1. The role of natural science in the development of society. Science, technology, humanization
Modern science arose in Europe during the 15th-17th centuries. during the development of the capitalist mode of production. Science is a form of human spiritual activity to obtain new knowledge about nature, society and knowledge itself. Science is divided into many branches of knowledge (private sciences), which differ among themselves in what side of reality.
According to the subject and method of knowledge, one can single out the sciences of nature - natural science, and society - social science (humanities, social sciences), knowledge, thinking (logic, epistemology, etc.). A separate group is made up of technical sciences. In turn, each group of sciences can be subjected to a more detailed division. Thus, the natural sciences include mechanics, physics, chemistry, biology, etc., each of which is subdivided into scientific disciplines - physical chemistry, molecular chemistry, etc. There may be other criteria for classifying the sciences. So, according to their remoteness from practice, sciences can be divided into two large types: fundamental, where there is no direct orientation to practice, and applied - directly solving practical problems.
With the development of the new science, the need arose for a deeper division of it into special disciplines, for a more thorough and in-depth study of individual phenomena and processes in a certain area of reality. The natural sciences, which received their citizenship in the 18th century, are the totality of all the sciences involved in the study of nature. The main spheres of the natural sciences are matter, life, man, the Earth, the Universe.
The interaction of natural science and society has always been difficult. At first, science was seen as a means of conquering nature. The use of the achievements of science changed society itself and its life, especially its economy. But since the second half of the 20th century. In connection with the threat of nuclear and biological war, a negative attitude towards science appeared.
Science, including natural science, becomes the basis for practical activity for society. Over time, it becomes the productive force of society. The development of technology depends on the development of science - tools, craftsmanship, skills. Modern society is characterized by an ever stronger connection between science, technology and production.
At present, the humanistic aspect of science is becoming increasingly important, a special discipline is emerging - the ethics of science. In the context of scientific and technological progress, moral assessments of scientific discoveries are especially relevant - is it possible to interfere in the human genetic structure, improve biotechnology, and even design new forms of life?
2. The main stages in the development of natural science. Revolution in science
Science is a product of the development of the thought of the ancient Greeks. Science in ancient Greek culture was a holistic science. The rudiments of thinking, going in terms of private sciences, appeared under the influence of Aristotle and his school, such great doctors as Hippocrates, Galen. But this did not violate the integrity of science and the picture of the world. In the era of the Christian Middle Ages, science was also developed as a harmonious whole. It was only at the end of the Middle Ages that the concept of "science" was replaced by the concept of "natural science." This new science began its triumphant march from the Renaissance, when the possibility of a mathematical description of the results obtained experimentally was recognized. This new form became so important that Kant judged the particular sciences according to the extent to which they applied mathematics. Under the influence of experimental mathematical science, the outlook of the European changed radically and its influence on the spiritual life of the rest of the world increased. In particular, it increased due to the laying of a rigorous, strictly scientific foundation for the technique that arose from medicine, which until then had been based exclusively on handicraft experience.
The differentiation of scientific knowledge was a necessary stage in the development of science. The particular sciences were classified in terms of their subject matter or method. As a result, to some extent, the understanding of the true goal of the science of the world as a whole, and of reality as a whole, was lost.
The revolution in science is a revolution. The development of science has long been a gradual, continuous accumulation of knowledge, but development is not limited to a simple accumulation of knowledge. The most radical changes in science are associated with scientific revolutions, which are accompanied by a revision, refinement and criticism of previous ideas, programs and methods, i.e. everything that is called the paradigm of science. In recent decades, a cardinal revolution has begun, fundamentally changing the relationship between the human world and the natural world. In Marxist terminology, it is a "scientific and technological revolution", according to Toffler's civilizational typology, it is a "socio-technical revolution". Sometimes it is called the information-computer revolution. The basis of this revolution is the creation and deployment of electronic-computer and biotechnological technologies. Its result may be a new information civilization.
3. Fundamental unity of the natural sciences. Observation, experiment, theory
If the world around us is one and forms a single and integral formation, then knowledge about it has a fundamental unity. And although science is divided into disciplines, there are fundamental laws that reflect the unity and integrity of nature, the laws that make up the fundamental unity of the natural sciences.
Observation is the initial source of information, but observations are based on a theory, an idea.
Experiment is the most important method of empirical research for observing processes under conditions that are least affected by extraneous factors. Measurements are the complement of any experiment.
At the theoretical stage, hypotheses and theories are built, and the laws of science are discovered. The hypothesis is then tested by experiment. If the results of the experiment do not agree with the hypothesis, then the hypothesis itself is refuted. But this may be a hasty conclusion, various experiments are being carried out and their reliability depends on the level of development of science and technology.
The unity of the natural sciences is also confirmed by interdisciplinary research methods, such as the systematic method. Although the systems found in nature have a different structure and different characteristics, but they are all self-organizing systems, and it is impossible to oppose living and non-living systems, new results shed light on the problem of the emergence of living things from non-living things.
4. Division of natural science into scientific disciplines. Structural levels of matter organization. Micro, macro, mega world. Their main characteristics
At the end of the Middle Ages, the concept of "natural science" arose. This new science began its triumphant march from the Renaissance, when the possibility of a mathematical description of the results obtained experimentally was recognized.
With the development of the new science, the need arose for a deeper division of it into special disciplines, for a more thorough and in-depth study of individual phenomena and processes in a certain area of reality. The natural sciences, which received their citizenship in the 18th century, are the totality of all the sciences involved in the study of nature. The main areas of the natural sciences - matter, life, man, the Earth, the Universe - made it possible to group them as follows:
1. physics, chemistry, physical chemistry
2. biology, botany, zoology
3. anatomy, physiology, the doctrine of origin and development, the doctrine of heredity
4. geology, mineralogy, paleontology, meteorology, geography
5. astronomy together with astrophysics and astrochemistry.
Mathematics, according to a number of natural philosophers, does not belong to the natural sciences, but is a decisive tool for their thinking.
Publishing and Trade Corporation "Dashkov and Co"
M. K. Guseykhanov, O. R. Radjabov
Concepts of modern natural science
Sixth edition, revised and enlarged
Ministry of Education and Science
Russian Federation as a textbook
For university students
Moscow, 2007
UDC 001 BBK 20 G96
Reviewers:
A. D. Gladun- Chairman of the Expert Council on General Natural Sciences of the Ministry of Education of the Russian Federation, Doctor of Physical and Mathematical Sciences, Professor at Moscow Institute of Physics and Technology;
L. V. Koroleva- Doctor of Physical and Mathematical Sciences, Professor of Moscow State Pedagogical University;
O. P. Melekhova- Member of the Expert Council of the Ministry of Education of the Russian Federation, Candidate of Biological Sciences, Senior Researcher;
G. K. Safaraliev- Deputy Chairman of the Committee on Science and Education of the State Duma of the Russian Federation, Doctor of Physical and Mathematical Sciences, Professor of DSU.
Huseykhanov M. K., Radjabov O. R. Concepts of modern natural science: Textbook. - 6th ed., revised. and additional - M.: Publishing and Trade Corporation "Dashkov and Co", 2007. - 540 p.
ISBN 978-5-91131-306-7
The textbook discusses the most important concepts of modern natural science: the stages of development of the natural-scientific picture of the world, modern ideas about the structure and development of nature - micro-, macro- and mega-worlds; evolution of ideas about space, time and matter; principles of relativity and complementarity; uncertainty ratio; conservation laws in the micro- and macroworld; the nature of elementary particles, energy and matter; concepts of the origin of the evolution of living nature and man; biosphere and ecology; specificity of modern natural science; synergy; self-organization in various systems, problems of modern natural science; worldview and scientific and technological revolution.
The textbook has been prepared in accordance with the State Standard of Higher Professional Education and is intended for university students studying the concepts of modern natural science, teachers, graduate students and young students interested in worldview and theoretical-cognitive problems of natural science and philosophy.
UDC 001 BBK 20
ISBN 978-5-91131-306-7
© M. K. Huseykhanov, O. R. Radjabov, 2006
OCR: Ikhtik (Ufa)
Ihtik.lib.ru
Introduction 9
Chapter 1. NATURAL SCIENCE AS A SINGLE SCIENCE
ABOUT NATURE 13
Natural-scientific and humanitarian cultures. 13
The place of science in the system of culture and its structure 14
Characteristics of Science 18
Natural science - fundamental science 21
Chapter 2. CHARACTERISTICS OF NATURAL SCIENTIFIC KNOWLEDGE 26
Structure of scientific knowledge 26
Basic methods of scientific research 29
Dynamics of the development of science. Compliance Principle 36
Chapter 3. MOST IMPORTANT STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT
NATURAL SCIENCE 41
The system of the world of ancient philosophers 41
Geocentric and heliocentric systems of world structure 49
Mechanistic and electromagnetic pictures of the world 55
Modern natural-scientific picture of the world 60
Chapter 4. THE CONCEPT OF RELATIVITY
SPACE AND TIME 69
The concept of space and time 69
Time measurement 73
Space and time in special relativity 76
General relativity about space
and time 86
Chapter 5. STRUCTURE OF THE MATERIAL WORLD 94
Structural structure of the material world 94
Brief description of the microworld 95
Brief description of the macro world 100
Brief description of mega world 106
Chapter 6. INTERACTIONS AND MOVEMENT
STRUCTURES OF THE WORLD 113
Four types of interactions and their characteristics 113
Short-range and long-range concepts 116
Substance, field, vacuum. Superposition principle 117
Fundamental constants of the universe 119
Anthropic cosmological principle 123
The nature of the movement of the structures of the world 126
Chapter 7
MICROWORLD 133
Elementary particles 133
Corpuscular-wave nature of micro-objects 142
Complementarity concept 148
The probabilistic nature of the laws of the microworld. The concepts of uncertainty and causality 150
7.5. The electron shell of the atom 153
Chapter 8. CONCEPTS OF SUBSTANCE AND ENERGY .162
8.1. The variety of forms of matter 162
Matter and its states 164
Energy and its manifestations in nature 167
Laws of conservation in nature 182
Conservation laws and symmetry principles 189
Chapter 9. COMPOSITION, STRUCTURE
AND INTERCONVERSIONS OF SUBSTANCES 197
Conceptual levels in the knowledge of substances 197
Composition of matter and chemical systems 201
The structure of matter and its properties 209
Chemical processes 213
Evolution of chemical systems and perspectives of chemistry 217
Chapter 10 222
Distances and sizes in megaworld 222
Earth as a planet and natural body 230
Composition and structure of the solar system 243
Sun, stars and interstellar medium 253
Galaxies 259
Chapter 11
REGULARITIES OF NATURE 269
Determinism of natural processes 269
Thermodynamics and the concept of irreversibility 273
The problem of "heat death of the Universe" 279
Chapter 12. ORIGIN AND EVOLUTION
UNIVERSE 286
The Big Bang and the Expanding Universe 286
The initial stage of the Universe 292
Cosmological models of the Universe 297
Chapter 13. ORIGIN AND EVOLUTION
HEAVENLY BODIES, EARTH 301
Origin and evolution of galaxies and stars 301
Origin of the planets of the solar system 307
Origin and evolution of the Earth 317
Space and Earth 330
Chapter 14. CONCEPTS OF THE ORIGIN OF LIFE.. .343
Concepts of the origin of life on Earth 343
Classification of levels of biological structures
and organization of living systems 357
Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology 363
Problems of the origin of life in the Universe 367
Chapter 15. EVOLUTION OF LIVING NATURE 374
Evidence for the evolution of living things 374
Ways and causes of the evolution of the living 378
Darwin's evolutionary theory 381
Modern Theory of Organic Evolution 384
Synthetic theory of evolution 387
Other concepts of the evolution of the living. 389
Chapter 16. CONCEPT OF ORIGIN
AND HUMAN EVOLUTION 397
Man as a subject of natural scientific knowledge... 397
Similarities and differences between humans and animals 399
The concept of the appearance of man on Earth. Anthropology 402
The evolution of human culture. Sociobiology 410
Problems of the search for extraterrestrial civilizations 415
The problem of communication with extraterrestrial civilizations 420
Chapter 17 425
Human Physiology 425
Emotions and Creativity 432
Health and performance 435
Questions of Biomedical Ethics 440
Chapter 18 448
Biosphere 448
Ecology 453
Modern problems of ecology 456
Noosphere, 460
Demographic problem 467
Chapter 19
NATURAL SCIENCE 474
Systematic research method 474
Cybernetics - the science of complex systems 479
Methods of mathematical modeling 481
Mathematical modeling in ecology 484
Chapter 20. SELF-ORGANIZATION IN NATURE 491
Self-organization paradigm 491
Synergetics 493
Peculiarities of evolution of non-equilibrium systems 495
Self-organization - the source and basis of evolution 498
Self-organization in various types of evolution 503
Chapter 21. MODERN NATURAL SCIENCE
AND THE FUTURE OF SCIENCE 508
Features of the current stage of development of science 508
Natural science and worldview 511
Natural science and philosophy 514
Natural science and scientific and technological revolution 516
General laws of modern natural science 524
Modern natural-scientific picture of the world
and Man 526
21.7. Features in the development of modern science 529
Literature 535
We dedicate this book to the blessed memory of our parents and teachers.
Introduction
Is the mortal able to comprehend the harmony of the world, Whose coming and going is incomprehensible to him?
Ibn Sina (Avicenna)
State educational standards of higher professional education of the Russian Federation require students of humanitarian and socio-economic specialties to master the training course in the discipline "Concepts of modern natural science". The inclusion of this discipline in the program of humanitarian faculties of universities is due to the need to familiarize students with an integral element of a single culture - natural science - and the formation of a holistic view of the world around them. This course is designed to promote the acquisition of a broad basic higher education, to promote the comprehensive development of the individual. The training course reflects the main complex of concepts of modern natural science, gives a panorama of the most famous methods and laws of modern science, demonstrates the specifics of the rational method of cognition of the surrounding world. This is all the more necessary, since now the rational natural-scientific method is increasingly penetrating the humanitarian environment, forming a holistic scientific knowledge of society. Science is acquiring an increasingly universal language, adequate to philosophy, psychology, the social sciences, and even art. The trend that has arisen today towards a harmonious synthesis of two traditionally different cultures, humanitarian and natural sciences, is consonant with the needs of society in a holistic worldview and emphasizes the relevance of this discipline.
Those directions and problems that determine the face of modern natural science and the scientific approach to culture are offered for study. One of the objectives of the course is the formation of ideas about the picture of the world as the basis of the integrity and diversity of nature. Therefore, the most important concepts of modern natural science are introduced into the program: ideas about space, time and matter; conservation laws in the world; concepts of the origin and evolution of the Universe, life and man; biosphere and ecology; specifics of self-organization, system research methods, etc.
It is well known that people strive to find common ground in the diversity of things and natural phenomena surrounding them. This desire was embodied in the idea of the unity of the world. A holistic reflection of the unity of the world is the result of a synthesis of data from the natural sciences: physics, astronomy, chemistry, biology, etc.
Historically, the worldview has developed from a complex of primitive empirical knowledge, mythological, religious ideas to a philosophical and theoretical worldview, and, often in the teachings of thinkers, religious and rational components of knowledge were intertwined. The introduction of rational ideas raised the worldview to a qualitatively new level, but did not in itself remove the question of an unscientific reflection of reality, of the presence of an irrational element in this worldview.
The desire for the unity of the diverse received one of its incarnations in the scientific conjectures of the thinkers of the Ancient East, ancient Greece and Rome. It should be emphasized that these conjectures, and then hypotheses, represented the unity of the natural-scientific and philosophical approaches to the analysis of reality.
The idea of the Universe as a single whole, the laws of functioning of which are accessible to human knowledge and understanding, has played and continues to play a constructive role in the formation of a scientific picture of the world. Indeed, it is this idea that is the cornerstone of the worldview and methodological foundation of modern science. "Basic
of all our scientific work", "the strongest and noblest of the springs of scientific research," Einstein called the belief in the rational (lawful) structure of the Universe. "Without faith in the inner harmony of our world," he emphasized, "there could be no science."
The formation of the modern natural-scientific picture of the world is a historical, revolutionary or evolutionary change of some scientific views by others.
The history of human cognition is the history of the emergence, development and replacement of some scientific pictures of the world by others, which arise in the depths of the previous ones and in the process of evolution approach the objective scientific picture of the world. The main forms of generalization of facts in the system of the world, which ensure its evolutionary development, are: 1) explanation of the facts within the framework of the existing system of the world; 2) explanation of facts by introducing additional concepts, new ways of formalization or by introducing restrictions on the principles of the theory. Thus, the scientific revolution acts as an extended in time, integral, regular and periodically repeating stage in the development of scientific knowledge, which is characterized by the abrupt formation of a new fundamental scientific theory or scientific system of the world.
The modern scientific picture of the world is a picture of the evolving Universe. The evolution of the Universe includes the evolution of matter, its structure, as well as the evolution of living and social society. The evolution of matter was accompanied by a decrease in its temperature, density, and the formation of chemical elements. The evolution of the structure is associated with the emergence of superclusters of galaxies, the separation and formation of stars and galaxies, the formation of planets and their satellites.
Thus, the Universe appears before us as a process of evolution of matter, infinitely unfolding in time and space. In this process, the most diverse objects and phenomena of the microcosm and the megaworld turn out to be interconnected. It turned out that in all eras, scientific thought is characterized by
iterized with the complementarity of the macroscopic and microscopic aspects.
For a student of the humanities, it is especially important to understand the problems of social life in their connection with the basic concepts and laws of natural science. At the same time, the key stages in the development of natural science show how the dialogue between science and society proceeded in different historical periods, demonstrating continuity and continuity in the study of nature.
This discipline is not a mechanical combination of traditional courses in physics, chemistry, biology, ecology and others, but is a product of interdisciplinary synthesis based on a comprehensive historical-philosophical, cultural and evolutionary-synergetic approaches to modern natural science, so its effective development is possible based on the application of a new a paradigm that can combine the natural science and humanitarian components of culture, and an awareness of the universal role of a metalanguage that synthesizes the fundamental laws of natural science, philosophy and synergetics.
The one who has studied it must clearly imagine the true unity and integrity of nature, that single foundation on which the countless variety of objects and phenomena of the world around us is built and from which the basic laws that link the micro-, macro- and mega-worlds, Earth and Space, physical and chemical phenomena among themselves and with life, with reason.
Federal Agency for Education
State educational institution
Higher professional education
Moscow State University
Instrumentation and informatics
E.A. Kolomiytseva
CONCEPTS OF MODERN NATURAL SCIENCE
Short course of lectures
Reviewers:
Ph.D., prof. Figurovsky E.N., Ph.D., Assoc. Shpichenetsky B.Ya.
E.A. Kolomiytseva. CONCEPTS OF MODERN NATURAL SCIENCE.
A short course of lectures. M., 2006, 80 p.
The textbook is intended for MGUPI students studying the discipline "Concepts of modern natural science"
MGUPI, 2006
Introduction............................................................................................................................ | 4 |
Lecture 1. Subject and methods of natural science……………………………………………… | 4 |
Lecture 2. Practical methods of physical research. Physical quantities and measurements………………………………………………………………………………….. | 7 |
Lecture 3. Macroworld. Movement in classical mechanics…………………………….. | 9 |
Lecture 4. Forces in nature. Fundamental interactions……………………….. | 13 |
Lecture 5. Measures of motion - momentum and energy. Conservation laws and symmetry of space-time…………………………………………………………………… | 15 |
Lecture 6. Physical fields. Concepts of short range and long range…………. | 18 |
Lecture 7. Megaworld. Elements of private theory of relativity. Relativistic concept………………………………………………………………………………….. | 19 |
Lecture 8. Problems of space and time…………………………………………... | 21 |
Lecture 9. Wave processes……………………………………………………………. | 25 |
Lecture 10. Laws of the microworld. Corpuscular-wave dualism of matter. The principle of complementarity and problems of causality………………………………... | 29 |
Lecture 11. Elementary particles. Quarks…………………………………………….. | 32 |
Lecture 12. Radioactivity………………………………………………………………… | 34 |
Lecture 13. Dynamic and statistical patterns…………………………. | 36 |
Lecture 14. Energy in thermodynamic processes………………………………….. | 39 |
Lecture 15. Order and disorder in nature. Phase transitions. Entropy. The second law of thermodynamics and the "arrow of time"……………………………………………….. | 41 |
Lecture 16. Synergetics. The ratio of order and chaos in open non-equilibrium systems……………………………………………………………………………………. | 44 |
Lecture 17. Origin and evolution of the Universe……………………………………. | 47 |
Lecture 18. Planet Earth………………………………………………………………… | 53 |
Lecture 19. Elements of chemistry………………………………………………………………… | 57 |
Lecture 20. Water and hypotheses about the origin of life on Earth. Self-organization in living nature…………………………………………………………………………….. | 60 |
Lecture 21. Biosphere and environmental problems. The concept of the noosphere…………………….. | 63 |
Lecture 22. Molecular basis of life. DNA and information……………………….. | 67 |
Lecture 23. The phenomenon of man………………………………………………………………. | 70 |
Lecture 24. Theory of evolution in biology. Principles of universal evolutionism. The path to a single culture .................................................................. ............................... | 74 |
Exam Preparation Questions…………………………………………………….. | 77 |
Tasks for independent solution…………………………………………………. | 79 |
80 |
Introduction
The discipline "Concepts of modern natural science" is included in the state educational standard for the humanities and social sciences. The purpose of this course is to familiarize students with modern ideas about nature and the place of man in it. It is no secret that many of them have a bias towards purely humanitarian knowledge. Meanwhile, a modern specialist needs a broad outlook. Perhaps the most tempting prospect would be to show students the life of a person in its unity with nature, the integrity and uniqueness of the environment, to make them feel the beauty and power of human thought, which is able to cover the whole world from the Universe to an elementary particle, to develop a taste for obtaining knowledge, to encourage reading popular science literature and self-education. Ultimately, this is a necessary condition for the formation of a harmonious personality.
Lecture 1.
The subject and methods of natural science
1. The subject of natural science. Natural science and humanitarian culture.
natural science is a complex of knowledge about nature, which constitutes one of the most important parts of human culture.
Culture is a broad, multifaceted concept that can be defined in many ways. There are a large number of different definitions of culture (about 170), of which we will give one that quite satisfactorily reflects its most important features:
Culture is a system of means of human activity, thanks to which the activity of an individual, groups, and all mankind is planned, carried out, and stimulated in their interaction with nature and among themselves.
Thus, culture as a whole can be divided into three main branches:
culture material(tools, dwellings, clothing, transport) - the entire sphere of material activity and its results;
culture social- the basic rules of behavior in society;
culture spiritual(knowledge, education, morality, law, worldview, science, art).
Accordingly, the knowledge of mankind can be divided into
system of knowledge about nature - natural sciences and
a system of knowledge about the positively significant values of the existence of an individual, groups, states, humanity as a whole - the humanities.
Each of these sections of human knowledge has its own specifics:
Natural science knowledge is deeply specialized, it is constantly being improved, distinguished by objectivity, reliability, and is of great importance for the existence of man and society.
Humanitarian knowledge is activated based on the individual's belonging to a particular social group. They are characterized by subjectivity, i.e. allow the possibility of interpretations, idealizations that contradict the real properties of objects.
Nevertheless, natural science and humanitarian knowledge are interconnected, being independent parts of a single system of knowledge of science:
they are based on a single basis: the needs and interests of man and mankind in creating optimal conditions for self-preservation and improvement of one's life;
between them there is an interchange of achieved results.
2. Science and the scientific method.
The science- a term denoting generalized and systematized knowledge in any field.
Since ancient times, people have tried understand the essence of the observed natural phenomena and their regularities. Moreover, the first motive for this was practical interest - the possibility use received knowledge. So initially two aspects of natural science coexisted - cognitive and applied. In modern science, both of these aspects are also present.
Knowledge of the laws of nature and the creation of a picture of the world on this basis is the immediate, closest goal natural sciences. The ultimate goal is to promote the practical use of these laws. The prospect of practical application of this or that discovery is not always obvious from the very beginning, the theory, as a rule, develops with some advance.
So, in the system of natural science, we have identified two levels - the theoretical level and the practical (experimental) level.
The techniques used in the theoretical and practical assimilation of reality constitute the scientific method. Thus, science answers the question: "What is reality?", and the scientific method indicates how to deal with this reality.
scientific methods are different level:
United (universal): dialectical, metaphysical;
General scientific (used in all sciences): practical (empirical) - observation, description, measurement, experiment, and theoretical - comparison, analogy, analysis and synthesis, idealization, generalization, ascent from the abstract to the concrete, induction and deduction;
Special-scientific (used in specific disciplines).
A feature of modern natural science is its constructive orientation, i.e. reality is not only studied, but also designed with specific goals. This is expressed in the widespread use of methods of mathematical modeling of processes and phenomena with the help of computers.
The initial stage of the study is, as a rule, practice; it also serves as the final criterion for the truth (adequacy) of any theory, as well as the purpose of the study.
3. Historical aspects of the development of natural science.
The process of formation of natural science was not uniform. The development of scientific thought can be broadly divided into stages. At each stage, a certain style of thinking dominated, which was based on the achievements of science that were available at that time. Thus, the range of tasks to be researched and the research methodology were set. Such generally recognized scientific achievements and the dominant style of scientific thinking are called paradigm. A change, often a radical breakdown of the existing paradigm, means a transition to the next stage in the development of natural science and is called scientific and technological revolution.
First step, which flourished in the ancient period, is characterized by the predominance of purely speculative reasoning about the nature of things and phenomena. Natural science at this stage is not yet separated from philosophy, and in fact they constitute one science, natural philosophy, which reflects the ideas of the ancients about the world as a whole. Despite the amazing insights of Democritus, Archimedes, and others, natural philosophy cannot yet be considered a science in the modern sense.
First scientific and technological revolution many historians of science associate with the activities of Aristotle. It was then that science began to differ from other forms of knowledge of the world. The idea of the sphericity of the Earth was expressed, a geocentric model of the world was built.
Aristotle's ideas determined the state of science until the Renaissance.
Second scientific and technological revolution associated with the introduction into scientific practice of the experiment as a way to test hypotheses. During this period, the accumulation of factual material and its generalization took place, natural science acquired a form more familiar to us. In the works of modern scientists - Galileo, Kepler, Newton - the foundations of classical science were laid.
Second phase The development of natural science lasted until the end of the nineteenth century, this is the time of the full flowering of classical science. The law of conservation and transformation of energy has been established. optics, electrodynamics, thermodynamics, theoretical mechanics was built (Hamilton, Lagrange, Maxwell, Fresnel, Boltzmann). In chemistry, a strict concept of an element was established (Lavoisier), chemical reactions and compounds were studied, Mendeleev's periodic law was discovered, and structural chemistry arose (Butlerov). In biology, the most important ideas about the evolution of all living things win (Lamarck, Darwin); the cell was discovered (Schleiden and Schwann) and the material carrier of heredity - the gene (Mendel).
Thus, the conditions were prepared for a new scientific and technological revolution, which captured the entire twentieth century and continues to this day.
For third scientific and technological revolution characteristic:
Close interaction of various fields of science, development of interdisciplinary links. The vast majority of discoveries occur at the intersection of sciences.
Transition from classical ideas to non-classical ones: creation of general and special relativity theory, quantum field theory (quantum mechanics).
Study of the most complex non-equilibrium nonlinear processes occurring in complex systems. It turns out that these processes, which lead to the self-organization of the system, to the emergence of new structures, proceed similarly in various areas of natural science. This allows us to consider such disciplines as physics, cosmology, geology, chemistry, biology, and even traditionally humanitarian disciplines such as history, ethnology, sociology, and economics from a unified standpoint. This approach has been called synergy. This is the most promising area of modern natural science.
The rapid development of information technologies, which make it possible to carry out a huge amount of calculations at high speed and to explore the most complex processes. Information becomes on a par with matter.
At the forefront of modern natural science is a person, his interests and goals. Science becomes ethical.
4. The main sections of modern natural science.
Currently, there are about 15 thousand scientific disciplines in the world, and their number is constantly growing. It is believed that for every 10-15 years the amount of scientific information doubles. There are a large number of interdisciplinary sciences.
Of course, it is practically impossible to classify all natural sciences. You can only build chains, guided by some principle. For example, according to the complexity of the object under study: physics chemistry (inorganic, organic) biology medicine. By the scale of the object under study: astronomy (in particular, astrophysics) geology (including the geology of individual planets) geography ecology biology. According to the method used: logic mathematics physics. As you can see, the key science in each of these chains is physics. It is this science that studies the most fundamental, fundamental laws of nature. Therefore, knowledge of basic physical concepts and laws is a mandatory component of any education.
5. Structural levels of matter organization.
At the heart of modern ideas about the structure of the material world lies systems approach. Any object or phenomenon, in accordance with this approach, is considered as a complex formation, which includes components organized in integrity. We give definitions of the most important concepts:
System- a set of elements and relationships between them;
Connections- the relationship between the elements of the system. Ties make up structure systems. They can be horizontal (coordination between elements of the same order) and vertical (reflecting subordination, i.e. subordination, of elements of different order). The set of horizontal links forms the levels of organization of the system, the set of vertical links reflects their hierarchy.
All the matter of the Universe is also a colossal, most complex system. Can be distinguished three levels of the structure of matter:
When studying the subject "Concepts of modern natural science", we, as in any science, must move from the simplest ideas and concepts to more complex ones. The most simple and familiar to us are those phenomena that we encounter in everyday life and observe directly. All of them are described within the framework of classical ideas, which should be remembered at the beginning of the course.
Lecture 2.
Practical methods of physical research. Physical quantities and measurements.
The initial interaction of a person (researcher) with an object or phenomenon takes place directly in practice. Here there is an accumulation and systematization of facts, their description. All this - practical, or empirical, the level of knowledge. It includes observation, measurement, experiment. Only on the basis of the received data is built hypothesis and there is a rise to a higher, theoretical level of knowledge.
Observations.
Observation has been the main way to obtain information about the surrounding world and the phenomena that occur in it since ancient times. Observation can be carried out both with the help of our natural senses: sight, hearing, smell, touch and even taste. However, all these feelings are developed in different people to varying degrees, so such observations are rather imperfect. Any conclusions drawn from such observations will be highly subjective.
There is a huge number of phenomena that are generally inaccessible to direct human perception. For example, we do not see electromagnetic waves whose frequencies lie outside the optical range, we do not perceive ultrasound, we are not able to look into the microworld.
For a more objective, deep and versatile study of reality, the human body needs to be "helped" - the use of instruments is required. However, the device-object system is no longer the same as the original object.
Measurements and measuring instruments.
Observation becomes part of scientific research if certain comparisons and conclusions are made on the basis of this observation. In order to compare any properties of material objects, it is required to give these properties quantitative characteristics. Moreover, in quantum mechanics, it is believed that only those objects that can be measured really exist: “The fundamentally immeasurable is physically unreal” (Bohr, Heisenberg). The procedure for obtaining quantitative information about the object of study is called measurement. The instrument used to measure is called instrument. The theory of measurement deals with a special science - metrology. The simplest way to measure ( straight) lies in the fact that the object under study is compared with standard taken as a unit. The most famous standard is a platinum-iridium rod 1 meter long, stored in Paris, in the Chamber of Weights and Measures. The inconvenience of such measurements associated with the storage and reproduction of copies of the standard is obvious. At present (since 1983) it has been decided to consider 1 meter as the distance traveled by light in a vacuum in a time of 1/299792458 seconds.
To measure time, you also need a standard. It is currently believed that 1 second is the time during which there are 9192631830 periods of oscillations of the radiation emitted by the cesium isotope
.
Note that to measure the quantities describing the phenomena of the macrocosm, the phenomena of the microcosm and the megaworld are involved.
In accordance with the latest agreements, the reference length of 1 meter is not measured directly, but is calculated by the formula 
, where from is the speed of light in vacuum. This measurement is called indirect. The vast majority of physical measurements are indirect. Indirect measurements can also include the method extrapolation, which is based on the assumption that in the area where no measurements were made, the behavior of the system remains the same. Extrapolation is not always confirmed by experiment.
physical dimensions. International SI system.
When measuring, the researcher obtains quantitative characteristics of any property of a given object. Each quantity has its own physical meaning and its own unit of measurement - the dimension. Values of different dimensions cannot be compared, added or subtracted from each other, because they describe different properties of objects.
The units of measurement proved to be conveniently agreed between all countries. This was primarily due to economic interests. Currently, the world community has adopted a single metric system of measures, called the International System (SI). Its basic units (requiring definition using a standard):
Length - 1 meter;
Time - 1 second;
Weight - 1 kilogram;
Thermodynamic temperature - 1 Kelvin;
The amount of substance is 1 mol;
The strength of the electric current - 1 Ampere;
Light intensity - 1 candela;
The remaining physical quantities are obtained from those listed and are called derivatives, for example, N, J, W, V, Ohm.
4. Measurement errors.
Any measurement can only be carried out with some accuracy. It is fundamentally impossible to obtain an absolutely accurate value of a physical quantity for a number of reasons. The first of them is that the measurement is the result of the interaction of the device and the object. In turn, the devices themselves are technical devices and have limited capabilities. In addition, probabilistic properties are inherent in any physical quantity, and this is a fundamental property of all matter, which we will talk about especially in a special lecture. It is said that the measurement of magnitude X 0 produced with a certain precision 
, and the value itself is called absolute mistake
or absolute measurement error. The natural scientist can only assert that the true value of the quantity being measured 
lies in the interval from ( 
) before ( 
): 
.
Sometimes it's more convenient to talk about relative error
or relative measurement error: 
. This value, especially when expressed as a percentage, gives a very clear idea of the accuracy of the measurements.
Let's list main factors experimental inaccuracies. In addition to the gross blunders of the experimenter himself, they can be divided into two groups:
1) systematic, which are determined by the accuracy class of the device (1/2 division) and, possibly, some kind of constant error of the device;
2) statistical due to random deviations from the true value in each particular experiment. It is often necessary to take the average as the true value of the quantity.
, where N is the number of experiments. The more experiments were done, the closer 
to the true value.
Experiment.
As a rule, the researcher plans his observations and measurements in advance, guided by some hypothesis, i.e. assumptions about the expected outcome. A. Einstein pointed out that "only theory determines what can be observed." For a deeper insight into the essence of the phenomenon, it is required to change the conditions of the experiment, thereby interfering with the object of study.
Purposeful actions associated with changes in the object of study itself are called experiment. The experiment makes it possible to reveal such properties and patterns inside the object, which are hidden under normal conditions.
A special form of experiment - thought experiment. Recently, more and more importance has been numerical experiment in which the scientist deals with mathematical models of natural phenomena.
Using the results of the experiment. Theory. Criteria of scientific character and truth of the theory.
The results of the experiment should be interpreted. If the initial hypothesis of the researcher is confirmed, then the research moves to a new level - theoretical , i.e. a scientific theory is being built within the framework of the existing paradigm. If a satisfactory theory describing the observed phenomenon cannot be constructed, this can lead to a revolutionary paradigm shift.
Working programm
The modern period of development of natural science
Mammadov Aziz Bashir oghlu,
Doctor of Philosophy, Professor of the Department of Philosophy for Natural Sciences, Baku State University,
Rashadat Ismail oglu Bashirov,
Candidate of Biological Sciences, Associate Professor, Head of the Department of Fundamentals of Natural Science and General Biology, Sumgayit State University,
doctoral student of the Department of Philosophy for Natural Sciences
Baku State University.
What are the features of the modern period in the development of natural science or modern natural science? Before answering this question, let us take a look at the conceptual and methodological changes that occurred in natural science in the second half of the XX century.
1. The first feature that characterizes modern natural science is the widespread use of ideas and methods of synergetics in its various fields.
Synergetics– the theory of self-education and development of free natural open complex systems. In order to reflect the observed patterns of complex systems, such concepts as dissipative structure, bifurcation, fluctuation, randomness, strange attractors, nonlinearity, uncertainty, irreversibility, etc., used in synergetics, are used. Synergetics interacts with systems of complex structure, formed through chaotic connections at different levels of development. Such systems can be viewed as an "evolutionary whole".
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G. Haken describes the key provisions of the synergetics of systems as follows: synergetic systems consist of non-inclined or many identical or heterogeneous parts that interact with each other. Synergistic systems are non-linear; synergetic systems, which are studied in physics, chemistry and biology as a discovery of the system, are far from the state of thermal equilibrium; synergetic systems are subject to internal and external fluctuations; since synergistic opening systems can become unstable; emergent new qualities are found in synergetic systems; in synergistic systems, spatial, temporal or functional structures arise; new structures that arise in synergistic structures can be ordered or chaotic.
Synergetics reveals the internal relationship of order and chaos. Before the advent of synergetics, they thought that chaos is chaos, it cannot turn into order in any way. But, Haken, having discovered the laws of open systems, thereby proved that the system factor does not consist in randomness, but in dynamics, in interaction. Chaos is as dynamic as order. And this proves that chaos is not at all separated from order, order and order are born in chaos. Thus, if in classical natural science chaos played a purely negative role, being a symbol of disorganization, lack of structure and destruction of order, then in synergetics it releases as a constructive factor. Since, on the one hand, order arises from chaos or disorder, and on the other hand, chaos itself is a complex form of order.
Thus, synergetics studies the developing regularity of the formation of complex structures from simpler structures. In this case, synergetics proceeds from the principle that the unification of structures cannot be replaced by a simple assembly operation, here the whole is no longer the totality of its parts, no more and no less than them, this whole is simply a new qualitative state.
One of the founders of synergetics, G. Haken, put forward the following question: what common features can be found in the development of various natural and social systems? And he answered his own question in this way: the general is in itself the creation of a structure; qualitative changes occurring at the macroscopic level; the emergence of a new quality through the emergent method; self-learning process that occurs in open systems. According to Haken, the synergetic view differs from the traditional view by moving from the evaluation of simple systems to the study of complex systems; from the evaluation of closed systems to the study of open systems; from the evaluation of linear systems to the study of nonlinear systems; from assessing the equilibrium of processes to studying their delocalization and instability.
Despite the fact that the origin of synergetics is associated with the names of G. Haken, I. Prigozhin and others, the formation of its main ideas was also influenced by the dialectics of Schelling, Hegel, Marx. Despite the fact that many are silent about this, one of the founders of synergetics, I.Prigozhin, acknowledging this, wrote that "nature confirms the existence of a hierarchy in philosophy, when each level requires the previous level." According to this, Prigogine unequivocally notes that the idea of the history of nature, as an integral part of materialism, belonged to K. Marx, was comprehensively developed by F. Engels.
Despite the recognition of Prigogine, some modern scientists, not seeing the connection between dialectics and synergetics, assumed that dialectics had ceased to exist and therefore it should be replaced by synergetics. However, of course, one cannot agree with such an idea, since, in addition to the fact that there is a general theory of development and a universal cognitive method, dialectics, one of the great achievements of world philosophical thought, will remain so.
2. The second sign that characterizes modern natural science is the consolidation of the theory of integrity, the awareness of the need for a comprehensive global view of the world.
The question is: what is the content of the wholeness paradigm?
The paradigm of integrity is manifested in a number of phenomena, including integrity, continuity, a phenomenon of nature, society, the biosphere, noosphere, worldview and other phenomena. One of the convex manifestations of integrity is that a person is not outside the studied object, but inside. He is a part that constantly knows the whole. To clarify this idea, Academician V.I. Vernadsky wrote that the history of the knowledge of science shows that science is impossible without a person, and science is what a person created ... the patterns found in the surrounding world, a person turns into his words, into his mind.
One of the patterns observed in the last quarter XX century, lies in the fact that nature unites the sciences, accelerates the convergence of natural-scientific and humanitarian knowledge, science and art. Whereas, not taking into account the subject of continuous activity, natural science was occupied with studying only nature, while the humanities studied only man, the human soul, the knowledge of its various aspects showed even greater interest in clarifying the connection between social knowledge and spiritual structures of man. While the idea and principles that have been developed in modern natural sciences have begun to appear more often in the humanities, an opposite process is emerging. The assimilation of self-developing systems of "human measurement" by science erased the previously impenetrable boundaries between the methodology of natural science and the methodology of social cognition, and became the reason for the convergence of these areas of knowledge. In this regard, there was a desire for the convergence of two cultures - scientific-technical and humanitarian-aesthetic, science and culture.
It is known that for several centuries Western culture has been presented as a standard, the greatest achievement in the history of world culture and a unique example. One of the trends that attracts attention in the development of modern natural science is related to the transcendence of the Western culture of special sciences. At present, scientists are gradually turning more and more to the traditions and methods of Eastern thought. Nowadays, thoughts are being expressed not only about the strengths, but also about the weaknesses of European rationalism, the topic “West-East” is widely discussed in the scientific literature.
3. The third feature that characterizes modern natural science is the strengthening of the idea of co-evolution in it and their gradual spread on a wider scale.
It is known that the arbitrariness associated with the study of various biological objects and the levels of their formation comes from biology. Today, the concept of coevolution covers all possible generalized panoramas. The essence of the idea of global co-evolution is the same. This concept, containing both materialities and ideal systems, has a universal character.
The concept of global co-evolution is organically connected with the concept of "self-formation". The only difference between these concepts is that if the concept of self-formation is associated with the structure, state of systems, the concept of co-evolution is associated with the correlation of relations between developing systems and evolutionary changes. Co-evolution consists of the molecular-genetic and biospheric levels.
Co-evolution ends with the unity of natural and social processes. Therefore, in order to systematically and intensively study the mechanism of the co-evolutionary process, at the present stage of the development of science, it is necessary to achieve organic unity and constant mutual influence of natural-scientific and humanitarian knowledge.
4. Modern natural science is characterized by a change in the nature of the object of study and the strengthening of the role of an integrated approach in its study.
In modern methodological literature, there is gradually a tendency to conclude that if the object of classical natural science was simple systems, and the object of non-classical natural science was complex systems, then in modern natural science the attention of scientists is increasingly attracted to systems that form new levels of their education and are in historical development. open and self-forming complex systems to determine the image of modern science require the use of new methodological principles of their knowledge.
In modern scientific literature, a number of signs of self-forming systems are separately noted. Among them, the main ones are the following:
a) these systems from the point of view of matter, energy and perception of information are open;
b) these systems among many ways of evolution choose one and from this point of view are non-linear;
d) in these systems, the transition from one state to another is chaotic;
e) it is impossible to predict the outcome of these processes;
f) in these systems, the ability to change is strong in order to be in active mutual influence with the environment and in order to intensify their activity;
g) in these systems there is an ability to take into account the experience of the past;
h) the structure of these systems is mobile and changeable.
The change in the nature of the object studied in modern natural science is accompanied by a change in the methods of approach to it and research methods. If the goal of the previous levels of natural science was to study isolated fragments of reality, the goal of modern natural science is to use complex research programs and interscientific research methods in its activities.
5. Another of the distinguishing features of modern natural science is the widespread use of philosophy and its methods in all its fields.
Philosophy, with its scientific, theoretical and practical foundations, penetrates into all areas of modern natural science. The functions of philosophy at the present stage of natural science: anthological, epistemological, methodological, worldview, axeological, predictive, social. These functions have a more active influence than in the previous stages.
6. One of the specific features of modern natural science is also the dominance of methodological pluralism in it, which follows from the knowledge of methodology, including the limitations and one-sidedness of dialectical materialism. The American scientific methodologist P. Feyerabend very aptly expressed such a situation in natural science in the words: "Everything is possible." Back in his time, the prominent German physicist W. Heisenberg noted that we cannot limit the methods of our thinking only to philosophy. In this regard, he considered it wrong to declare “the uniqueness and truth of any method and thereby abandon methodological concepts. In modern natural science, one cannot limit oneself only to logic, dialectics and epistemology. In order to adequately assess reality, modern natural science needs intuition, fantasy, imagination and other factors.
7. Of the recently formed features of modern natural science, there is a wide penetration of human activity into it, the unification of the objective world with the human world, and the elimination of the gap between the object and the subject.
Even in the classical period of natural science, it became known that new discoveries demonstrate “subjectivity in the laws of physics” (A. Eddington), “the formation of the unity of the object and the subject and the fact that there is no impenetrable border between them” (E. Schrödinger), “different aspects of identical reality consciousness of matter. In modern natural science, this trend is even more intensified. One of the founders of quantum mechanics, W. Heisenberg, noted that already in his time one could speak not of a natural picture legalized in the natural sciences, but of a picture of man's relationship to nature. Therefore, on the one hand, objective events occurring in space and time, on the other hand, the division into existing aspects of the subjective reflection of these events cannot be considered a support in understanding the science of the twentieth century. The result of Heisenberg's conclusions is that the focus of modern natural science should not be nature itself, but "the network of mutual influence of man with nature." Nature is like the absence of an automaton that would speak only those words that a scientist would like to hear; likewise, scientific research is not a monologue, it is primarily a dialogue between a scientist and nature. And this means that the active knowledge of nature by man, at best, is a part of internal activity.
8. Modern natural science is also characterized by a deep penetration into all its areas of the idea of development, as well as "historicization", "dialecticization" (as a variety of development). I.Prigozhin wrote on this occasion: "There is not only the history of life, but also the history of the entire Universe, and this can lead to important conclusions." The most important of these conclusions is the need for a transition to the highest form of thinking - to dialectics, which includes the theory of the logic of knowledge. A prominent scientist of our time, Nobel Prize winner I.Prigozhin is sure that we are on the way to a new concept leading to a unified panorama of the world.
Describing scientific thinking in general, the well-known physicist and scientific methodologist K. von Weizsacker writes that one of the main trends of modern science is its transformation into a science of development. Thus, modern natural science confirms the idea of Hegel and Engels that natural scientists need to master the method of dialectics.
9. A distinctive feature of modern natural science is also an increase in the mathematization of the natural sciences, especially physics, an increase in the level of abstraction and complexity of these sciences.
In the science of the twentieth century, the role of mathematical calculations has sharply increased, so in various fields of natural science, answers to tasks that need to be solved, in most cases, must be presented in verbal form. Mathematical modeling has now become an essential feature of the scientific and technological process. The essence of this type of modeling is to replace the object under study with the corresponding mathematical models and to conduct special experiments to study them using computational logic algorithms in a computer. In connection with the latest achievements in synergetics, modeling in modern science has taken on a new form.
10. Another feature of modern natural science is the ability to emerge on the basis of the principles of global evolution.
The establishment of evolutionary ideas has a long history. Already in XIX century, these ideas have found application in geology and biology. However, up to the modern period, the evolutionary principle did not become the dominant principle in natural science. The reason for this was the penetration of the principle of development, which has been performing the leading function in natural science for a long time, into a significant part of the history of physics, into a number of its postulates.
The ideas about the universality of evolutionary processes occurring in the Universe have been realized in science in the concept of global evolution.
This concept, based on biology, astrology, geology, extrapolated the ideas of evolution into all spheres of reality and considered all living, inanimate, social matter as a single universal process of evolution. The idea of global evolution demonstrated the transition of the main principle of natural science - the principle of historicism - into a dialectical way of thinking.
Each of the natural sciences has paid its tribute to the rationale for universal evolution. However, as a result of the substantiation of this concept in the 20th century, three important conceptual areas of science acquired a certain importance: the first is the non-stationary theory of the Universe, the second is synergetics, the third is the theory of biological evolution and the concepts of the biosphere and noosphere developing on the basis of this theory.
The concept of global evolution performs the following functions:
1) explains the relationship of self-forming systems of varying degrees of complexity and the genesis of new structures;
2) considers living, non-living and social matter in a dialectical relationship;
3) creates a basis for considering a person as an object of cosmic evolution, as a natural step in the development of the Universe;
4) forms the basis for the synthesis of modern scientific knowledge;
5) forms an important principle for the study of objects of a new type - self-forming systems.
At present, scientists are trying to create a unified physical theory of the world, which would contain all mutual influences and which would be based on the synthesis of relativistic and quantum ideas. A similar phenomenon is observed in other sciences. For example, mathematicians try to explain the structure of mathematics on the basis of the theory of the unity of sets. Biologists, on the basis of the principles of the theory of evolutionary synthesis of genetics and modern molecular biology, are trying to create a unified theoretical biology.
11. A significant feature of modern natural science is also its understanding as a natural organism. At present, nature is considered not as a collection of objects isolated from each other or as their mechanical system, but as a whole in which changes occur within certain boundaries, and as a living organism. Violation of these boundaries can cause changes in the system, its transition to a qualitatively new state. Harmonious ties and mutual influence between people, between people and nature are gradually strengthening. Within the framework of such an approach to nature, a person already feels himself not the owner and not the works of nature, but an organic part of it. Currently, a new science is being formed called "Ethics of the biosphere". This science will study not only the ethical relations between people, but also the mutual ethical relations between man and nature.
12. And finally, a characteristic feature of modern natural science is also that this form of thinking understands the world not only as a system of harmony, harmony, regularity, but also as a system of instability, instability, transism, chaos, uncertainty.
All of the above shows that in the developing study of the world it is necessary to take into account its two interrelated aspects: stability and instability, order and chaos, certainty and uncertainty.
The acceptance of instability and instability as the fundamental characteristics of the structure of the world certainly requires the use of new methods and methods in the process of cognition, which are inherently dialectical.
Literature
1. Born M. Reflections and remembering physics. M., 1977.
2. Born M. Physics in the life of my generation. M., 1973
3. Vernadsky V.I. About science. Dubna, 1997.
4. Heisenberg V. Steps beyond the horizon. M., 1987.
5. Dazho R. Fundamentals of ecology. M., 1975.
6. Knyazeva E.N. Synergetics as a new worldview: a dialogue with Prigozhin // Questions of Philosophy, 1992, No. 12.
7. Knyazeva E.N., Kurdyumov S.I. Synergetics as a new worldview: a dialogue with Prigozhin // Questions of Philosophy, 1992, No. 2.
8. Mamedalieva S. Chemistry and ecology. Baku, "Elm", 1993.
9. Mamedov B.A. Scientific knowledge and dialectics of its development. Baku, 1998.
10. Odum M. Fundamentals of ecology. In two volumes. M., 1986.
11. Pariev E.I. At the crossroads of infinity. M., 1967.
12. Prigogine I., Stengers I. Order out of chaos: A new dialogue between man and nature. M., 1986.
13. Problems of methodology of postclassical science. M., 1992.
14. Stapin V.S., Kuznetsova L.F. Scientific picture of the world in the culture of technogenic civilization. M., 1994.
15. Feyerabend P. Selected works on the methodology of science. M., 1986.
16. Feinberg E.L. Evolution of methodology in the twentieth century // Questions of Philosophy, 1996, No. 7.
17. Philosophy of nature. coevolutionary strategy. M., 1985; Rodin S.N. The idea of co-evolution. Novosibirsk, 1991.
18. Einstein A, Infeld L. The evolution of physics. M., 1965.
INTRODUCTION
1. General ideas about the subject “Concepts of modern
2. Natural science and humanitarian culture.
3. Scientific method in the study of the surrounding world. development methods,
accumulation and dissemination of the achievements of modern natural
knowledge on the example of the practice of military activity.
4. Basic information about the measurement of quantities in the natural sciences.
General ideas about the discipline “Concepts
modern natural science".
Modern natural science is formed from such areas of scientific knowledge as
■ physics, chemistry, physical chemistry, mechanics;
■ geography, geology, mineralogy;
■ meteorology, astronomy, astrophysics, astrochemistry;
■ biology, botany, zoology, genetics;
■ human anatomy and physiology, —
and many, many others who study our planet, near and far Cosmos, solid matter, liquids and gases, living matter and man as a product of nature.
It is impossible to name all the scientists who have made the most significant contribution to the development of natural science, but one cannot talk about natural science without recalling such geniuses as G. Galileo, I. Newton, R. Descartes, M. V. Lomonosov, C. Darwin, G Mendel, M. Faraday, D. I. Mendeleev, V. I. Vernadsky.
The main concepts modern natural science. As you know, the term "concept" means a system of views, one or another understanding of phenomena, processes, or a single, defining idea, the leading thought of any work.
The purpose of the KSE is to acquaint students with natural science, as an integral part of part of the culture, with its fundamental principles and concepts, to form a holistic view of the world, manifested as the unity of nature, man, society.
To achieve the goals formulated in the program, the following aspects were reflected in the training manual. The characteristics of the dialectical relationship between the natural and humanitarian components of culture are considered. The bases of scientific knowledge of the surrounding world are stated, scientific methods of its research are classified. Information about the measurement of quantities in the natural sciences is given. The need to study KSE in order to form ideas of the modern picture of the world is motivated.
The stages of the emergence of rational knowledge as a methodology for studying the world, which occurred as a result of the dialectical struggle of various scientific and religious trends, are described. The basic information about the scientific pictures of the world and their essence is stated. The result of the development of methods of scientific knowledge was the dialectical continuity of experimental and theoretical research.The evolution of the natural-science picture of the world based on the works of Isaac Newton, which was called mechanistic, is considered.
The next stage in the development of natural science knowledge was a multitude of discoveries in living chemistry and biology. Within the framework of the latter, evolutionary ideas were born and formed, which in the future became part of natural science as an integral part of the theory of development.
The discovery in the XVIII-XIX centuries of electric and magnetic fields led to the development of the electromagnetic picture of the world, in which the decisive role belongs short range theory. With the discovery of the atom and its structure, science, in particular physics, experienced the last and most violent revolution. By the beginning of the 20th century, a large number of facts had accumulated that were inexplicable from the point of view of the electromagnetic picture of the world. It was necessary to build a new one, called the modern one. It is inextricably linked with quantum mechanics, the theory of relativity, as well as with the latest achievements in genetic engineering and so on.
The fundamental concepts of the modern scientific picture of the world are analyzed, which include - a systematic method of research, the principle of global evolutionism, the theory of self-organization or synergetics. Based on these conceptual features, one can present the main trends in the development of the modern world, consider the panorama of modern natural science.
It is shown that, proceeding from the scale of the observer, any objects of material nature can be considered either from the standpoint of a corpuscular or from the standpoint of a continual concept of describing nature. There is no fundamental difference here, although, of course, one of the global laws of philosophy “on the transition of quantity into quality” is manifested.
A transition is being made to the study of the relationship between order and disorder in nature. Definitions of chaos and its measure - entropy are given. The models and mechanisms of order and chaos are discussed, their connection with the energy level of the material system is considered.
Based on a systematic approach in science, three levels of matter organization have been identified. The microcosm is considered from the point of view of the modern picture of the world, the manifestation of corpuscular-wave dualism in it. The macroworld is described from the standpoint of classical natural science, according to which matter exists in the form of substance and field. The systemic organization of the mega-world has been clarified.
The basic information about space and time is stated. It is shown that the structure of space and time is determined by the distribution of the masses of material objects and depends on the speed of their movement. The expression of the laws of symmetry in the world is the connection of space and time with the basic laws of natural science - the laws of conservation. The concepts of biological, psychological, social space and time are introduced.
Fundamental interactions are considered. Ideas are formed about the particles that carry out interactions, about the coupling constants. Characteristics of interactions are given in terms of range, intensity, source, and examples of specific manifestations are considered.
The attention is focused on the concepts of long-range and short-range interaction, conservation laws. Examples of their manifestation in various fields of natural science are analyzed.
Further, the basic principles of the physical picture of the world, which include the principle relativity, uncertainty, complementarity, superposition, symmetry. The attention is focused on the close interrelation of the stated principles and such attributes of matter as time, space, mass, energy. The basic concepts of Einstein's theory of relativity are outlined. The meaning of the Heisenberg uncertainty principle and the principle of complementarity is revealed. Specific examples of the manifestation of the superposition principle in electrodynamics, wave processes, quantum mechanics and even in the humanities are given.
The concept of state, dynamic and statistical regularities in nature are considered.
The basic, fundamental laws of nature are stated and on their basis the properties and behavior of complex polyatomic systems are explained. Specific examples of the functioning of various systems and the manifestation for them of such an important concept of natural science as bifurcation point. Understanding the considered fundamental laws of natural science allows us to proceed to the study of synergetic ideas about low-organized matter.The presented material states that, to a large extent, the ongoing changes in the surrounding world are associated with the chemical interaction of elements or complexes formed from them, that is, due to chemical processes. For interacting substances, the reactivity is determined by the structure or structure of the elements that form them. It is the nature of the structure of the reacting substances that determines the properties of the resulting substances. The conceptual levels of knowledge in chemistry are formulated. It is shown that self-organization and evolution of such complex biological systems as man is possible precisely due to the implementation of a wide range of chemical reactions. Further ideas about stars, star systems are formed, their main characteristics are determined. Ideas about the Universe are given and models of its origin are considered. Based on the theory of global evolutionism, attention is focused on the origin and development of the solar system. The main information about the internal structure and history of the geological development of the Earth is presented, modern concepts of the development of geospheric shells are formed. Scientific knowledge about the lithosphere as the biotic basis of life is presented. It is shown that a number of factors make the Earth a special planet in the solar system. At the same time, the hydrosphere is the cradle of life, and the world ocean is a “geochemical reactor”. Considerable attention is paid to the study of the ecological functions of the lithosphere. Two main directions of ecology are singled out and their tasks are disclosed. Basic information about the geographic shell of the Earth and its parameters is given. The geographic envelope of the Earth allows you to determine the coordinates of any point on the surface, understand the mechanisms of climate formation, calculate heights and depths, and record the time of events. The foundations of scientific knowledge about the features of the biological level of the organization of matter are outlined, the concept of a cell is formulated and its main properties are determined. Oscillatory and wave processes and their characteristics are considered. On the basis of these ideas, the processes of vital activity of organisms are analyzed and a conclusion is made about their cyclicity. It is shown that the diversity of living organisms ensures the stability and stability of geobiocenoses.
The natural-science hypotheses of the origin of life are considered. The possible ways of its development are shown and the prerequisites for its occurrence are highlighted. The presented material allows us to consider the Earth as a special object of the solar system, where the appearance of living beings was possible.
On the basis of modern materialistic ideas, primarily about natural selection, hypotheses of the origin of man are formulated. Groups of features connecting it with the animal world are identified, and characteristic differences are presented.
The line of human genealogy has been drawn up.
Based on paleontological information, the main factors that made man a social being are the joint production of food, the presence of fire, labor, and articulate speech.According to the principle of global evolutionism, it is shown that the development of living organisms and their groups is subject to the laws of genetics. Its basic provisions are ideas about mutation, heredity, population. The main provisions of the synthetic theory of evolution are highlighted. Brief ideas about the health, performance and emotions of a person and the factors that determine them are given. The influence of cosmic cycles on the Earth's biosphere and processes in it is demonstrated. In particular, daily, seasonal and other influences on the lives of people, including military personnel, are shown. A representation of the noosphere has been formed, on the basis of which the ways of possible development of the surrounding world and humanity are outlined. The examples given show the importance of careful handling of nature in terms of bioethical problems, which in turn are related to the principle of the irreversible development of matter. The same principle leads to the fact that such a parameter of matter as time is also irreversible.
Information about self-organization in inanimate nature, obtained on the basis of concepts of closed systems, is presented.
It is shown that the time of their existence is limited due to the increase in entropy. On the basis of synergistic ideas about open systems, it is shown that they can maintain a constant or even reduce the level of entropy due to the exchange of matter, energy, and information with the external environment. The development of living things in this case is due to the presence of fluctuations and positive feedback. It is shown that the processes of self-organization and self-complication occur when symmetry is broken in systems, i.e. when they are out of balance.
The presented material allows us to confirm the implementation of a successful attempt to represent the surrounding world from the standpoint of a single culture through the emergence of such disciplines as KSE, the creation of the Internet network, and so on.
For independent work of students on the topics of the subject, first of all, basic teaching aids available in the university library are offered. In addition to this literature, there are other textbooks that can be used in preparing for seminars or exams. The textbooks of the following authors most fully correspond to the course program: S.G. Khoroshavina, V.N. Lavrinenko, S.Kh. Karpenkov, G.I. Ruzavin,
At lectures, it is necessary to outline the material presented by the teacher, highlighting definitions, laws, main figures and diagrams. It is necessary to leave fields for making additions and explanations in the process of independent work. It is advisable to re-read the material on the day of recording and note the unclear in it.
When preparing for seminars, you should learn the main provisions of the lecture material. The level of assimilation can be assessed by the questions given at the end of the lecture or by the questions for the seminar. Questions not marked with (*) are required to be understood. Those that are marked with this sign imply a deeper study of them and can be presented in the form of a message or report at seminars. Preparation for the exam involves a fundamental study of the theoretical material of the course, as well as records of seminars, the choice of the main material that was included in the questions of the exam papers.
At lectures and seminars, the history of the emergence of science will be considered: first, as the sum of human knowledge about the world around us, rather disparate, chaotic (ancient Egypt, China, Mesopotamia, India), and then a transition was made to the knowledge system within the framework of philosophy (natural philosophy) of Aristotle, to the stages of the formation of modern science (the origin and development of scientific methods) from Copernicus to Einstein and modern cosmology.
To creation natural sciences(since the end of the 18th century): physics, chemistry, biology, geography, geology, astronomy, psychology, etc. led differentiation knowledge about nature, associated with the selection of the studied phenomena, processes, the development of methods for their study and in connection with the generality of the results obtained. Currently attempts imagine the world as one, to reveal the most general laws of the universe expressed in the creation of a generalized, integrative science - natural science. One of its main tasks is the desire to make deep philosophical, methodological conclusions about the universality of the action of the universal laws of evolution, about the systemic organization and self-organization of the surrounding world. Together with the principle of historicity, they allow us to talk about objective perception, understanding of the world in which we live, understanding the goals and meaning of the existence of our civilization.
In general, the KSE course covers the following topics: evolution, natural science picture of the world (history of natural science); modern scientific picture of the world; basic modern cosmological concepts; the main hypotheses of the origin of life and man; the place of man in the universe, the place of science in the modern world and the prediction of its development, etc.
The most common concepts of the course include:
Concept(from the Latin Conceptio) is used in the sense of:
a) a system of views, one or another understanding of phenomena, processes;
b) a single, defining idea, the leading thought of any work, scientific work, etc.
natural science- system of knowledge about nature; a branch of science that studies the world around us as it is, in its natural state, existing independently of man.
The science- a system of knowledge about the phenomena and processes of the objective world and human consciousness, their essence and laws of development; Science as a social institution is a sphere of human activity in which scientific knowledge about the phenomena of nature and society is developed and systematized.
Natural science concepts- name the results of scientific research expressed in the form of scientific theories, laws, models, hypotheses, empirical generalizations.
Achievements in the natural sciences are an integral part of human culture, so the "Concepts of Modern Natural Science" is such a training course that should show the role and importance of natural science in understanding the world around us, in understanding the place of man in this world, in forming a scientific picture of the world.
