Concept and types of social relations. Social relations: signs and types Example of social relations in society

Practical lesson No. 3.

Subject: Social relations in society

Target: systematization of knowledge and skills on the topic “Social relations in society”; fostering a culture of communication, a conscious attitude towards citizen participation in the social life of society; developing the ability to analyze and critically comprehend educational information, compare, identifying common features and differences between different types of social groups, recognize and correctly use sociological terminology in various contexts, draw conclusions, rationally solve cognitive and problematic problems, work with documents.

Equipment: Man and society: Social studies: a textbook for students of grades 10–11. general education institutions / ed. L. N. Bogolyubova and A. Yu. Lazebnikova. – Part 1 10th grade, Part 2. – 11th grade – M., 2012; Methodological instructions for students for practical classes.

Progress of the lesson:

Theoretical part

Interconnected social groups formsocial structure of society .

Social groups are different in nature, scale, and the role they play in society.

There is no generally accepted typology of social groups. One of the principlesclassifications – conditional division of socialgroups by number of participants perbig Andsmall (up to 30 people).

Small groups include family, educational, labor associations, interest groups, etc. A small group is distinguished from a large group by the fact that all its participants are united by common activities and are in direct communication with each other.

Large groups are collections of people who are usually united by one socially significant feature (for example, religion, professional affiliation, nationality, etc.). Members of a large group may never come into contact with each other.

Often, along with social groups, there are groups of people united by natural characteristics: race, gender, age. They are sometimes calledbiosocial groups . Under certain conditions, natural differences between people can acquire social qualities. For example, in any society there are elderly people, but only at a certain level of social development does a social group of retirees arise.

Each person belongs to one of the social groups or occupies some intermediate, transitional position.

An intermediate, borderline state is characterized bymarginal (from lat. ;line-height: 100%"> These include immigrants, the unemployed, the disabled, people without a fixed place of residence and certain occupations (homeless people). A sign indicating a transition to a marginal state is the severance of economic, social and cultural ties with the previous social community and attempts to establish them with a new one. However, having lost contact with their former social group, marginalized people for a long time cannot accept new values and rules of behavior. A striking example of this condition is people who moved from rural areas to the city in search of work, who broke away from the peasant environment, but have not yet accepted the values and lifestyle of city dwellers. Finding themselves without roots (family, friendship, culture), they seem to be “hanging in the air.” They, as a rule, perform the simplest, unskilled, often temporary work, and the loss of it threatens them with turning into vagabonds and beggars.

The absence of certain stable connections and norms contributes to the manifestation of social activity and initiative by marginalized people in search of their new place in life. However, the state of uncertainty, “in-betweenness” from time to time causes tension, discomfort, anxiety and even aggressiveness. This is why marginalized individuals can become both the social support of progressive changes in society and the bearers of various anti-democratic tendencies.

Word"norm" of Latin origin and literally means “guiding principle, rule, pattern.” Norms are developed by society and the social groups that are part of it.

Social norms guide people's behavior, allow it to be controlled, regulated and evaluated. They guide a person in questions of how to act, what can be done, what cannot be done, how one should behave, how one should not behave, what is acceptable in people’s activities, what is undesirable. With the help of norms, the functioning of people, groups, and the entire society becomes orderly. In norms, people see standards, models, and standards of proper behavior. By perceiving them and following them, a person is included in the system of social relations, gets the opportunity to interact normally with other people, with various organizations, with society as a whole.

There are many norms in society. This is, first of all,customs Andtraditions , in which habitual patterns of behavior are reinforced (for example, wedding or funeral ceremonies, household holidays, etc.). They become an organic part of people's lifestyle and are supported by the power of public authority.

Further,legal norms . They are enshrined in laws issued by the state, which clearly describe the boundaries of behavior and penalties for breaking the law. Compliance with legal norms is ensured by the power of the state.

Thenmoral standards . Unlike law, morality carries mainly an evaluative load (good - bad, fair - unfair). Compliance with moral rules is ensured by the authority of the collective consciousness; their violation is met with public condemnation.

There are alsoaesthetic standards . They reinforce ideas about the beautiful and the ugly not only in artistic creativity, but also in people’s behavior, in production and in everyday life. They manifest themselves, for example, in judgments that a person “lived his life beautifully”, that such and such “behaves ugly.” Negative assessments in this case are combined with moral censure.

Political norms regulate political activity, relations between individuals and authorities, between social groups, and states. They are reflected in laws, international treaties, political principles, and moral standards.

Finally,religious norms . In terms of content, many of them act as moral norms, coincide with legal norms, and reinforce traditions and customs. Compliance with religious norms is supported by the moral consciousness of believers and the religious belief in the inevitability of punishment for sins - deviation from these norms.

There are other types of norms, for example, rules of etiquette, etc. Social norms differ from biological, medical, technical norms, which establish rules for handling natural and artificial (technical) objects. For example, a rule prohibiting standing under a crane boom is aimed at the safety of a person in his relationship with a technical device. And the medical rule, which requires compliance with the dose of medication prescribed by the doctor, protects human health from dangerous consequences and establishes the procedure for handling chemicals.

As for social norms, they are allregulate relations in society itself : between people, groups of people, organizations created by them. The influence of social norms on an individual’s behavior presupposes, firstly, knowledge of the social norm and its awareness, secondly, a motive (the desire to follow this norm) and, thirdly, the action itself (real behavior).

Social norms constitute one of the elements of the mechanism for regulating relations between the individual and society, which is calledsocial control .

The purposeful influence of society on people's behavior in order to strengthen order and stability is ensured by social control.

Any activity includes a variety of actions, and each person performs many of them, entering into active interaction with the social environment (with society, social communities, public institutions and organizations, the state, other individuals). All these actions, individual actions, and human behavior are under the control of the people, groups, and society around him. As long as these actions do not violate public order or existing social norms, this control is invisible, as if it does not exist. However, it is worth breaking established customs and rules, deviating from patterns of behavior that are accepted in society, and social control manifests itself.

One person ran across the street in front of moving traffic, a second lit a cigarette in the cinema, a third committed theft, a fourth was late for work... In all these cases, the reaction of other people may follow: comments and other manifestations of dissatisfaction on the part of others, corresponding actions of the administration, police, court .

Expressing dissatisfaction, reprimanding, imposing a fine, punishment imposed by the court - all these are sanctions; Along with social norms, they are an essential element of the mechanism of social control.

Sanctions mean either approval and encouragement, or disapproval and punishment, aimed at maintaining social norms.

Formal positive sanctions – public approval from official organizations (government, institution, creative union): government awards, awarded titles, academic degrees and titles, etc.

Informal positive sanctions - public approval that does not come from official organizations: friendly praise, compliments, fame, honor.

Formal negative sanctions – penalties provided for by legal laws, government decrees, administrative instructions, orders: deprivation of civil rights, imprisonment.

Informal negative sanctions - punishments not provided for by official authorities: censure, remarks, ridicule.

Society evaluates the individual, but the individual also evaluates society, the state, and himself.

Thus, along withexternal control on the part of society, group, state, other people, the most important thing isinternal control , orself-control , which is based on norms, customs, and role expectations learned by the individual.

Plays an important role in the process of self-controlconscience , i.e., the feeling and knowledge of what is good and what is bad, what is fair and what is unfair, the subjective consciousness of compliance or non-compliance of one’s own behavior with moral standards. In a person who, in a state of excitement, by mistake or succumbing to temptation, commits a bad act, conscience causes a feeling of guilt, moral worries, a desire to correct the mistake or atone for the guilt.

The ability to exercise self-control is the most valuable quality of a person who independently regulates his behavior in accordance with generally accepted norms. Self-control is one of the most important conditions for a person’s self-realization and his successful interaction with other people.

So, the most important elements of the mechanism of social control are social norms, public opinion, sanctions, individual consciousness, and self-control. By interacting, they ensure the maintenance of socially acceptable patterns of behavior and the functioning of the social system as a whole.

Social stratification - This is the division of society into layers.

Social mobility is the transition of people from one social group to another.

TOhorizontal mobility refer to the processes of transition from group to group without changing social status.

Processesvertical mobility associated with moving up or down the steps of the social ladder. Distinguishupward (upward) anddownward (downward) social mobility.

Practical part

Task No. 1. Establish a correspondence between the concept and definition.

Concepts

Definitions

1. Social differentiation

A) division of society into layers.

2. Social stratification

B) conscious actions of a person or groups, caused by their needs, associated with the actions of other people.

3. Social mobility

C) systematic, fairly regular, interdependent social actions of subjects aimed at each other.

4. Social action

D) a special mechanism for social regulation of behavior and maintaining public order.

5. Social interaction

D) the transition of people from one social group to another.

6. Social relations

E) a stable system of everyday non-productive connections between people regarding the satisfaction of their primary needs.

7. Social control

G) the culture of our place of residence.

8. Household relations

H) a type of social relations, characterized by duration, stability and characterizing the mutual position of social groups and the people included in them.

9. Deviant behavior

I) division of society into social groups occupying different positions in society.

10. Topos culture

K) behavior that is not consistent with norms.

Task No. 2. Fill out the diagram:

Task No. 3. Make a diagram using the following concepts: biosocial groups, types of social groups, unemployed, small groups, family, marginalized groups, classes, large groups, race.

Task No. 4. Place the sanctions in the correct columns.

Remarks, government awards, refusal to maintain relationships, goodwill, slander, government scholarships, imprisonment, academic degrees, unflattering nicknames, friendly praise, dismissal, fame, fines, applause, confiscation of property, building a monument, ridicule, disenfranchisement, compliments , demotion, honor, presentation of certificates of honor.

Formal positive

Informal positive

Formal negative

Informal negative

Task No. 5. Specify the type of social mobility (horizontal, vertical upward, vertical downward):

A) transfer from one state enterprise to another;

B) promotion of a person to a position;

C) the ruin of the average entrepreneur and his transformation into a hired worker;

D) mastering a more prestigious profession;

D) moving from one city to another.

Task No. 6. Read the statement of the famous philosopher of the 19th century. V.S. Solovyov and answer the questions after the text.

V. S. Solovyov: “The division of people into tribes and nations, weakened to some extent by the great world religions and replaced by division into wider and more mobile groups, was revived in Europe with renewed vigor and began to establish itself as a conscious and systematic idea from the beginning of the expiration (XIX ) centuries... After the Napoleonic wars, the principle of nationalities became a current European idea...

The national idea deserves all respect and sympathy when, in its name, weak and oppressed nationalities were defended and liberated: in such cases, the principle of nationality coincided with true justice... But, on the other hand, this is the arousal of national well-being in every people, especially in the peoples larger and stronger, favored the development of popular egoism or nationalism, which no longer has anything to do with justice...

Every nationality has the right to live and develop its forces freely, without violating the same rights of other nationalities.”

Questions:

1. Remember the material on the history of the 19th century. What events allowed the author to claim that “the principle of nationalities has become a current European idea”?

2. How, according to the author, is the essence of the national idea changing? In which case does it have a positive connotation, and in which case does it have a negative connotation?

Task No. 7. Read the statements about marriage and family and answer the questions.

G. Hegel: “The family is completed in the following three aspects: a) in the image of its immediate concept as marriage; b) in external existence, in the property and property of the family and care for it; c) in raising children and family breakdown.”

F. Adler: “The family is a society in miniature, on the integrity of which the security of the entire large human society depends.”

V. Hugo: “Any social doctrine that tries to destroy the family is worthless and inapplicable. The family is the crystal of society.”

S. N. Parkinson: “When a Victorian family sat around the dinner table, one rule was observed: the elders speak, the younger ones listen. Some topics were not touched upon in the conversation, certain issues were discussed in French, but the younger ones had a lot to learn. Moreover, they had the opportunity to recognize their own ignorance and learn to express themselves more coherently. Nowadays, children talk and parents listen - there is no benefit for anyone, and the harm is quite obvious.”

S. Smith: “Marriage is like scissors - the halves can move in opposite directions, but they will teach a lesson to anyone who tries to get between them.”

R. Stevenson: “Marriage is a long conversation, interrupted by arguments.”

A. Tennyson: “Like the husband, so is the wife.”

G. Hegel: “Marriage is legal love; with such a definition, everything that is transitory, capricious and subjective in it is excluded from the latter”; “The first necessary relationship that an individual enters into with others is the family relationship. These relations, however, also have a legal side, but it is subordinated to the moral side, the principle of love and trust”; “The connection between two persons of different sexes, called marriage, is not just a natural, animal union and not just a civil contract. and above all, a moral union that arises on the basis of mutual love and trust and turns the spouses into one person.”

I. Kant: “In married life, the united couple must form, as it were, a single moral personality.”

K. Marx: “If marriage were not the basis of the family, then it would not be the subject of legislation, like, for example, friendship”; “Almost any dissolution of a marriage is a dissolution of the family and... even from a purely legal point of view, the position of children and their property cannot be made dependent on the arbitrary discretion of the parents... Thus, only the individual will is taken into account, or rather, the arbitrariness of the spouses, but the will of the marriage, the moral substance of this relationship, is not taken into account.”

L. Feuerbach: “Only husband and wife together form the reality of a person; husband and wife together are the existence of the race, for their union is the source of multitudes, the source of other people.”

A. Schopenhauer: “To get married means halving your rights and doubling your responsibilities.”

Questions:

1. What is the importance of family in society?

2. What problems of family relationships do the authors highlight?

Although statuses enter into social relations not directly, but only indirectly - through their carriers, they mainly determine content And the nature of social relations. A person looks at the world and treats other people in accordance with his status.

The poor despise the rich, and the rich disdain the poor. Dog owners do not understand non-owners who complain that they have become the owners of a forest park. A professional investigator, although unconsciously, divides people into potential criminals, law-abiding and witnesses. A Russian is more likely to show solidarity with a Russian than with a Jew or Tatar, and vice versa.

Political, religious, demographic, consanguineous, economic, professional statuses person determine the intensity, duration, direction and content social relations of people.

If you want to find out what kind of relationship you will have with a non-relative or non-friend (and relative and friend are statuses in different structures), you must find out the content of their statuses. Status determines the interest that a given person will explicitly or implicitly, permanently or temporarily, pursue and defend. An entrepreneur is interested in you only as a client, a woman - as a potential sexual partner, a seller - as a possible buyer.

This is the hidden motive of their relationship with you. Interest in you, the duration and intensity of your relationship will be determined by how soon this other person realizes that you are not giving what he expected to receive from you.

Of course, a person does not express true interest directly. He disguises it and surrounds it with rules of polite behavior. The latter create the illusion that a trusting relationship has developed between you.

So, let's generalize what has been said: it is statuses that determine the nature, content, duration or intensity of human relationships - both interpersonal and social.

Social role

Social role- a behavior model focused on this status. It can be defined differently - as a patterned type of behavior aimed at fulfilling the rights and responsibilities prescribed by a specific status.

Others expect one type of behavior from a banker, but a completely different one from an unemployed person. Social norms - prescribed rules of behavior - characterize the role, not the status. The role is also called the dynamic side of status. The words “dynamic”, “behaviour”, “norm” indicate that we are not dealing with social relations, but with social interaction. Thus, we must learn:

· social roles and social norms relate to social interaction;

· social statuses, rights and responsibilities, functional relationship of statuses relate to social relations;

· social interaction describes the dynamics of society, social relations - its statics.

Subjects expect from the king behavior prescribed by custom or document. Thus, there is an intermediate link between status and role - expectations people (expectations).

Expectations can somehow be fixed, and then they become social norms. If, of course, they are considered as mandatory requirements (instructions). Or they may not be fixed, but this does not stop them from being expectations.

Only behavior that meets the expectations of those functionally associated with a given status is called a role. Any other behavior is not a role.

Students expect very specific behavior from the teacher: transfer knowledge, enforce discipline, evaluate knowledge. Suppose that a person entered the classroom, introduced himself as a teacher (i.e., a bearer of this status), but behaved in an unexpected way: he set up a camping tent, spread out a book tray, or began to pull the girls’ braids. Naturally, we are dealing with behavior, but not role behavior. This man did not behave as the disciples expected.

However, a person who has never seen a teacher in his life and knows nothing about his rights and responsibilities will not consider strange behavior unexpected. He may think that this is exactly how a teacher should behave, that this is his role. However, students know exactly what behavior (what role) should correspond to the status of the teacher.

So let's do it conclusion: a social role is impossible without such conditions as the expectations of group members functionally associated with this status, and social norms that fix the range of requirements for fulfilling this role.

We can say that status emphasizes the similarities of people, and role emphasizes their differences.

Let's observe the behavior of members of the academic council. When they perform ritual actions that are due to their status - putting a ballot in a ballot box, signing a list, etc. - they are similar to each other.

But as soon as we pay attention to how they understand the role of a member of the academic council and how they behave in accordance with this understanding, personal characteristics will come to the fore.

One believes that his role as an expert is to criticize any shortcomings of the dissertation candidate. Another believes that his role as a senior comrade is to help and support a young scientist taking his first steps in science. The third came to the meeting to serve time and formally fulfill his role.

Thus, role - individual behavior in accordance with one's status.

Role set

We have already encountered the concept of “status set”, introduced into science by R. Merton. It denotes the totality of all statuses belonging to one person. R. Merton also owns another concept, closely related to the first. Role set - a set of roles (role complex) associated with one status.

Each status usually includes a number of roles. For example, the status of a university professor includes roles such as teacher, researcher, youth mentor, consultant to industry and government, administrator, clerk, author of scientific articles, specialist in his field of knowledge, etc.

Each role from the role set requires a special manner of behavior. Even the two similar roles of a professor - teacher and mentor - involve different relationships with students.

The first is to comply with formal norms and rules: giving lectures, checking coursework, taking exams, etc. The second is more of an informal role of a wise adviser, an older friend.

Accordingly, each role has its own type of implementation of social relations. A professor's relationships among his fellow teachers, among the university administration, or with teachers like him are not at all the same as the relationships he develops with students, journal editors, or entrepreneurs. Thus, the role set forms a set of social relations.

The term “relationship” is used here as a dynamic characteristic - in the sense of “entering into a relationship.” A simple “attitude”, or a static characteristic, does not presuppose the interaction of two people, but only a readiness, a predisposition to it.

This readiness is usually called installation. So, let’s summarize what we have covered: parallel to the concept of a status set, the concept of a role set is used. It describes all types and diversity of behavior patterns (roles) assigned to one status. Accordingly, each type of role develops its own type of social relations.

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SOCIAL RELATIONS

Chapter 1. Social structure of society

1.1 Social structure and social institutions

In sociology, the concept of social structure (separate parts of society ordered into one whole) is interpreted in a broad and narrow sense.

In a narrow sense, social structure is social stratification, that is, the distribution in a hierarchical order of groups and layers, identified according to some characteristic (economic, political, professional, etc.).

In a broad sense, social structure is a set of social institutions, status relations, groups, layers, classes of a given society.

A social institution is an organized system of connections and social norms that brings together significant social values and procedures that satisfy the basic needs of society. In other words, a social institution is the interaction of people according to certain rules in order to satisfy significant needs. Examples of such interaction are the state, family, property, church, etc.

Signs of a social institution

1. A special type of regulation. Ideally, the functioning of a social institution is characterized by regularity, great clarity, predictability and reliability. The functioning of a social institution is associated with the mechanism of social control.

2. A clear distribution of functions, rights and responsibilities of participants in institutionalized interaction. Everyone must perform his function, others expect him to perform it.

3. Impersonality of requirements. Within the framework of a social institution, rights and obligations must be impersonal. That is, to put it simply, people in the structure of the institute can change, but each of the newcomers will perform the same function that his predecessor performed.

4. Division of labor and professionalization.

5. Social institutions (the formal, “paper” part of the social institution.)

1.2 Classification of social institutions

1. Economic institutions are the most stable and subject to strict regulation. They regulate social relations in the sphere of economic activity.

2. Political institutions - institutions associated with the struggle for power, its implementation and distribution.

3. Institutions of culture, socialization and life support - include the most stable, clearly regulated forms of interaction regarding the strengthening, creation and dissemination of culture, the socialization of the younger generation, their mastery of the cultural values of society (family, education, science, artistic institutions), the functioning of systems livelihoods not directly related to the economy.

1.3 Social role and social status

Each person is simultaneously a member of several social groups. In the group he occupies a certain position, a position that implies certain rights and responsibilities and is called social status. A person has several social statuses. As a rule, a person’s position in society is determined by one, main (integral) social status. A certain social status gives rise to human behavior characteristic of this social status (social role). Since a person belongs to different social groups, he activates different social statuses in different situations. Social role is the norm of behavior of a person of a certain status in a particular society, community, or group. Role behavior is the expected behavior of a person occupying a certain social status. Role behavior in society is structured as follows - society, community, social group is faced with the implementation of a certain role, as a result of which the performance of this role is standardized. As a result, each subsequent “role player” is expected to behave within the boundaries of established standards. But the degree of standardization of different roles in different situations is different.

The set of all human roles is called a role set. The variety of social roles and their combination gives rise to the individual’s individuality. But at the same time, the variety of social roles gives rise to internal conflicts of the individual - a so-called role conflict arises in the personality structure. Role conflict is a manifestation of acute contradiction between roles or different parties, elements of one role, when these roles or parties act as incompatible, excluding each other. For example, a woman who is building her own career is forced to devote less time to her family, which in some communities and societies is perceived negatively due to the fact that she violates the social guidelines of a given society (community) on the system of priorities, within the framework of which a woman should devote a lot of time to her family . Second example: a person who occupies a high position at work in the family “walks to the line” in front of his wife. The resolution of role conflict consists in harmonizing the role structure of the individual, as well as a certain structuring of the system of personal values, which would make it possible to more clearly create a system of priorities at the level of a specific individual. For example, a woman chooses to build a career as her own priority, meeting understanding from her husband, who partially relieves her of the workload in the household.

1.4 Types of social statuses

1. Achieved social status is the status that a person receives in the course of life, either through free choice or through luck and fortune.

2. Ascribed social status is the status into which a person is born or which is assigned to him over time.

3. Mixed status - occurs when the achieved status over time turns into an ascribed one.

1.5 Social inequality and social stratification

Social inequality (social differentiation) refers to differences generated by social factors: division of labor, way of life, characteristics of the profession, etc. But society is not only differentiated and consists of many social groups, but also hierarchized (a hierarchy is made up of these groups). Hierarchies based on various characteristics (bases) form the basis of social stratification. Social stratification is the differentiation of a set of people in a hierarchical order within a certain base (economic, political, professional, etc.). There are many bases for social stratification. So, P. Sorokin identifies 3 of them: economic, political, professional; M. Weber especially emphasized such a basis (type) of social stratification as prestige. A number of other bases (types) of social stratification were also proposed: ethnic, religious, lifestyle, etc.

1.6 Social mobility

Social stratification involves more or less free movement of individuals from one social group to another. This movement is called social mobility. So, social mobility is any transition of an individual from one social position to another. The easier it is to carry out such a transition, the more open (“transparent”) this basis of social stratification is. There are 2 main types of social mobility: vertical and horizontal. By horizontal social mobility, or movement, we mean the transition of an individual or social object from one social group to another, located at the same level in the hierarchical system; under vertical mobility - the movement of an individual or social object from one social layer to another. Depending on the direction of movement, there are 2 types of vertical mobility: upward and downward, that is, social descent and social ascent. P. Sorokin identifies the following channels of social mobility: army, church, school, government groups, political organizations and parties, professional organization, enterprises, family, etc.

1.7 Historical types of stratification systems

Several historical types of social stratification can be distinguished. Thus, E. Giddens highlights slavery, castes, estates, classes. It is in this order that the opportunity for vertical social mobility increases in these types of social stratification.

1.8 The place of the middle class in modern society

The structure of modern Western society resembles the shape of an elongated lemon. The main basis for filling the social structure in Western countries is the middle strata. When it is necessary to emphasize the special role of the middle strata in the social structure of Western society, the term “middle class” is used. Despite the fact that the middle class in Western European and American society is a guarantor of stability, it varies greatly in size in different Western countries. The so-called decile coefficient (the ratio of the income levels of the richest 10% to the poorest 10%) is also very different in Western countries.

As a rule, the decile coefficient and the share of the middle class are indicators that strongly overlap. The lower the decile coefficient, the smaller the share of the middle class in society, and vice versa. The lowest decile coefficient was observed in the Nordic countries - Sweden, Finland, Norway. The largest of the developed countries in the USA, Portugal. Therefore, despite the best economic development of the USA among developed countries, the share of the middle class in the USA is noticeably lower than in Sweden, Finland and a number of other European countries (in the Nordic countries the share of the middle class often exceeds 90%).

The term “middle class” is interpreted in different ways in Russian sociology. Terminological uncertainty largely arose due to the use of this concept in relation to Russian society. What is considered the middle class in Russia? The answers to this question are diametrically opposed.

The extreme points of view are as follows:

1. The middle class constituted the majority of the population in the USSR and constitutes the majority of the population in modern Russia. Although he “sank” somewhat in the social structure, i.e. his position in the social structure became lower than it was in the USSR. In this case, the middle class is understood as a synonym for the middle strata (the strata that make up the majority of the population).

2. There was no middle class in the USSR. It does not exist in Russia either, since the economic position of a Western representative of the middle class and a Russian applicant for this “title” are incomparable.

Social structure can be studied both in a static position, recorded at a certain point in time, and in dynamics, i.e. from the point of view of its changes in time and space. If we talk about social structure from the point of view of dynamics, then it is necessary to pay attention to the following concepts: social action, social interaction and social change.

1.9 Social action

The dynamics of social processes begin with social action. Social action is the simplest unit of social activity, a concept introduced into sociology by M. Weber to designate the action of an individual, which is aimed at solving his life problem and consciously focused on the behavior of others. Not every action is social. An action becomes social when it is focused on other people. Social action is motivated by a certain human need, which takes the form of an ideal goal. Here is the internal impulse of action, its energy source. M. Weber identified 4 types of social action: goal-oriented, value-rational, affective, traditional.

1 Purposeful action is carried out based on the goal that the individual has set for himself. He acts this way because he is confident that his action is moving him towards his intended goal.

2 In value-rational action, the individual first of all pays attention to his hierarchy of values and to those values that he considers important. He builds his action based on them.

3 Affective action is an action that arises not from rational motives, but as a result of sensory, emotional experiences.

4 Traditional action is an action that occurs due to the fact that a person does not think before committing it. He does this traditionally, out of habit.

Social action gives rise to social interaction.

1.10 Social interaction

Social interaction is systematic, regular actions of people directed at each other and aimed at causing an expected response, followed by the resumption of action. It is the interaction of people and communities that gives rise to society and social relations.

Social interaction can be divided into social contact and social interaction itself. Social contact differs from full-fledged social interaction in its short duration and impersonality. For example, when we come to the cloakroom, we hand our coat to the cloakroom attendant, get a number, and say “thank you.” She would have acted the same way if there was another person in our place. Social interaction in the full sense of the word occurs when, firstly, contacts become systematic, continuous and aimed at a specific person. Social interactions give rise to full-fledged social relationships.

The dynamics of social relations lead to social changes appearing in society.

1.11 Social change

Social change is any modification of the social organization of society in any of its social institutions, as well as in the social structure of society as a whole. Social change can be revolutionary and evolutionary. This depends on the depth and speed of social change. A social revolution involves deep and rapid changes in the social structure. The evolutionary development of society presupposes a smooth and extended change over time, a careful attitude towards the basic elements of the social structure, and the inadmissibility of social upheavals.

In modern Russia, the period of revolutionary changes seems to be ending. The social structure of Russia, which underwent enormous changes in 1986-1993, has stabilized. The economic basis of social stratification is dominated by the lower strata, located at and slightly below the poverty line. But there are not so many people who are completely impoverished. No drastic changes are expected in this regard. Numerous reforms implemented by the latest right-wing, liberal governments cannot change this situation and, most likely, will not be able to in the future, since right-wing, liberal governments do not have a priority task - the fight against poverty. This situation is typical not only for Russia, it is typical for almost all states. This is due to the fact that forces with different development vectors rely on different segments of the population. Traditionally, the right relies on the big and middle bourgeoisie, the left on wage workers. At the same time, any revolutionary changes in modern Russia, both “from above” and “from below,” are hardly possible.

Questions for self-control

1 What is a social institution? Give examples of social institutions.

2 What are the main features of social institutions?

3 What historical types of stratification did E Giddens identify?

4 What is social mobility?

5 What types of social mobility were identified by P Sorokin?

Chapter 2. Social groups and social communities

2.1 The concepts of social group and social community

The concepts of social group and social community are the most controversial in the sociological community. There are different views on the interpretation of both of these concepts, of which the 2 most common can be identified:

1. Communities are designated as synonyms for social groups. In this case, sociologists, as a rule, do not consider the community as such, limiting themselves to a detailed analysis of the definition of a social group.

2. The concepts of social group and social community are quite different. What, in this case, do experts understand by social group and social community?

A social community is a collection of individuals distinguished by relative integrity and acting as an independent subject of social action and behavior. Social communities are characterized by the presence the most common unifying features.

Social communities are distinguished by a huge variety of types and forms. They vary significantly both in quantitative composition and duration of existence. As a rule, a community can be distinguished by system-forming characteristics: territorial, ethnic, demographic and others. Different communities play different roles in the historical development of a particular society. There are communities that have virtually no influence on the historical development of society. They arise, exist for a short time and disintegrate. For example, cinema visitors at a certain show, bus passengers. Other communities that operate for quite a long time can influence society to a much greater extent. For example, students.

2.2 Ethnic community

An ethnic community, for example, is understood as a social community that is distinguished by ethnicity, i.e. these are people of a certain nation or nationality with habits, traditions and way of life characteristic of this nation or nationality. Ethnic communities can play a significant role in the historical development of society - the conquest of lands, the defense of their own territory - very often these events are associated with the active actions of one or another community. In addition, ethnic communities are always noticeable if they are located outside the territory that the community historically occupies. Then it forms a community based on the principle of a certain ethnic “community” within a certain territory.

The main ethnic communities of a given territory, as a rule, are forced to take into account such “communities” if they are large and strong. A historically established ethnic community in a certain territory is also called an ethnos. 4 The main historical forms of existence of an ethnic community: clan, tribe, nationality, nation. Clan - a group of blood relatives descending from the maternal or paternal line.

The characteristic features of the clan were primitive collectivism, the absence of private property, class division, and a monogamous family. Tribe is a type of ethnic community of people and social organization of pre-class society. The main distinguishing feature (sign) is the blood relationship between its members. The characteristic features of a tribe are the presence of a tribal territory, tribal identity, tribal self-government. Nationality is a form of socio-ethnic community of people, historically following the tribal community. If tribal associations are characterized by blood-kinship ties, then nationalities are characterized by territorial ties. A nation is a historically emerging type of ethnic group, a historical community of people, characterized by a stable integrity of economic life, language, territory, certain features of culture and life, psychological make-up and ethnic (national) self-awareness. A nation arises when a nationality moves to a higher quality level.

2.3 Interethnic relations

Interethnic relations are manifested in the interaction of different nations within a certain territory of residence. Friction in these relations can be a prerequisite for interethnic conflicts.

Interethnic conflicts are similar in nature to conflicts between other communities. Therefore, the ways of resolving interethnic conflicts differ little from the universal ways of resolving them (see more about this in the “Social Conflict” section of this publication).

Interethnic conflicts are to a greater or lesser extent based on the basis of nationalism and separatism.

Nationalism is an ideology based on the ideas of national superiority and national exclusivity and the interpretation of the nation as the main form of community.

Separatism is an ideology based on the desire of a certain community (most often ethnic) to separate, isolate and create their own states or other national-territorial entities within states.

2.4 National policy of the Russian state

The national policy of modern Russian society has the main goal of minimizing and localizing social conflicts.

Based on this goal, Russian policy is trying to solve 2 main tasks:

2) minimize ethnic contradictions between the indigenous population of the territories and settlers of other nationalities.

In modern Russian society, the main reasons for ethnic conflicts are the following:

1) Factors of ethnic opposition between Russian and national ethnic groups Perestroika processes in a number of national republics brought a nationalist elite to power. Representatives of this elite opposed themselves to the ethnic communities of Russians in this territory. As a result, a fairly similar situation arose in a number of republics, which for the most part did not emerge from the state of latent (hidden) conflict, but in this way decent tension was created. This situation was seen much more clearly in the example of the collapse of the USSR and on its basis the emergence of several independent states. In several states, the Russian and Russian-speaking ethnic group was practically forced out of the territory of these independent states. (Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan).

2) Economic factors, expressed in socio-economic inequality of regions. The poorest Russian republics are the republics of the North Caucasus. The extremely difficult economic situation in the North Caucasus, one of the indicators of which is the very high rate of decline in production in the perestroika and post-perestroika years, a large number of unemployed, complicated by the high multi-ethnicity of the republics and the competition of the Caucasian elites themselves, contributed to the formation of a zone of high interethnic tension.

To this should be added the mentality of the Caucasian peoples. (Mentality - features of the individual and social consciousness of people, their life positions, culture, behavior patterns, determined by the social environment, national traditions, etc.).

One of the basic aspects of the mentality of the Caucasian peoples is the unconditional provision of their far from small, as a rule, families with means of subsistence. This can be identified as an additional factor in interethnic tension. All these factors provide a high degree of interethnic tension in the republics of the North Caucasus (Dagestan, Karachay-Cherkessia).

3) Factors of social extremism of the national elite. (Extremism is a commitment to extreme views and measures, as well as the desire to achieve goals using the most radical methods, including all types of violence and terror).

A textbook example of the development of this type of conflict is the conflict in Chechnya. The Chechen national elite, supported at a certain stage by the Russian elite, set a course for building an independent Chechnya. Using extremist methods, the national, Chechen elite began to displace the Russian-speaking population outside the republic. At the same time, the structure of the Russian-Chechen conflict was a huge tangle of problems of an ethnic, economic, and political nature. As a result, the situation in Chechnya got out of the control of the Federal authorities. A large-scale, open ethnic conflict occurred. At the same time, the Chechen ethnic group itself is by no means united in opposing the Russian ethnic group. The Chechen ethnic group is strongly divided. Along with the presence of inter-ethnic conflict, there is clearly an intra-ethnic conflict - between some Chechen communities and other Chechen communities.

2.5 Classification of social communities and social groups

Classification of communities:

Massive

1) are structurally undifferentiated amorphous formations with rather expanded boundaries, with an uncertain qualitative and quantitative composition;

2) they may be characterized by a situational way of existence;

3) they are characterized by heterogeneity of composition, intergroup nature;

4) they may be characterized by unification on one basis or basis.

Group (social groups)

A social group is a collection of individuals who interact with each other in a certain way, are aware of their belonging to a given group and are recognized as members of this group from the point of view of others (R. Merton).

Social groups, in contrast to mass communities, are characterized by:

1) stable interaction, which contributes to the strength and stability of their existence in space and time;

2) a relatively high degree of cohesion;

3) clearly expressed homogeneity of composition, i.e. the presence of characteristics inherent in all individuals included in the group;

4) joining broader communities as structural entities.

Classification of social groups:

I.1. Small - the presence of direct personal contact, interpersonal relationships.

1 A small group is a fairly stable community of people in which social relations take the form of direct personal communication. This is, as a rule, a group of people, from 3 to 15 people, who are united by a common field of activity: work, communication and knowledge, are in direct contact, emotional relationships, contribute to the development of group norms and the dynamics of group processes. If there are more people, the group is divided into subgroups.

Distinctive features of a small group: a limited number of members, stability of composition, interactivity and information richness of communication, an informal level of perception of a person by a person, internal structure, a sense of belonging to the group.

A small group is characterized by general patterns:

Having a goal for joint activities;

Interaction of everyone with everyone;

The presence in the group of an organizing principle in the person of a leader, manager or informal structure of relations;

The number of connections increases in geometric progression, while the number of subjects increases in arithmetic progression;

The presence of emotional interpersonal relationships;

Development of a special group culture - traditions, norms, rules, standards, behavior that define the expectations of group members in relation to each other; Deviation from group standards is usually permitted only to the leader.

2. Large - groups that do not meet the conditions of small groups.

A large social group is structured, as a rule, as a social organization.

II. 1. Formal - with a strictly defined structure, rules and regulation of the actions of members of this group in the event that this activity is related to the official status of a member of the group. A formal group is characterized by the presence of structure, rationalization of functions, and division of responsibilities. According to the form of its organization, a formal social group is a social institution. Therefore, all the characteristics of a social institution (functions, characteristics, etc.) apply to a formal social group (see the section “The Social Structure of Society” in the topic “Social Institutions” of this publication).

2. Informal - without structure and everything listed in the characteristics of formal groups. Interaction between group members is built on the basis of interpersonal relationships on the initiative of the individuals themselves, their common interests, etc.

2.6 The role of social groups and communities in history

The role of social groups and communities in society is completely different. Most social groups and communities do not leave significant traces in the history of societies. The exception is elite groups and communities, groups and communities that directly influence the political development of society, as well as some groups and communities at the time of revolutionary upheavals or serious crises, when the development of the situation is sometimes strongly influenced by random factors. It is in this situation that communities and social groups can, through their actions, “turn” the situation in one direction or another. For example, during the development of the economic crisis in the USSR in the late 80s, a community such as miners played a major role. The vast majority of coal mines in the USSR did not ship coal beyond their region, so a serious energy crisis broke out, which in turn led to increased political instability in the country.

2.7 Group norms and sanctions

In social groups there are group values and norms. Group values are beliefs shared by a social group (or society as a whole, if we are talking about social values) about the goals that need to be achieved and the main ways and means that lead to these goals. In other words, social values help answer the question of how to relate to what already exists and what could be.

Group norms are derived from and based on group values. They no longer answer the question of attitude towards phenomena and processes occurring within the group and in society, but the question of what and how to do with them. If group values determine the general, strategic component of the group’s behavior, then group norms are specific guidelines for the behavior of an individual group member that define the boundaries of desirable and acceptable behavior of an individual in a specific situation from the point of view of this group. So, group norms are the rules of behavior, expectations and standards that regulate a person's behavior in accordance with the values of that particular group. It is clear that different groups have different values. Compliance with these norms is ensured in the group through the use of punishments and rewards. Each group has its own forms of encouragement, as well as forms of punishment. Encouragement can be an increase in the status of a group member, getting closer to the distinguished group “shrines,” group recognition of the special merits of a group member, etc. The forms of punishment are opposite. An extreme form of intragroup punishment is the exclusion of a group member from that group.

If we talk about society as a whole, then, similar to group values and group norms, there are social norms and values that regulate relationships in society as a whole.

Questions for self-control

1. What is a social community and a social group? What are the two extreme points of view regarding the definition of these concepts?

2. What types of social groups can be distinguished?

3. Why do group values and norms exist?

4. What is an ethnic community?

5. What underlies the ideology of nationalism and separatism?

Chapter 3. Personality as a subject of social relations

3.1 Concept of personality

Personality - one of the central concepts in sociology. The study of personality in sociology is noticeably influenced by philosophical concepts and psychological theories. Philosophy operates more with the capacious concept of “man,” which includes biological, rational, and cultural nature. Philosophers talk about man “in general,” about his meaning in life, about his role in the Universe, etc. When philosophers say “personality,” they most often mean “man.”

Psychology pays attention to the individual differences of people - to temperament, character, behavioral characteristics. Psychologists understand personality as individuality.

In sociology, personality is the integrity of a person’s social properties. Personality is a product of social development and the inclusion of the individual in the system of social relations.

Personality as subject of social relations characterized by a certain degree of independence from society, the ability to oppose oneself to it. Personal independence is associated with the ability to control one’s behavior, which is impossible without self-awareness and self-esteem.

When considering personality as object of social relations the emphasis is on the influence of society on accuracy, on its dependence on social and cultural expectations, social attitudes of the environment where the personality is formed.

3.2 Socialization of personality

Socialization is the process of assimilating cultural norms and mastering social roles. Thanks to socialization, a person becomes a capable member of society.

Many creatures are born completely ready for independent life, that is, they are born adults (for example, insects). Other creatures need some period to adapt to the world. This period is called childhood. It comes in different lengths: for birds - 1 season, for tigers, monkeys and elephants - several years

But no one except humans has socialization - the period when a person learns to live in society, in the world of social relations (and not just in his ecological niche, like animals). No social property is innate. A sense of conscience, responsibility, honor, etc. are not genetically transmitted.

Socialization is not only about studying at school or college. Such training is only a formal acquisition of knowledge. School cannot teach a person to be a good husband, business partner, attentive parent, son, etc. You have to learn this all your life in real, not laboratory conditions. Each social role includes many rules, cultural norms, and behavioral stereotypes that must be mastered. Growing up, a person acquires new roles (for example, father, boss) and must master them. Therefore, socialization continues throughout life.

It is clear that you can learn to live in society only by living in society. There are several real cases where human cubs were isolated from society and were raised by animals (such “Mowgli” are called feral people). Mowgli behaved like animals - they did not move on all fours, had a strong fear of fire, and did not laugh. When they were returned to human society, they acquired only the most basic skills, but did not learn to think abstractly, make friends, or smile. They mastered a speech consisting of no more than 30 words, and lived in human society for no more than 10 years.

That is, being in a social environment and socialization play a decisive role in the transformation of a biological being into a social one. This process means both the transformation of a person into an individual and into a personality.

The socialization process goes through stages that coincide with the main life cycles. These are childhood, youth, maturity, old age.

Stages of socialization. Childhood and adolescence - initial socialization, maturity and old age - continued socialization. The most important is the first stage, childhood, when the foundation of socialization is laid and 70% of the personality is formed. Therefore, children isolated from society die (as social beings), but adults do not.

The process of socialization does not take place without outside help. People and institutions help him. The specific people responsible for socialization are called agents of socialization. Institutions that influence socialization and direct it are called institutions of socialization. When they talk about the family in general, they call it an “institution” of socialization. And when they mean specific family members, they use the concept “agents”.

There are primary and secondary socialization.

There are two options for interpreting primary and secondary socialization.

The first interpretation is as follows. There are agents of primary socialization - parents, brothers, sisters, relatives, family friends, teachers, leaders in youth groups, etc. That is, those who directly affects a person. At the stage of secondary socialization, the institution of socialization begins to significantly influence the personality - the administration of the city, district, schools, universities, and the army.

The second interpretation is as follows. Primary socialization is “complete” socialization. Such socialization takes place mainly in childhood, in the case when, in the process of socialization, patterns of behavior and values are completely new, i.e. as if they “lay down” on a blank sheet of paper. Secondary socialization is the same as resocialization - restructuring of patterns of behavior, values, and perception of certain processes. Secondary socialization begins later than primary socialization and usually takes place in adulthood. However, it is incorrect to strictly tie two types of socialization to age - that is, to say that primary socialization takes place in childhood, and secondary socialization in adults, since in children and adolescents certain values can change and, conversely, an adult can receive some new experience at an already mature age.

3.3 Socialization and personality education

The process of socialization depends on the social organization of society, on the values to which society is committed. For example, in societies with a hunting and fishing type of economy, raising children is aimed at making them independent and self-reliant. And agricultural and livestock types emphasize responsibility and obedience. And this is justified - after all, the success of hunting and fishing depends more on the manifestation of individual initiative, on the ability to act according to the situation, on independence. And in farming, patience and responsibility are important.

Based on the upbringing of a child, there are 4 types of society:

1) weak discipline in both early and late childhood;

2) strict discipline in both early and late childhood;

3) in early childhood discipline is strict, in late childhood it is weak;

4) in early childhood discipline is weak, in late childhood it is strict.

For example, the Japanese belong to the fourth type of society - they provide young children with maximum freedom and practically do not punish them. Strictness appears later, as one grows older. The Japanese raise older children in the spirit of strict, obedient Confucian morality.

European societies before the 18th century practiced strict discipline at all ages. It was believed that children's self-will is the basis of all vices.

After the 18th century, Europe turns into the third type, because... concepts of human dignity, the right of a young person to make an independent choice of life path, etc. appear.

The education model is determined by sociocultural processes (in a totalitarian society it is impossible to create a liberal model of socialization). Specific performers, as a rule, cannot change this model at their own discretion.

The process of socialization is closely related to the stages of moral development of the individual.

1. In early childhood, a child is guided by selfish motives. He obeys in order to avoid punishment or in exchange for specific benefits and rewards.

2. At the next stage, children are guided by the “good child” model and strive to earn the trust of those they love. Gradually, an attitude is created: “what is good is what complies with the rules.” At this stage, moral consciousness is formed. People are aware of the rules of behavior in society and their necessity. A person begins to take actions, independently focusing on already accepted, internalized values.

3. But the actual freedom of behavior and self-regulation comes (and often does not come) much later, when a person realizes the conventionality of moral rules (relativism) and strives to find higher principles to which he subordinates his behavior - of his own free will.

3.4 Interpersonal relationships and conflicts in interpersonal relationships

Interpersonal relationships arise through interaction phenomena. Social interaction is the mutual influence of phenomena and processes, persons or communities, carried out through social activity. Two main levels of interactions: 1) interpersonal interaction and 2) inter-role interaction. 1) Interpersonal interaction is an interaction in which the social connection of people is determined by their common interests, friendship, affection, that is, relationships are built on a personal level. 2) Inter-role interaction is an interaction that is built on the basis of social status, people carrying out social interaction, and their social roles. After a certain time, interrole interaction can move to the interpersonal level if people have common interests that are not related to the status structure.

Interpersonal conflict is a conflict between individuals. There is no special specificity of interpersonal conflict, as opposed to social conflict. Therefore, we can talk about the typicality of interpersonal conflict as a social conflict. See more about structuring and resolving conflict in the section “Social Conflict”

Questions for self-control

1. What is socialization? Why is it necessary? What stages does it go through?

2. What is primary and secondary socialization?

3. How does socialization depend on the type of society?

4. How is socialization related to upbringing and stages of moral development of the individual?

Chapter 4. Family in the social structure of society

4.1 Family as a social institution

Family is a group of people connected by kinship or marriage, which provides for the upbringing of children and satisfies other significant needs.

The family is the main carrier of cultural patterns inherited from generation to generation. It is in the family that a person learns social roles, receives the basics of education, and behavioral skills.

In most primitive societies (tribes of Central Africa, many peoples of the North), the family is the only truly functioning social institution. There are no rulers, formal laws, or specialized professions. Family fills the entire life of these people. All issues of distribution of power, products, and other values are resolved within individual families or on the councils of several families.

The family is one of the main social institutions in society. As tribes increase in size comes the need for formal political organization. New institutions are emerging that take on some of the family functions.

Like all institutions of society, the family is a system of accepted norms and procedures for the implementation of functions important to society.

4.2 Socio-demographic structure of society

In sociology and demography, it is customary to divide families into three types based on their number of children: families with few children are those where there are few children from a socio-psychological point of view. For the emergence of primary group relationships, two children are not enough; two are only a couple. A two-child family is a family consisting of two couples - spouses and children; pair relationships in them cannot be considered strictly group, because Relationships are primarily formed starting with three members of the group. On the other hand, there may be few children in a family from the point of view of population reproduction (demographic) - in order for previous generations to be replaced by subsequent ones, approximately 2.5 children per family or a quarter of two-child families, and a third - three-child families, 20% - four-child families and 7% have five children or more, and 14% are childless and have one child. The real structure of families by children in Russia, where the birth rate fell below 16 births per 1000 inhabitants - the limit of simple population reproduction - and reached 11.5 per 1000 in 1992, corresponds to an average of 1.59 children per family. This means an excessive predominance of small families from 1 to 16 years old - approximately 90% of them in the Russian Federation.

Large families with 5 or more children - where there are many more children to replace generations - are less than 1%. Average-child families with 3-4 children, where there are enough children for slightly expanded reproduction, are about 9%. Thus, the structure of families in terms of number of children is sharply distorted: there are more than 15 times fewer large families than they should be, 5 times fewer families with average children, while there are 5 times more single-child families, so the birth rate does not compensate for the mortality rate. Moreover, in 1992, the mortality rate of 12.6 per 1000 inhabitants exceeded the birth rate, revealing the process of depopulation (degeneration of the nation), which consists of the spread of small children that began in Russia in the 60s and the accelerated growth of mortality since the mid-70s.

A huge variety of family structures is formed when the task of classifying families is set, taking into account changes in the family over time from the start to the finish of family life. The introduction of the parameter of duration, length of marriage and family, and changes in the family over the course of life led to the concept of the family life cycle or family life cycle. Perhaps the word cycle is inaccurate here, because... It is only when family generations change that the same stages of formation and disintegration of the family as a socio-psychological integrity are repeated. But in contrast to the dynamics of relationships between family members and rapid changes in the state of the family atmosphere, the term cycle of family life is applicable to characterize the repeatability of processes that occur during successive changes in the stages of family functioning.

The development of family cycle diagrams is an independent task of family sociology (based on statistical data on the prevalence of certain stages of the cycle in the family structure of the population.) The family cycle is determined by the stages of parenthood according to family events from the beginning to the end of marriage. The family cycle can be formed for different reasons: Jan Szczepanski identifies, provided there is no divorce, three phases: before the birth of a child, socialization before separation from the parents of adult children and the phase of gradual disintegration of the marriage, other scientists increase the number of phases and their content.

Family functions in most societies differ little from each other.

1. Function of sexual regulation. With the help of the family, society organizes and regulates the natural sexual needs of people. Often, after starting a family, a chaotic intimate life turns into a stable marital relationship.

2. Reproductive function. One of the main tasks of any society is the reproduction of new generations. It is important that children are physically and mentally healthy.

3. Socialization function. The family is central to the socialization process. The family is the primary group for a child; personal development begins with it. A person forever retains the basic behavioral patterns instilled in early childhood.

4.Function of emotional satisfaction. Humans have many needs to communicate with loved ones. Doctors believe that an important reason for difficulties in communication and even illness is the lack of love and warmth in the family. Crimes are more often committed by those who were deprived of family care.

5. Status function. Each person raised in a family receives as an inheritance statuses similar to the statuses of his family members. This is belonging to a certain social stratum, nationality, etc. The family carries out role preparation of the child for status, instilling in him the appropriate interests, values, and lifestyle.

6. Protective function. The family provides physical, economic, psychological protection of its members (although in different societies with different intensity). We are accustomed to the fact that when we hurt a person’s interests, we hurt the interests of his family.

7. Economic function. Family members run a common household. The norms of family life include mandatory assistance and support for each family member if he or she experiences economic difficulties.

4.3 Family as a small group

In any society, the family has a dual character. On the one hand, it is a social institution, and on the other, it is a small group. The family has all the characteristics of a small group. It has a limited, well-defined number of members, stability of composition, a sense of belonging of each family member to a given group, usefulness of communication within the group, an informal level of perception of a person by a person within the family, there is also an internal structure in the family.

Historical types and forms of family relationships:

1) Families, depending on the representation of different generations in them, can be nuclear (the presence of only two generations in the family: parents and children) and extended (married couple, children, parents of spouses, other relatives). Urbanization processes in the modern world have led to the predominance of the nuclear family.

2) Based on the type of leadership and distribution of family responsibilities, there are 3 types of families:

1. Traditional or patriarchal family. At least three generations live under one roof, the role of leader is assigned to the eldest man. A traditional family is characterized by:

1) the woman’s economic dependence on her husband;

3) consolidation of women's and men's responsibilities - the husband is the breadwinner, the wife is the housewife.

2. Neotraditional family. It retains attitudes toward male leadership and division of responsibilities, but, unlike families of the first type, without sufficient objective grounds. This type of family is called exploitative because, along with the right to earn money, the woman receives the “exclusive right” to domestic work.

3. Egalitarian family (family of equals). A family of this type is characterized by a fair division of household responsibilities and joint adoption of important decisions for the family (in Western European countries, cases where a man takes parental leave are common).

3) According to the criterion of the significance of power:

1. Patriarchal - the top position in the power structure is occupied by the father.

2. Matriarchal - the mother occupies the top position.

4) According to the social status of the spouses before marriage:

1. Homogeneous - spouses from close or identical social strata.

2. Heterogeneous - spouses from different social strata.

5) Based on the principle of inheritance:

1. Patrilineal. Inheritance rights are transmitted through the paternal line.

2.Matrilineal. Inheritance rights are transmitted through the maternal line.

6) By the number of children:

1) Large families,

2) Small children,

3) Childless.

4.4 Trends in change and development of the family in modern society

The family is a rather changeable social institution. Changes in family relationships over a long period of time are very noticeable. There are different classifications of these changes. For example, Russian sociologist A.G. Efendiev uses the following classification.

First, the family is moving in a direction from traditional to modern. With traditionalism, what first catches the eye is the kinship-family principle of organizing social life, the preponderance of kinship values over maximizing the benefits of the individual and over economic efficiency. Modernism, on the contrary, separates kinship from socio-economic and political life and replaces the interests of kinship with the economic goals of the individual.

Secondly, an agrarian society has the family household as its main economic unit; as a rule, all adults work at home and not for pay, but for themselves.

The modernist model is associated with the separation of home and work; hired labor appears in large enterprises with individual wages, regardless of status in family and kinship networks. It is important to emphasize that family production does not disappear altogether (although such a trend is observed), but ceases to be the leading, main element of the economy, and in urbanized regions the consumer type of family is spreading, where family activities, in addition to genetic and physiological processes, are supplemented by the consumption of services from non-family institutions for account of wages earned by family members outside the home. However, due to the sociocultural division of family responsibilities, women participating in hired non-family labor continue to run the household.

Concept and types of social relations. Social relations: signs and types Example of social relations in society

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