, innovative development of Russia and the preservation of the scientific and technical security of the country. According to V.B. Kondratyev and Yu.V. Kurenkova, “it is necessary to stimulate not just an increase in the volume of foreign investment... but investment by leading transnational companies in full-fledged joint ventures under strict conditions for technology transfer.” Integrating Russian companies into the system of intra-corporate exchange of foreign TNCs, expanding the possibilities of scientific, technical and production cooperation between Russian companies and international players can have a positive impact on Russia’s participation in international logistics.
international technological cooperation
Conclusion
We are convinced that rapid scientific and technological development in the modern world is natural and inevitable. And globalization processes lead to intensification of international cooperation and technology exchange. At the same time, technology refers to empirical and practical knowledge about the organization of production and consumption processes, and exchange refers to economic relations for the distribution of this knowledge. In their material form, technologies are objects of intellectual and industrial property, which are guaranteed and protected by licenses and patents. The exchange is carried out more often precisely as the purchase and sale of patents and licenses.
At the present stage of the functioning of the world economy, a decisive role is played by transnational companies (TNCs), which ensure international technological flows not only through licensed purchase and sale, but also through the distribution of copyright and related rights through mergers, subordination, the formation of international alliances, and promote commercial and non-commercial cooperation .
Russia takes part in the international exchange of technologies quite successfully and effectively, but little is explained by the insufficient development of its economy, insufficient government support for the scientific and innovation sphere, and the reduction in the number of research and technology centers. A possible solution to the problem could be the introduction of state innovation policy, the daily application of the results of fundamental research and applied developments, the use of intellectual property in the domestic and global markets, the pooling and concentration of resources and efforts of government bodies at all levels, and tightening control over the activities of TNCs in Russia. In this case, broad prospects for international technology exchange open up for the Russian Federation.
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The development of international technological exchange is due to significant differences in the technical level of individual countries. On the other hand, knowledge and technology in backward countries must develop in the direction in which they develop in advanced countries, since the world economy as a technical and economic category is based on machine production, regardless of the level of development of a particular national economy. Thus, even if there is an autarkic model of the economy of a particular country, technical thought is still developing in the same direction as in more developed countries. However, more often technically backward countries develop as a result of acquiring new knowledge and technologies from outside. High rates of scientific and technological progress in the second half of the 20th century. have led to the fact that over the past decades, international trade has been characterized by the involvement of a special product in trade turnover - scientific and technical achievements, i.e. active technological exchange is taking place. The concept of international technological exchange, as a rule, is interpreted in two ways: in a broad sense it means the penetration of any scientific and technical knowledge and the exchange of production experience between countries, and in a narrow sense it means the transfer of scientific and technical knowledge and experience related to the reproduction of specific technological processes.
Technologies are transferred both commercially and non-commercially.
Technological exchange in a broad sense is carried out, as a rule, in non-commercial forms:
· scientific and technical publications;
· holding exhibitions, fairs, symposiums;
· exchange of delegations and meetings of scientists and engineers;
· migration of specialists;
· training of undergraduate and graduate students;
· activities of international organizations for cooperation in the field of science and technology, etc.
Technological exchange in a narrow sense is carried out, as a rule, in commercial forms:
· transfer, under the terms of licensing agreements, of the rights to use inventions (patents, know-how, registered trademarks, industrial designs), technical documentation;
· supply of machines and various industrial equipment;
· provision of technical assistance;
· engineering services;
· export of complete equipment;
· training and internship of specialists;
· management contracts;
· scientific, technical and production cooperation, etc.
The transfer of technology in commercial forms implies that the technology is a specific commodity. The buyer of a new technology receives at his disposal scientific and technical developments and/or created production and technological processes. The use of such developments and processes as elements of productive capital makes it possible to produce commercial products with increased competitiveness and to receive additional profits over a more or less long period due to their uniqueness or lower production costs per unit of finished product.
The increased competitiveness of products produced using new technology is inversely related to the scale of distribution (availability) of this technology. Additional profits disappear as soon as technical improvements become the property of the majority of enterprises in the industry or even more advanced technology appears. The higher the degree of monopolization of scientific and technical knowledge and production and management experience, the stronger the position of the owner of the technology in the product market. Thus, the desire of countries and individual firms that have achieved a high technical level to maintain their monopoly on new technologies is quite understandable.
At the same time, technology as a commodity usually has a very high cost, determined by the large costs of R&D and their implementation. The transfer of this cost to the final product occurs gradually, after huge costs have already been incurred. The owners of a new technology are interested in reimbursing the costs incurred, which can be achieved either by expanding their own production of goods based on it, or by selling this technology before it becomes obsolete. All this pushes the owner of a new technology to utilize it as much as possible, both in his own production and by selling similar goods to other manufacturers.
Technologies are transferred to two main groups of buyers:
· foreign branches or subsidiaries of MNCs;
· independent companies.
New technologies are predominantly provided by MNCs to their affiliates or subsidiaries. So, for example, in the 80s. This group of buyers accounted for about 4/5 of the total technology sales of American MNCs. This is due to the fact that as a result of technology transfer to affiliates:
· the contradiction between the need for widespread use of new technology in order to obtain maximum profit and the threat of loss of monopoly ownership of scientific and technical achievements that arises in connection with this is largely overcome; .
· specific R&D costs are reduced and at the same time, leaks of classified information outside the MNC are eliminated;
· the profits of parent companies increase, since in many countries payments for new technology received are exempt from taxation.
Host countries often restrict imports of goods and foreign direct investment in various forms. When selling technology, it provides an opportunity to penetrate the closed market of another country, since the technology is followed by goods and services entering the host country.
Selling technology to independent companies means losing the monopoly right to use it. In addition, a technology buyer with significant scientific and technical potential may subsequently become a serious competitor. By selling technology to independent companies, sellers seek to obtain equity, combine technology transfer with the supply of their equipment, and compensate for the loss of a technology monopoly by maximizing the proceeds from the sale. Most often, technologies from industries in which the share of R&D expenses is low (metallurgy, metalworking, textile and clothing industry, etc.) are sold to independent firms. In these industries, the monopoly on technical improvement cannot be maintained for long, since innovations are easily reproduced. The owner of a new technology, without waiting for the improvements to be copied by foreign competitors, forces its sale not only to controlled companies, but also to independent firms.
All forms of technological exchange do not exist on their own, but are determined by the content of technology and reflect the dialectical process of its origin, flourishing, aging and replacement with a new one. The following types correspond to the stages of the technology life cycle*:
* Flyfall V.I. Through the barriers of protectionism. - M.: Mysl, 1988. P. 25.
Stage 1 - unique;
Stage 2 - progressive;
3rd stage - traditional;
Stage 4 - obsolete.
TO unique Technologies include inventions and other scientific and technical developments that are protected by patents or contain know-how, which makes it impossible for them to be used by competing organizations. These technologies are novel, have the highest technical level, and can be used in production under the conditions of an exclusive monopoly. Such technologies are created as a result of R&D and inventive activities of specialists. When determining the price of a unique technology on the market, its ability to create maximum additional profit for its buyer is taken into account.
TO progressive technologies include developments that have novelty and technical and economic advantages compared to analogous technologies used by potential buyers of the new technology and their competitors. Unlike unique technology, which has absolute superiority over any technology in the relevant industry, the advantages of advanced technology are relative. The progressiveness of a particular technology can manifest itself within the borders of individual countries, different companies, and in different conditions of its application. These technologies are not protected by patents and do not have pronounced know-how, but the fairly high production advantages provided by such technologies guarantee their customers additional profits. Progressive technologies can be created as a result of not only the scientific, technical and inventive activities of scientists and engineers, but also the “evolution” of unique innovations that gradually lose their novelty.
Unique and advanced technologies can bring additional profits to their buyers, so they are sold at prices that exceed the average price level for analogous technologies in the relevant industry.
Traditional(conventional) technology represents developments that reflect the average level of production achieved by most product manufacturers in a given industry. This technology does not provide its buyer with significant technical and economic advantages and product quality compared to similar products from leading manufacturers, and one cannot count on additional (above average) profits in this case. Its advantages for the buyer are the relatively low cost and the opportunity to purchase technology tested in production conditions. Traditional technology is created, as a rule, as a result of obsolescence and large-scale dissemination of advanced technology. Such technology is usually sold at prices that compensate the seller for the costs of preparing it and obtaining an average profit.
Morally outdated technology refers to developments that do not ensure the production of products of average quality and with technical and economic indicators that are achieved by most manufacturers of similar products. The use of such developments perpetuates the technological backwardness of its owners.
One of the most common methods of technology transfer is licensed trade.
Licensed trade
The term "license" translated from Latin means permission to do something and therefore used in various fields. In relation to technological exchange, it means permission to use licensed items under certain conditions, which are:
· patented inventions,
· industrial designs,
· trademarks,
· know-how, i.e. valuable confidential information that does not enjoy legal protection. Depending on the subject matter, licenses can be divided into patent and non-patent.
In addition to patent and non-patent licenses, there are independent (“pure”) and accompanying licenses. Self-licensing involves the transfer of technology or technical developments, regardless of their material carrier. The accompanying licenses are dependent in nature and are provided simultaneously with the conclusion of a contract for the construction of an enterprise, the supply of technological equipment, and the provision of consulting services.
The sale of licenses allows you to significantly speed up the process of developing a new market and at least partially reimburse your own research and development costs. Sometimes it is more profitable, instead of supplying finished products, to sell a license for the right to produce them, for example, in cases where problems arise related to the sale of finished products due to insufficient volume of domestic production or entering the foreign market. The development of your own production can be hampered by many reasons - from a lack of raw materials to the lack of highly qualified personnel and production space.
An obstacle to the export of products is often the protectionist policy of the government of the country to which they are expected to be supplied: high customs duties, import quotas, encouraging the import of disassembled products (in order to develop national industry).
In all these cases, selling licenses is one of the ways to enter the local market, as well as creating a branch of an exporting company in a given country. It should be noted that when selling a license, the supply of materials, components and parts for the production of products is usually provided. Thus, licensed trade turns out to be an effective incentive for selling their own products.
Selling a license can be a way for the selling company to gain access to the know-how and other achievements of the buying company, since agreements usually include a clause for the mutual exchange of improvements that will be made in the product or technology during the term of the licensing contract.
License objects
Invention a technical solution that is novel and significantly different is recognized. A technical solution is broadly understood as a practical means of satisfying a specific need. For example, certain methods of treating diseases do not belong to technology in the generally accepted sense, but since they involve the use of certain therapeutic agents in strictly established doses, for a specific time, in compliance with a certain order, then there is a treatment technique, which in this sense is considered as technical solution.
A task is considered completed if:
a) there is an indication of technical means (methods) to solve it;
b) fundamentally important points are revealed (basic diagram);
c) the solution is feasible, i.e. suitable for use. This means that specialists in the field can implement the invention using generally known techniques and technical means.
A technical solution does not necessarily have to be accompanied by a theoretical justification. It is considered new provided that its essence has not been previously disclosed in a given country or abroad to the extent that its implementation became possible. Disclosure of the solution may occur through either publication, demonstration, or open application. In all these cases, it becomes possible to copy the solution, which entails the loss of its novelty.
A technical solution is recognized as having significant differences if it is characterized by a new set of features that give a positive effect, for example:
a) all signs are new;
b) some of the features are new, and some are known;
c) all the features are known, but their combination is new.
Similar homogeneous inventions are called analogues, and the closest of them to the proposed new technical solution is a prototype. Minor differences in the new technical solution do not allow it to be considered an invention, for example, the use of equivalent means (replacing soldering with welding).
Protection of the inventor's rights is carried out using patents. A patent is a document certifying state recognition of a technical solution as an invention and assigning the exclusive right to the invention to the person to whom it was issued (the patent holder). A patent is issued by the state patent office to the inventor or his successor (the right to a service invention usually belongs to the entrepreneur) upon his application, considered in accordance with the procedure established by the legislation of this state. The duration of the patent is also determined by national legislation (usually 15-20 years). The exclusive right of the patent holder is to grant him a monopoly right to use the invention (artificial monopoly). If an invention is used without the owner's permission, he may sue for damages and an injunction against patent infringement. The patent holder has the right to alienate his rights to the invention and issue permission (license) to others to use the patented invention.
A patent protects the rights of its owner, as a rule, only in the country where it was issued. But recently, for example in Western Europe, a European patent has been in effect.
A patent fee is charged for the issuance of a patent. Thus, when issuing a European patent, it is charged for filing an application, conducting a search, indicating the state in respect of which the application is valid, maintaining the application in force, conducting an examination, issuing a patent, filing an opposition and appeal, for resuming consideration of the application if the applicant misses the established deadlines . A filing fee is common in all developed countries, and many countries also charge annual fees during the life of the patent. In most countries, the annual fee increases as you approach the end of the patent's life.
Typically, firms are not limited to one patent for a given invention, but form a block of patents - an “umbrella” that does not allow competitors to penetrate into the technical area where the company is a pioneer.
In modern conditions of intense competition, when the novelty of a product is essential for its successful marketing, patent protection of innovations is very important along with the natural market advantages that exist due to the application of the invention in production. The owner of a patent limits the freedom of activity of his competitors, so he can gain and maintain more advantageous positions in both the domestic and foreign markets. In addition, the presence of a patent stimulates demand because citing the patent is more effective than simply describing it.
Patents not only serve the function of protecting inventions from being used by other companies, but are also a source of continuous information about the latest scientific and technological achievements. With the help of patent funds, you can legally collect specific material on licensed objects, systematically monitor new inventions and analyze scientific and technical research. Almost all large companies have patent funds or use the services of relevant organizations. According to experts, about 80% of the information contained in patents cannot be found in any other source.
Patenting, as a rule, is 2-3 years ahead of the introduction of new technology into production, and a patent is a potential license, so constant study of relevant information allows firms to develop a strategy and predict the development of licensed trade.
Industrial design(industrial design) recognizes a new artistic and design solution for a product that determines its appearance. With the help of an industrial design, a monopoly is established on the form (ornament) of the products of labor. Patents are issued for industrial designs, as well as for inventions.
Trademark(trademark) is a designation registered in the prescribed manner that serves to distinguish the goods of some enterprises from similar goods of other enterprises. Trademarks usually have a letter or graphic image. Service marks are used to identify services.
Patents for inventions and industrial designs, certificates confirming the registration of trademarks and service marks, protected by the Paris Convention of 1883, relate to industrial property.
Copyright(copyright) applies to any creative work, regardless of the form, purpose and merits of the work (lectures, reports, articles, brochures, books, technical descriptions, operating instructions, illustrations of any kind, drawings, posters, photographs, etc.). This right means that without the consent of the author or his successors, no one can reproduce in any form or in any other way use objects protected by law. Copyright is protected by national laws and internationally by the Berne Convention of 1886 and the Universal Convention of 1952.
Along with patent licenses, there are also non-patent licenses for know-how(a non-patented scientific and technical achievement and production experience of a confidential nature), the owner of which has a natural monopoly, unlike the owner of a patented invention. This term was first used in the USA. Literally translated from English it means know how which is a contraction of the expression know how to do it. Initially, licensing agreements included terms providing for the transfer to the buyer of technical knowledge and experience as trade secrets of the seller necessary to exercise the right to use the invention. However, with the development of technology, the importance of transmitting this information has become so great that know-how has become an independent object of licensing agreements. In some cases, know-how is an actual invention that is deliberately kept secret and is not patented or is an element of the invention not included in the description; in others, it is directly related to the invention, but in itself is not patentable because it does not meet the requirements established legislation. For example, computer software was and remains non-patentable, like any mathematical formulas, algorithms, etc.
Unlike a patented invention, know-how does not enjoy special legal protection, and therefore the best form of protection for such knowledge is a trade secret.
Know-how may include:
· items - product samples, unpatented industrial designs, machines, instruments, spare parts, tools, devices, etc.;
· technical documentation - formulas, calculations, drawings, diagrams, unpatented inventions, etc.;
instructions - explanations regarding the design of production or use of a product, the production process, production skills, practical advice; information about the organization of work and data that helps in solving economic issues.
Thus, the concept of know-how is quite broad, it covers all kinds of technical and other information necessary primarily for the production of any product, and represents a certain economic value.
In international practice, the most common patent licenses are the simultaneous transfer of know-how and the provision of technical assistance in setting up production. The second place is occupied by licenses for know-how, and only the third place is occupied by purely patent licenses that do not provide for the transfer of know-how. This is explained, in particular, by the fact that at the current level of technological development, the development of most inventions without the provision of know-how, i.e. The experience and knowledge that the selling company has is either completely impossible or leads to unproductive expenditure of time and money, therefore know-how is the main object of not only licenses, but also other forms of technology transfer.
When concluding agreements on know-how, patent protection does not apply, therefore, in this type of licensing agreements, conditions on non-disclosure of know-how both during the validity period of the license agreement and after its expiration are of particular importance. In this regard, sometimes the agreement even stipulates the procedure for familiarizing the licensee’s employees with the know-how.
The most typical terms of licensing agreements that limit the licensee’s use of know-how are:
do not transfer acquired knowledge and experience to a third party during the term of the agreement and on average up to 5 years after the end of this period;
do not provide sublicenses for know-how, as this may entail its loss.
Related information.
Plan.
1. "Technology" as an object of international trade.
2. Channels and forms of technology transfer.
International licensing agreements.
Terms and concepts.
International technology exchange, commercialization of ideas, know-how, embodied technologies, patent, leasing, engineering, consulting, technical piracy.
Summary.
In international economics, the concept "technology" is interpreted as a body of scientific and technical knowledge that can be used in the production of goods and services.
The concept of “technology” includes:
1. Technology itself, understood as a set of design solutions, methods and processes for the production of goods and the provision of services.
2. Material technology embodied in machines, equipment, etc.
According to UNCTAD experts, international technology exchange refers to transactions based on “Agreements between parties, regardless of their legal form, which have as their goal or one of their legal purposes the assignment of a license or the transfer of their rights to industrial property, sale or any other type of transfer technical services".
Not every technology becomes a commodity. Technology becomes a commodity that can be sold only under certain conditions - if it approaches becoming a commodity at a certain stage of the “idea-market” movement, namely when the real possibility of commercializing the idea is realized, examination, screening, identification possible areas of use. But even in this case, the product-technology must have a marketable appearance, i.e. meet standard product requirements. In this form, technology as a commodity can take the form of patents, production experience, know-how, experimental or industrial samples of equipment, equipment, other equipment, as well as technology in the narrow sense - as methods of producing technological processes and secrets.
Having acquired a marketable form, the technology becomes the subject of transfer. A technology product goes through a certain life cycle from its appearance to its disappearance.
The economic feasibility of exporting technology is that it is:
1. A means of increasing income. If there are no conditions for implementing a new technology in the form of production and marketing of a particular product, the technology should at least be implemented as an independent product.
2. A form of struggle for the product market. Buyers abroad will already be familiar with the product, which was previously produced under license.
3. Ways to circumvent the problems of exporting goods in material form (transportation, sales, customs barriers).
4. A means of expanding commodity exports.
5. Method of establishing control over a foreign company.
6. A way to provide access to another innovation.
7. Possibility of more effective improvement of licensed objects.
The economic feasibility of importing technology is that it exists:
1. Access to high-tech innovations.
2. A means of saving R&D costs, including time.
3. A means of reducing the cost of commodity imports.
4. The condition for expanding the export of products manufactured using foreign technologies.
This determined the emergence and intensive development of the global technology market, which has a unique structure and characteristics.
The heterogeneity of the global technology market has led to the formation of such segments as:
Patent and license market;
Market of high-tech technological products;
High-tech capital market;
Market of scientific and technical specialists;
The global technology market has a number of features. This is one of the most rapidly developing global markets in recent decades. . The global technology market is better developed than the national one and has a two-level structure:
High technologies circulate mainly between industrialized countries;
Medium and low technologies may be new to the market of developing and transforming countries and the subject of technological exchange between them and within these groups of countries.
The global high-tech market is characterized by a uniquely high concentration of resources in a small number of developed countries.
40% belongs to the USA, 30% to Japan, 13% to Germany. The main competitors in the global high-tech market are the USA and Japan. The degree of monopolization of the global technology market is much higher than that of the global goods market.
There are the following main ways of technology transfer:
1.On a non-commercial basis:
Information arrays of specialized literature, computer data banks, reference books, business games, etc.;
Conferences, symposiums, seminars, clubs;
Foreign study, internship, practice of students, scientists and specialists, carried out on a parity basis by universities, enterprises, organizations;
Cross licensing;
Activities of international organizations for cooperation in the field of science and technology;
International migration of scientists and specialists, including “brain drain”.
2. On a commercial basis:
Sale of embodied technologies;
Direct foreign investments and accompanying construction, reconstruction and modernization of enterprises, firms, and production facilities;
Sale of patent and know-how licenses;
Joint R&D through the creation of joint teams, work of specialists abroad;
Coordination and cooperation of R&D;
Providing technical assistance;
Export of complex equipment;
Engineering;
Consulting;
Portfolio investments, including the creation of joint ventures, if they are accompanied by a flow of investment goods;
Scientific, technical and industrial cooperation.
In addition to the two main ways of technology transfer, there are also illegal technology transfer in the form of industrial espionage and technical piracy - mass production and sale of imitation goods by shadow structures.
The result of the international license exchange is the provision licenses– permission to use an invention, scientific and technical achievement, technical knowledge and production experience, production secrets, commercial or other information necessary for organizing production.
A license is a form of technology transfer. There are such forms of technology transfer as franchising- permission to use a well-known brand name.
Leasing– a financial and commercial transaction where one party provides the other party with the exclusive use of property for a specified period of time for a certain remuneration on the basis of a lease agreement.
International engineering– as a form of exchange of scientific and technical knowledge. One party provides the other party with a range of engineering and technical services.
Non-contractual forms of technology transfer: corporate forms - purchase or sale of a company, creation of a joint venture, open sale of shares.
Contractual methods of technology transfer: agreements, licenses, franchising, engineering.
All forms of technological exchange do not exist on their own, but are conditioned by the content of technology and reflect the dialectical process of its origin, flourishing, aging and replacement with a new one, the technological backwardness of its owners.
Almost all technology transfer in the commercial sphere is formalized or accompanied license agreement– an agreement under which the licensor (seller, owner of a patent or trademark, know-how) grants the licensee (buyer) permission or the right to use the subject of the license for a certain fee for a certain period.
The license agreement contains the following standard sections:
Preamble (information about the parties).
Definitions (description of concepts and terminology).
