Abu Bakr al-Siddiq (d. 13/634)- the closest companion and friend of the Prophet Muhammad (peace and blessings be upon him), an outstanding public and political figure, the first righteous caliph. The Prophet (peace and blessings be upon him) called him `Abdullah, al-Atiq and al-Siddiq. Came from the Time tribe. Born 2 years before the year of the Elephant (572). His father's name was Abu Kuhafa Usman, his mother was Umm al-Khair Salma.
Abu Bakr was one of the first to accept Islam and devoted his entire life to its ideals. He was a respectable person, engaged in the clothing and fabric trade. He made a large fortune of 40,000 dirhams, which he spent entirely on the needs of the Muslim community.
He was a close friend of the Prophet Muhammad (peace and blessings be upon him) and did not part with him. When solving many vital problems, the Messenger of Allah (peace and blessings be upon him) often consulted Abu Bakr. The Arabs even called him “the Prophet’s vizier.”
From the very beginning of the prophecy of Muhammad (peace and blessings be upon him), Abu Bakr believed his every word. For example, when the Chosen One of God (peace and blessings be upon him) announced that he had traveled in one night from Mecca to al-Quds (Jerusalem), from where his famous ascension of Isra and Mi'raj took place, Abu Bakr was the first to announce that he believed every word of Muhammad (peace and blessings be upon him), for which he called him al-Siddiq (“faithful”).
While still in Mecca, Abu Bakr made great efforts to develop the Muslim community, did charity work, helped the needy, and ransomed slaves whom the pagans had subjected to torture. When the persecution began, the Prophet Muhammad (peace and blessings be upon him) decided to send Abu Bakr to Ethiopia, where a significant part of Muslims emigrated.
He set out on the road, but on the way he met one of the influential tribal leaders, Ibn Dukunna, who took him under his protection, and they returned to Mecca together. Then Abu Bakr refused to profess his faith in secret and continued his active work, losing the patronage of Ibn Dukunna because of this.
13 years after the beginning of the prophetic activity of Muhammad (peace and blessings be upon him), the hijra (migration) of Muslims from Mecca to Medina began. One of the last to leave Mecca was the Prophet himself (peace and blessings be upon him), who went to Medina with Abu Bakr. Together they hid from the pagans pursuing them in the Saur cave. This episode is reflected in the verse of the Koran: “Here they were both in the cave, and he said to his companion: “Do not be sad, for Allah is with us” (9:40).
In Medina, Prophet Muhammad (peace and blessings be upon him) became related to Abu Bakr by marrying his daughter Aisha. Abu Bakr participated in all important affairs of the community, laying the foundations of Muslim statehood, took part in the battles of Badr, Uhud, Khandaq, Khaybar, Hunayn and other battles. At the Battle of Badr he fought with his son Abd ar-Rahman, who remained a pagan and opposed the Muslims.
When the Prophet Muhammad (peace and blessings be upon him) could no longer lead collective prayers due to health reasons, he entrusted them to Abu Bakr, and this circumstance became one of the decisive ones in electing him as the first caliph, since leadership in the divine work (prayer ), transmitted by the Prophet (peace and blessings be upon him), meant guidance in earthly affairs.
After the death of the Prophet Muhammad (peace and blessings be upon him) in 11/632, the Ansars (mainly Khazraj), concerned future fate young Muslim state, urgently gathered in the sakif (under the canopy) of the Medina family of Banu Sa'id and advocated for the nomination of Sa'd ibn Ubada as caliph. Having learned about the meeting of the Ansars, Abu Bakr, `Umar ibn al-Khattab and Abu Ubaidah Amir ibn al-Jarrah urgently arrived there and convinced the Ansars that the Muhajirs were also interested in further strengthening the state and ensuring the safety of its citizens.
The Ansars agreed to choose a caliph from the representatives of the Quraish tribe, as was bequeathed by the Prophet Muhammad (peace and blessings be upon him). Abu Bakr proposed the candidacy of Umar ibn al-Khattab, but Umar and Abu `Ubaidah said that Abu Bakr himself was most worthy of the title of successor to the Prophet (peace and blessings be upon him). 12 Rabi (I) 11 AH. Abu Bakr was elected the first caliph. The next day, Abu Bakr took the oath of the people in the mosque of Medina.
One of Abu Bakr's greatest merits as caliph was the preservation and strengthening of Muslim statehood. The leaders of many tribes in Arabia were interested in pre-Islamic tribal fragmentation and refused to submit central government and pay taxes, including zakat.
Separatist actions were regarded as apostasy (ridda). In various regions of Arabia, false prophets became more active - Musailima, Tulayha, al-Aswad, Sajah. Abu Bakr took a decisive position in the fight against apostates, refused any compromises and started a war, as a result of which all anti-state protests were suppressed, and the Caliphate became united and strong state capable of repelling any external aggression.
Success in the wars against the apostates allowed Muslims to begin military operations in Iraq and Syria against the Persian and Byzantine troops, who did not want the strengthening of the Muslim state and actively supported the apostates.
The Muslim army defeated the Persians in Iraq. In Syria, the troops of the Caliphate approached the Yarmouk River, where a battle took place with large forces of the Byzantine Empire.
In the midst of the Battle of Yarmouk, the Muslim army received news of the death of Abu Bakr. He was buried near the tomb of the Prophet Muhammad (peace and blessings be upon him). Before his death, he bequeathed the post of head of state to Umar ibn al-Khattab.
Even as caliph, Abu Bakr led a very modest lifestyle, having only a meager salary from the state treasury and a plot of land near Medina. According to his will, 1/5 of this plot was transferred to the state as a donation, and the remaining part was divided among his children. Abu Bakr also bequeathed all personal property and remaining funds to the state treasury.
Abu Bakr is also credited with collecting the Koran into a single book.
The second righteous caliph Umar ibn al-Khattab
Umar ibn al-Khattab (d. 23/644)- the closest companion and friend of the Prophet Muhammad (peace and blessings be upon him), an outstanding public and political figure, the 2nd Righteous Caliph. Born approx. 585 in Mecca. Father - Khattab ibn Nufail, mother - Khantama. Was a shepherd, then took up trade, became influential person in Mecca. He was often invited to resolve various conflicts between tribes.
Umar had a stern character and at first took an irreconcilable position towards Muslims. He decided to kill the Prophet Muhammad (peace and blessings be upon him) because he called on the people to move away from the faith of their ancestors, but he learned that his sister and brother-in-law also accepted Islam and found them reading the Koran. He beat them, but became interested in the verses of the Koran, read them, believed and accepted Islam. At the same time, he refused to profess his faith in secret, and immediately after his acceptance of Islam, Muslims for the first time performed a collective prayer near the Kaaba.
Umar was next to the Prophet (peace and blessings be upon him) and provided his protection. Hijra was performed openly.
During the Medina period of the life of the Prophet Muhammad (peace and blessings be upon him), Umar actively participated in all the affairs of the community, participated in the battles of Badr, Uhud, Khandaq, Khaibar and other battles, and became one of the leaders of the Muslim state. During the reign of Abu Bakr he was his main assistant. Before his death, Abu Bakr bequeathed the Caliphate to Umar. In 13/634 Umar became caliph; all Muslims unanimously supported him.
Umar was a consistent successor of the work of the Prophet Muhammad (peace and blessings be upon him) and Abu Bakr. His outstanding personal qualities, talent, and skillful government led to the great successes of the Caliphate.
The power of the Caliphate extended to the Middle East, Iran, Egypt and part of the North. Africa. Thanks to these victories, the population of all these regions became familiar with Islam. Umar played an exceptional role in the spread of Islam and its transformation into a world religion. He was an expert in hadith and Islamic law (fiqh), and an interpreter of the Koran.
Killed as a result of a conspiracy by the Persian slave Firuz (Abu Lulu) in the month of Zulhija 23/644 while leading morning prayers. Before his death, he managed to order the convening of a Council to select a new caliph.
The third righteous caliph Uthman ibn Affan
Uthman ibn Affan (575–35/656)- an outstanding political and public figure, the 3rd righteous caliph, relative and companion of the Prophet Muhammad (peace and blessings be upon him). Full name: Uthman ibn Affan ibn Abu al-As ibn Umayya ibn Abdi al-Shams ibn Abd Manaf al-Qurayshi al-Umawi. Mother - Arwa bint Qurayz bint Rabia bint Habib bint Abd Shams.
Uthman was one of the first to convert to Islam. His uncle Hakam ibn Abu al-As tried to force his nephew to return to the pagan faith of his ancestors, but to no avail. Uthman married the daughter of the Prophet Muhammad (peace and blessings be upon him) Ruqayyya (perhaps even before the beginning of the prophetic mission of Muhammad, peace and blessings be upon him). From this marriage, Usman had a son, Abdullah, who died in infancy.
During the period of persecution of Muslims, Uthman and his wife emigrated to Ethiopia, then he tried to return to Mecca, and together with other Muslims he made the hijra (migration) to Medina. There he took an active part in the formation of the Muslim state, in all battles, except for the Battle of Badr (due to the death of his wife; but the Prophet Muhammad (peace and blessings be upon him) considered Usman to have taken part in the battle and allocated him part of the trophies). Then Uthman married another daughter of the Prophet Muhammad (peace and blessings be upon him) - Umm Kulthum, which is why he began to be called Zu'n-Nurayn ("owner of 2 luminaries").
In 6 A.H. during the minor pilgrimage, Uthman acted as a parliamentarian to the Meccans; Due to his late return, rumors of his death spread, leading to an escalation of the situation and ultimately the signing of the Treaty of Khudaiba.
Usman was wealthy man, provided Muslims with material support, covered most of the costs during the Muslim army’s campaign against Tabuk. Was next to the Prophet (peace and blessings be upon him) during the Farewell Hajj.
During the reign of caliphs Abu Bakr and Umar, Uthman actively supported them and provided them with assistance. After the assassination attempt on Umar in 23/644, by his order, he became part of the “Council of Six” and was elected caliph.
As a ruler, he became the successor of the work of the Prophet Muhammad (peace and blessings be upon him) and the first caliphs. During his reign, a special commission was created to finalize the Koran and its copies were reproduced.
During the reign of Uthman, wars continued with the external enemies of the Caliphate and the expansion of its borders: Sasanian Iran was defeated, Cyprus, the territories of Syria and the North were annexed. Africa.
At the end of Uthman's reign, the internal political situation in the Caliphate became more complicated; Rebellious groups arose, dissatisfied with the abuses of some provincial governors. Anti-state propaganda led to open rebellion. Uthman refused to comply with the rebels' demands. 18 Zulhija 35 AH. the conspirators attacked Uthman and killed him. At the time of his death he was 82 years old.
The fourth righteous caliph Ali ibn Abu Talib
Ali ibn Abu Talib (died 40/661)- an outstanding political and public figure, cousin and son-in-law of the Prophet Muhammad (peace and blessings be upon him), his closest companion, the 4th Righteous Caliph. He was also called Abu Hasan, Abu Turab and Haydar. Prophet Muhammad (peace and blessings be upon him) called him Murtaza - “deserving contentment, chosen one”, and Maula (this word has many meanings, for example, “master”, “beloved”). During the Caliphate, Ali received the title Amir al-Mu'minin ("Commander of the Faithful").
His father was Abu Talib, his mother was Fatima bint Assad, his grandfather was `Abd al-Muttalib. From an early age, Ali was close to the Prophet Muhammad (peace and blessings be upon him), was one of the first to accept Islam (at the age of 10) and devoted his whole life to serving the ideals of Islam.
He did not leave the Prophet Muhammad (peace and blessings be upon him) throughout the entire Meccan period of his life. When on the eve of the Hijrah the Meccans tried to kill the Prophet (peace and blessings be upon him), Ali, risking his life, took his place and diverted the attention of the conspirators, giving the Prophet (peace and blessings be upon him) the opportunity to travel to Medina.
Having left for Medina, Ali was next to the Prophet (peace and blessings be upon him) in all his affairs. At the Battle of Badr (2 AH) he was the standard bearer of the Muslims. Immediately before the battle, he fought with one of the leaders of the Meccan pagans, Walid ibn Mughira, and killed him, then hastened to the aid of Abu Ubaydah and killed his opponent. For his heroism he was nicknamed “The Lion of Allah.” The Prophet (peace and blessings be upon him) gave him a sword with a forked blade - “Zulfiqar”. After the victory at Badr, a sword, shield and camel were given to him as a trophy.
After the Battle of Badr, he married Fatima, the daughter of the Prophet Muhammad (peace and blessings be upon him). From this marriage 3 sons were born - Hasan, Husain and Muhsin, and 2 daughters - Zainab and Umm Kulthum.
In the Battle of Uhud (3 AH) he personally defended the Prophet (peace and blessings be upon him), and was wounded. He distinguished himself in battles with the Jews in the oasis of Khaibar (6 AH). During the conquest of Mecca, he was the standard-bearer of the Muslim army and, together with the Prophet (peace and blessings be upon him), crushed the idols of the Kaaba, then participated in the battles against the Hawazin and Saqif tribes (8 AH).
At the time of the election of Abu Bakr as the first caliph, Ali was busy preparing the funeral of the Prophet (peace and blessings be upon him).
Ali was distinguished not only for his fighting qualities, but also for his wisdom and learning. After the death of the Prophet (peace and blessings be upon him), with all his might he contributed to the strengthening of the Caliphate and the development of Muslim society.
During the reign of Caliph Umar, he served as the supreme qadi (judge) of the Caliphate. Umar often consulted with him on various state issues and, leaving Medina, left Ali in his place.
Immediately before his death, Umar named Ali one of 6 candidates for the post of head of state.
During the reign of Caliph Uthman, he continued to act as the supreme judge. During the siege of Usman's house, he tried to avert danger from him and negotiated with the rebels, sending his sons Hasan and Husayn to protect the caliph.
After the assassination of Usman, Ali was offered to lead the state. He renounced power for a long time, but in 35/656 he became the 4th Righteous Caliph.
Ali came to power during the civil war in the Caliphate: the people and companions of the Prophet (peace and blessings be upon him) demanded immediate punishment of the killers of Uthman, while the rebels had sufficient military forces. Ali tried to gain the trust of all the companions and provincial rulers.
In 36 A.H. went to Basra, where the rebels were concentrated, to negotiate with the widow of the Prophet Muhammad (peace and blessings be upon him) Aisha and influential companions Talha and Zubair. The rebels provoked a domestic conflict between the parties, which led to a major battle called "Camel" (Jamal).
Despite the victory of Ali's troops, political situation became even more complicated. Various groups in Egypt and Iraq opposed him. Caliph Ali met the most serious resistance in the person of the ruler of Syria, Mu'awiya ibn Abu Sufyan, who refused to recognize him as caliph.
In the battle of Siffin (37 AH), the oppressed warriors of Mu'awiya skewered the sheets of the Koran on spears and called Ali to God's judgment. Ali agreed to submit to the decision of the arbitration court, but the trial ended inconclusively, and some of Ali's supporters moved away from him and formed the Kharijite sect, which opposed both Ali and Mu'awiya.
At the Battle of Nahrawan (38 AH), Ali defeated the main forces of the Kharijites, but was unable to completely eliminate the rebellion. The Kharijites increased their influence, penetrated into all spheres of social and political life of the Caliphate, including into Ali’s army, used the tactics of guerrilla warfare, conspiracies, and committed terrorist and sabotage actions.
Taking advantage of the split in Ali's camp, Mu'awiya took active action. In 38 A.H. his commander Amr ibn al-As captured Egypt in 39 AH. The Syrians occupied Iraq in 40 AH. Mu'awiya's troops entered the Hejaz and Yemen. Ali's army managed to stop the advance, but the caliph himself fell at the hands of the Kharijite Ibn Muljam, who avenged the defeat at Nahravan.
Ali is one of the best experts on the Koran, tafsir, hadith, and fiqh. He learned all these sciences directly from the Prophet Muhammad (peace and blessings be upon him), who highly valued Ali as a capable and competent person.
Ali knew the entire Koran by heart and was one of the secretaries of the Prophet (peace and blessings be upon him), memorized and wrote down the Revelations (wahy) received by Muhammad (peace and blessings be upon him). Even after becoming the head of state, he did not give up his studies in science and encouraged its development, founded a school in Medina, and continued to issue legal regulations (fatwas).
Ali had many positive qualities, was brave, fearless, steadfastly endured hardships and hardships, never lost heart or lost hope, achieved his goal or fought to the last.
Abu Bakr, Umar, Usman and Ali, who after the death of the Prophet Muhammad led the Muslim community for almost 30 years and, even during the life of the prophet, took part in one way or another in the activities of the community, and were also connected with the prophet by blood or marriage.
In subsequent centuries, the reign of the Rightly Guided Caliphs was called the "Golden Age" of Islam, when the original Muslim virtues flourished, and the caliphs themselves were given the title " ar-rashidun“- walking the righteous path, in order to distinguish them from those who came to power in different provinces of the once united Muslim state.
Abu Bakr al-Siddiq
(born in 572, reigned 632–644) - a successful Meccan merchant, was one of the first who immediately and unconditionally believed Muhammad and began to help him. He spared no expense for the needs of the Muslim community. One of his expenses was the ransom of slaves, the liberation of whom he aimed the only condition- their acceptance of Islam. It was he who accompanied Muhammad when the prophet decided to move to Medina (622), having learned about the conspiracy against him. To confuse their pursuers, Muhammad and Abu Bakr spent three days in a cave on Mount Saur near the road leading to Yemen, waiting for their pursuers to return to Mecca.
In Medina, Abu Bakr married his daughter to the prophet. He looked after Muhammad in every possible way and accompanied him on military campaigns. In the ninth year of the Hegira (630–631), Muhammad entrusted Abu Bakr with the leadership of the pilgrims to Mecca. At the end of Muhammad's life, Abu Bakr sometimes led Friday prayers.
When Muhammad, leaving no male heir, died (August 632) muhajirun(Muslim Meccans who moved to Medina) and Ansar(the Medinians who converted to Islam) could not decide who to choose as Muhammad's successor. Umar ibn al-Khattab, one of the prophet's companions, reminded those present of the role played by Abu Bakr during the life of the prophet and was the first to extend his hand to him for the oath. Everyone else followed his example.
A reasonable and not vain man, Abu Bakr invited the closest companions of the prophet, Umar ibn al-Khattab, as well as Abu Ubaydah, a warrior who was better versed in military matters, to manage the community.
The reign of Abu Bakr coincided with the period called ridda(“falling away” - Arabic), because after the death of the Prophet Muhammad, some tribes considered themselves free from treaty obligations and refused to pay taxes. Abu Bakr managed to suppress tribal separatism and restore Muslim possessions in Arabia. Under him, a regular army began to form, and Arab troops advanced to the borders of Iran. In 633, Abu Bakr sent an army to the Byzantine borders, considering the annexation of Byzantine lands to be the fulfillment of the prophet's will. At the same time, Arabs appeared in Southern Palestine and Mesopotamia. The conquered cities signed an agreement under which the townspeople were obliged to pay a poll tax of a dinar for each adult male. The Arab historian al-Balazuri (812–892) wrote that Abu Bakr, seeing off the soldiers on a campaign, admonished them with the words: “When you meet the enemy, and Allah gives you victory, do not be angry and do not mutilate the bodies of your enemies. Don't be treacherous, but don't be a coward either. Do not kill a child, an old man, or a woman. Don’t burn palm trees, don’t cut down fruit trees, don’t slaughter more livestock than you need for food... You will pass by people in their cells (i.e. monks - author) who say that they have dedicated themselves to God, so leave them alone... "
In the summer of 634 Muslim troops approached Damascus. But the news of the beginning of the conquest of Syria found Abu Bakr on his deathbed. He decided to appoint his successor himself in order to rid the community of strife. He called Umar ibn Khattab the most worthy.
Umar (Omar I) ibn al-Khattab al-Faruk
Umar ibn al-Khattab al-Faruk (born in 585, reigned 634–644) - the second of the “righteous caliphs”. He converted to Islam in 661, 4 years before the Hijra. According to legend, at first he was opposed to Muslims, but after he became acquainted with the text of Surah “Ta ha” (Sura 20, cm. QURAN) which his sister gave him, wanted to meet Muhammad. After this meeting, he became one of the most loyal supporters of the prophet.
During the Medina period, Umar became famous for his courage, took part in the main battles of the Muslims (at the Badr well - in 624 and at the Hills ( Uhud) – in 625). Then he became an adviser to Muhammad, and over time became related to him: his daughter Khavsa married the prophet after her first husband died in battle.
All biographers of Umar noted his selflessness and honesty. A lot of money passed through his hands at that time, but he himself did not strive to get rich. Muslim tradition also preserves numerous references to Umar’s modesty and piety.
Caliph Umar is credited with creating the administrative system that formed the basis for the management of the future Muslim state. In 641 a register was created ( sofa al-mukatila), on the basis of which members of the prophet's family, his companions and participants in the Muslim conquests ( futuh) received an annual allowance. When the scribes wrote the name of Umar at the head of the list, he himself put Aisha, the beloved wife of the late Muhammad, in first place, offering her an allowance of 12 thousand dirhams annually.
Under Umar, a tax system was created that operated throughout the state. The system separated Muslims and Christians, winners and losers, not only by the size of taxes, but also by a whole list of prohibitions. Thus, the punishment for ridiculing the prophet and his faith was specifically stipulated. It was forbidden to touch a Muslim woman, to attack the life and property of Muslims, to harbor enemies of Islam, etc. In addition, non-Muslims were required to “distinguish themselves in dress” from Muslims; they were not allowed to build dwellings higher than the houses of the faithful, drink wine in public, openly wear crosses, have weapons, ride horses, etc.
In 637–638, a new chronology system was introduced, in which the hijra of the prophet was taken as the basis. At first it was a question of dating the correspondence, but then in the minds of Muslims there was a division of historical memory into the period before Islam ( jahiliyya) and after the adoption of Islam - from the first year of the Hijra (622).
Thanks to Umar, the foundations of the legal system were laid, and judges acted in a number of cities - cadi, which resolved conflicts and disputes on the basis of Islamic institutions. In particular, punishments for drunkenness and adultery for women were legalized.
In the conquered lands, Umar began to organize military camps ( amsar). In different parts of the caliphate, urban settlements of a new type arose, where the quarter was occupied by warriors of the same detachment (as a rule, people from the same tribe). There were such garrisons in Fustat (now a region of Cairo), Kufa, and Mosul.
At the proposal of the caliph, urban construction was carried out according to Byzantine principles: the width of the main streets should have been 40 cubits (cubit - 38–46 cm), and the secondary ones - 20–30 cubits. The Caliph paid much attention to the development of crafts and trade. He believed that the craft of a merchant is no less complex than military affairs, for “Shaitan tries to seduce an honest merchant with easy profits by deceiving the buyer.”
When Egypt was conquered, Umar was informed that this area could supply wheat to other areas of the caliphate. But the problem of grain transportation had to be solved. The Caliph was reminded that during the time of Emperor Trajan (at the turn of the 1st and 2nd centuries AD), a canal was built connecting the Nile and the Red Sea. The canal was subsequently abandoned and filled in. Umar ordered to clear the canal bed, and the bread from the Nile granary flowed into Arabia along the shortest route.
During the period of famine (639), which struck Palestine, Syria and Iraq, by order of the Caliph, food began to be delivered from other provinces. The following year, the Caliph temporarily abolished zakat(annual tax for the benefit of the poor).
Umar was also involved in religious affairs. In particular, under him the ritual was finally recognized hajj(cm. FIVE PILLARS OF ISLAM), which became one of the five mandatory principles of faith. Umar himself led the annual pilgrimage. On behalf of the caliph, the prophet's former secretary, Zayd ibn Thabit, began collecting scattered texts of revelations recorded from the words of Muhammad. The text of the Koran was finally canonized after the death of Umar.
The campaigns of conquest under Umar continued successfully. In 633 Southern Palestine fell, then Hira. In September 635, after a six-month siege, Damascus capitulated, and a year later, after the defeat of the Byzantines at the Yarmouk River, Syria passed into the hands of the Muslims. The conquest of Syria became possible due to the fact that Byzantium, exhausted by the war with Iran, could no longer maintain sufficient border troops.
The situation in Iran was similar: the country was weakened by the political and religious intolerance of the old Sassanid dynasty, the raids of the Turks and Khazars, and the war with the Byzantine Empire. In 636–637, the greatest battle in Arab history took place at Qadisiya: Muslim troops defeated the Persian army. Later, Madain (modern Ctesiphon in Iraq), the summer residence of the Persian king, fell. These victories predetermined the final conquest of Iran. At the same time, the Arabs captured the Mosul area, reached the capital of Armenia and plundered it.
However, at that moment, Umar suspended the campaigns of Arab warriors in the East, believing that the time had not yet come to conquer Iran. Subsequently, the Iranians called Caliph Umar a usurper, and the day of his death began to be celebrated as a holiday.
Two years after the conquest of Upper Mesopotamia, which was carried out from Syria, the Arabs invaded Persia and were victorious at Nehavend (642). Yazdigert III, the last sovereign of the Sassanid dynasty, retreated to the northeast, but was killed in Merv (651). His successor's attempts to revive the empire were unsuccessful.
In 639, Arab troops under the command of the Arab commander Amr ibn al-As crossed the Egyptian border. The moment was chosen appropriately: the country was torn apart by religious strife, the population hated the Byzantine rulers. Ibn al-As reached the walls of Babylon (a fortress on the outskirts of Cairo), and in 642 Alexandria, the key point of Byzantium in Egypt, passed into the hands of the Muslims. True, four years later the Byzantines tried to recapture it, but the Arabs held the city. The burning of the Alexandrian library, allegedly carried out at the same time on the orders of Caliph Umar, is most likely a legend.
Under Caliph Umar, Muslim troops captured Jerusalem. The Caliph himself went to Palestine to determine the size of the captured trophies and assign salaries to the soldiers. There are many legends about Umar's stay in Jerusalem, but all the chroniclers say that the caliph was dissatisfied with the behavior of the military leaders, who abandoned the ascetic lifestyle and met the caliph in Byzantine clothes. According to legend, it was then that the Caliph chose the site for the construction of the famous temple “Kubbat al-Sakhra” (Arab. dome of the rock).
Umar enjoyed unquestioned authority among Askhabov(initially - the companions of the prophet, later the circle expanded to include everyone who at least once saw Muhammad with their own eyes), his orders were carried out strictly, although in the Arab chronicles there is information that he gave his advisers greater freedom of action. He had not only energy, but also the ability to use circumstances, people and their religious enthusiasm. The style of rule of Caliph Umar can be called authoritarian, but he did not reach the point of tyranny.
During the reign of Umar, the character of the Muslim state changed. As a result of conquest and reasonable management, it turned into a multinational empire, of which only a quarter came from Arabia. And since the annexed provinces were more high level social and economic development, than the political center of the Hejaz Caliphate, the Muslim aristocracy began to move to the conquered lands.
Many of Umar's companions proposed dividing the land of the new provinces between the warriors, but he refused to do this, citing the fact that the land also belonged to “those who come after us.” He introduced payment of salaries ( "ata") and food rations ( rizq) to all warriors. Under him, land cadastres began to be formed, which provided for various types of land ownership: communal and private.
Umar added the title of Caliph to the title Amir al-Muaminin(Commander of the Faithful). Thus, the system of power that Umar created can be characterized as an Arab-Muslim theocracy. The population was divided into two classes - the ruling Muslims and the subordinate peoples who adhered to a different faith. Methods of government were argued by divine revelation or based on precedent. All this was supposed to ensure religious integrity Ummah(Muslim community).
In November 644, during morning prayers in the mosque, the Persian slave Fairuz, nicknamed Abu Lula, stabbed Umar in the stomach (before this, Fairuz had complained to the caliph about his master, but Umar did not heed his complaint). Umar died three days later, but first appointed a council that was to elect a new caliph. One of his last instructions was to instruct the future caliph not to remove the governors of the provinces he had appointed during the year.
The ten-year reign of Umar became the time of the victorious march of Islam. At the same time, the foundations of national and religious unity were laid. Historical tradition does not skimp on praise for Umar, considering him an ideal ruler, unpretentious in everyday life, a pious Muslim, fair and honest towards his subordinates, merciless towards the enemies of Islam.
After the death of Umar, a council of six high-ranking Muslims appointed by him had to decide on a successor. During the election of the new caliph, supporters of the Banu Umayya clan, who thirsted for revenge, won. In the early period of Muhammad's activity, it was representatives of this clan, fearing the loss of their positions in Mecca, who persecuted Muhammad, forcing him to move to Medina. The candidate they put forward for the place of caliph, Uthman, did not possess the creative energy that was inherent in his predecessor. However, the election of another candidate, Ali, according to the council, promised turbulent times, since the latter was known for his straightforwardness and assertiveness.
Uthman ibn Affan
(years of life – 575–656, reign – 644–656) – the third caliph from the galaxy of “righteous”. He belonged to those Meccans who converted to Islam several years before Muhammad's migration from Mecca to Medina. Among the first followers of Muhammad, he did not stand out in any way. But he came from a wealthy family of Banu Umayya, who occupied a high position among the trading aristocracy of the city. Despite the fact that the Banu Umayya were at enmity with Muhammad, the prophet married his daughter Ruqaiya to Usman, and when she died, the prophet invited his son-in-law to marry his other daughter, Umm Kalthum.
Some historians suggest that during the Medina period, Muhammad used Uthman's family connections in order to know about the state of affairs in Mecca, which he abandoned. Allegedly, thanks to the activities of Uthman, the number of sympathizers with Islam in Mecca was constantly growing. And when Muhammad decided to make a pilgrimage to Mecca, and the city authorities closed the gates in front of him and his sacrificial camels, it was Uthman who went to the city to negotiate. With his help, an agreement was concluded between the Meccans and Muhammad's caravan, acceptable to both parties: Muslims were invited to perform the Hajj to Mecca the following year with prior notification to the city authorities. To avoid clashes, they even promised to leave the city for a while.
Contrary to the advice of his predecessor Caliph Umar, Uthman did not retain the governors' and military commanders' posts for a year, but immediately began appointing his relatives to these posts. This displeased many high-ranking Muslims. Nevertheless, many of the institutions introduced by Umar were preserved, and conquest expeditions continued. North Africa was conquered by Muslims, and raids were carried out on the territory of Asia Minor and on the islands of the Aegean Sea.
Uthman and his relatives, who received high positions in the provinces, developed a taste for luxury. His relatives widely used their position for personal enrichment. It is characteristic that under Uthman, people from the prophet’s inner circle, but not related to him by blood, were deprived of privileges, for Uthman put blood ties above merit to the Muslim community. Thus, he returned to the old, tribal traditions, abolishing the democratic principles laid down by Muhammad himself.
In the sixth year of Uthman's reign, signs of trouble appeared; the difference in the standard of living of the metropolis and the province became more noticeable. The cities that had once belonged to Byzantium, captured by the Arabs, continued to flourish, and the center of the caliphate, Medina, turned into a backwater. A significant part of the taxes and spoils remained in the hands of the governors. The authorities mistreated the local population, who were often forced to move to uncultivated lands and re-dig canals and new wells.
At the end of 649, by order of the Caliph, a mosque in the town of Quba, built in memory of Muhammad's move to Medina, was demolished. From that moment on, active criticism of Usman’s actions began. The voices of those who believed that the place of caliph (deputy of the prophet) could only be taken by a person from the family of Muhammad, that is, Ali, his cousin and husband of Fatima, the daughter of the prophet, became increasingly louder.
Muslim historians, describing the deeds of Uthman, give him credit for codifying the Koran. It was on his orders that a single set of revelations recorded during the life of Muhammad was compiled. The work, which began under Caliph Umar, entered a new stage: the collected texts had to be compared, the most reliable ones selected and compiled into a single collection. After this, the best calligraphers rewrote the text in four copies, one kept in Medina, the second in Basra, the third in Baghdad and the fourth in Kufa. All subsequent lists were made on the basis of these canonical collections. It was then that the Muslims received their Holy Bible, on the basis of which laws were subsequently formed.
The image of Uthman is very controversially depicted in Arab chronicles. His activities as the secular and religious head of the Arabs caused different estimates. And although the state continued to expand due to more and more new conquests, Uthman himself did not possess the necessary rigidity and determination to keep everything that was happening in the caliphate under control. Meanwhile, tension grew. The division of Muslim society into the very rich, living in luxury (which did not exist under Abu Bakr, Umar, and even more so under Muhammad), and the overwhelming majority of the population, vegetating on the brink of poverty, became sharply apparent. This latent tension, which Umar held back, under Uthman resulted in an open split in the state.
Attempts by the prophet's companions to explain to Uthman the harmfulness of relying only on their relatives and thereby stop corruption in the caliphate were unsuccessful. In January 656, a group of Egyptians (about 500 people) came to Medina, where they wanted to meet with the Caliph to express dissatisfaction with the behavior of the Caliph's viceroy in Egypt. They were joined by walkers from Iraq. Uthman had to enter into negotiations with them and even sign an obligation in which, as on the day of his proclamation as caliph, he promised that “he will be faithful to the Book of Allah and the Sunnah of the Prophet” ( cm. SUNNAH). When the intercessors set off on their way back, they were overtaken by a messenger from Uthman, who was supposed to convey to the governor of Egypt an order to punish the dissatisfied. They intercepted the message and returned to Medina. Here they camped around the caliph's house. Uthman first tried to blame his brother Merwan, who supposedly sent the messenger, but the Egyptians showed the caliph his seal on the message. They also demanded that Mervan be extradited.
Gradually, the crowd of dissatisfied people around Uthman's house grew, and the caliph found himself under siege. When the news came that troops called by Uthman from Syria were approaching the city, the besiegers launched an assault. At the time of his death, Usman had a copy of the Koran in his hands, on the pages of which his blood spilled.
The murder of Uthman subsequently led to civil strife, which is why in later sources it was called al-bab al-maftuh, that is, “the door open (to civil war).”
Ali ibn Abu Talib -
The fourth and last Rightly Guided Caliph (b. 602, reigned 656–661) is a key figure in understanding the Sunni-Shia Muslim divide. He was not only a colleague, but also a close relative - cousin- Prophet Muhammad. Ali was the second (after Khadija, the first wife of the prophet) to convert to Islam. Orphaned at an early age, Muhammad was brought up with him in the house of his uncle and father Ali Abu Talib, who was the merchant foreman of Mecca until 619. After moving to Medina, Ali married Muhammad's daughter Fatima. Muhammad was extremely attached to his daughter's family, especially his grandchildren Hasan and Hussein.
During the Medina period, Ali participated in all campaigns and battles of the Muslims and distinguished himself with courage. Later, Shiite historiography recorded a lot of legends about the exploits of Ali, which portrayed him as the hero of the Iranian epic.
After the death of the Prophet Muhammad, Ali, supported by Fatima, assumed that it was he, as the closest blood relative, who would become the head of the Muslim community. However, this did not happen. But later, against the backdrop of general dissatisfaction with Usman’s policies, many supported his candidacy. His election took place very quickly, but in the absence of some of the prophet’s companions and members of his family, who at that moment were outside Medina (including those who could lay claim to the post of caliph). This circumstance subsequently served as a pretext for some of them - Talha and Zubair (companions of the prophet; in addition, Zubair was the nephew of Khadija, the first wife of Muhammad), supported by the widow of the prophet Aisha, acted as rivals to Ali and laid claim to power.
Ali was fanatically devoted to the cause of Muhammad, but did not hold any office before his election. He was respected among the veterans of Islam, but the governors appointed by Uthman felt that he was a threat to their power. Mu'awiya ibn Sufyan, the governor of the Syrian province, Uthman's cousin, declared Ali to be a participant in the conspiracy against the deceased caliph and spoke out against him under the slogan “revenge for Uthman.”
In December 656, near Basra (Iraq), a battle took place between the troops led by Talha and Zubeir and the army of Ali. In the history of Islam, this battle is known as the “camel battle.” She was watched by the widow of the prophet Aisha, sitting on a camel in a special palanquin. According to ancient Arabian tradition, this was supposed to bring good luck. However, Ali won the battle.
The following year (657), another significant battle took place on the right bank of the Euphrates River near the city of Siffin. This time Ali defeated the Syrian army, but failed to take advantage of the victory. When it became clear that Ali would win, the Syrians proposed to resolve the matter by arbitration. As a sign of reconciliation, they raised sheets (or scrolls) of the Koran on their spears. Ali stopped the battle by agreeing with the Syrians. The idea of resolving the dispute over power with the help of the Koran was impeccable from the point of view of piety, but impossible in practice.
Ali's decision disappointed both his supporters and veterans of Islam, who wanted to end provincial separatism once and for all. It is characteristic that several possible candidates for election as caliph arrived at the meeting of representatives of the warring parties.
An analysis of the negotiations that took place indicates that civil strife was brewing in the caliphate. Some of Ali's supporters stated that they did not recognize the arbitration court, saying La tahkim illa lilahi– “Only God has the right to judge” (Arabic). They believed that Ali had no right to agree to arbitration, especially since victory was on his side, which was considered as the favor of Allah. As a sign of their disagreement, several military leaders left Ali's camp, taking 12 thousand warriors with them. They began to be called Kharijites (from Arabic Kharaja- “to leave”, “to leave”, in this case - “those who have left obedience”). Subsequently, the Kharijite movement, initially political, acquired a religious character. Those who remained faithful to Ali began to be called shia(Arabic for “supporters”, “party”) ( cm. SHIITES). However, Ali's sincere supporters were clearly not enough to successfully fight Mu'awiya. Feeling his superiority, Mu'awiya sent troops to conquer Egypt.
Regretting what had happened, Ali called on his soldiers, including the Kharijites, to return to the battlefield. However, they hesitated and on July 17, 658 they were defeated by Ali’s troops.
At the same time, the collapse of the caliphate began. Following the loss of Egypt, the Arabs living in Fars refused to pay taxes, and some of the Arabs who originally professed Christianity returned to their faith. Mu"awiya, who closely monitored the situation around Ali, began to raid the border regions of Iraq and Arabia. Ali tried to resist him, but he had difficulty collecting volunteers and funds to maintain the army. In July 659, Mu"awiya, realizing that Ali loses authority among his supporters, declared himself caliph in Jerusalem, the third most important city for Muslims. After this, his troops attacked several Iraqi cities and plundered them. In response to this, Ali called on people loyal to him to jihad against Mu'awiya.
However, the extermination of the Kharijites by Ali's troops changed the attitude of the residents of Kufa, where Ali's headquarters were located, towards him. He was killed by the Kharijite ibn Mulj on January 22, 661 on the threshold of a mosque in Kufa.
Historians disagree about Ali's role in the formation of the Muslim state. It is obvious that he did not have the administrative talent and political acumen needed to manage a Muslim empire. But the image of a “knight without fear or reproach,” who, despite all adversity, remained honest and faithful to Islam, has been preserved for centuries. His tragic death, as well as the death of his descendants, created for him the aura of a martyr.
The Shiite movement that emerged after his death initially found support in Iraqi patriotism, and then spread to Iran. Here the image of Ali acquired the features of a Persian hero; he is revered as a holy martyr. If among the Sunnis Ali remains a model of piety and nobility, then among the Shiites there is a cult of Ali. His figure sometimes overshadows the image of the Prophet Muhammad, since extreme Shiites believe that it is Ali who is the bearer of God's grace (Arab. barracks), – absolute and infallible authority in the affairs of Islam, the owner of all the virtues that Allah can bestow on a person. Ali's supporters call him " Vali Allah"(Arabic: "friend of Allah").
Through the efforts of the Shiites, collections of Ali’s sayings, as well as his “life” - Akhbar Ali.
Some suras of the Koran are interpreted differently by Shiites than by Sunnis. Shiites consider the latest edition of the Koran to be flawed, since, in their opinion, Zeid ibn Thabit, at the instigation of Caliph Uthman and his relatives the Umayyads, removed all references to Ali from the text of revelations.
Ali is credited with numerous military exploits. Some legends about the exploits and miracles performed by Ali are reminiscent of the lives of Christian saints. For example, the legend that he allegedly implanted the severed hand of a slave who repented of his act. They also talk about Allah’s special attitude towards Ali: allegedly Allah himself delayed the sunset so that Ali had time to perform the evening prayer...
Olga Bibikova
Literature:
Masse A. Islam. M., “Science”, 1982
Tabari. La Chronique. Histoire des prophe"tes et des rois. (volume II). P., "Thesaurus"/"Actes sud"/"Sindbad", 1983
Grünebaum von, G.E. Classic Islam. 600–1258. M., “Science”, 1988
Bolshakov O.G. History of the Caliphate. Vol. II (The Age of Great Conquests), Vol. III (Between Two civil wars). M., Publishing house "Nauka", 1993, 1998
Muller A. History of Islam. M., “Astrel”, 2004
Arab Caliphate in the 7th-8th centuries.
After the death of the prophet in 632, the question of a successor arose, and after heated discussions between the Muhajirs and Ansars, Muhammad's oldest companion, Abu Bakr, was chosen. The new head of the Muslim community (ummat al-Islam) received the title of caliph (literally, “the one who comes after,” “successor”), the bearer of secular and spiritual power.
Abu Bakr (632-634) became the first of the four righteous caliphs. Under him, the military campaigns begun by Muhammad continued. Conquests remained intense under the caliphs 'Umar ibn al-Khattab (634-644), 'Uthman ibn 'Affan (644-656) and 'Ali ibn Abu Talib (656-661). The campaigns against Byzantium were successful (Damascus was taken in 635, Jerusalem in 638, Caesarea in 640), as a result of which Syria and Palestine came under Muslim rule. Conquests in the Mesopotamian region took place with varying degrees of success, subsequently ending with the victory of the Arabs (in 637 the capital of Sasanian Iran, Ctesiphon, fell, in 641 - Mosul, in 642 - Nehavend), so that by 651 the territory of the Sassanid state reached the r . Amu Darya was included in the Caliphate. In 640, Arab troops invaded Armenia and occupied its capital, Dvin; in 654 - the capital of Eastern Georgia, the city of Tbilisi (Tiflis).
Despite the successful policy of conquest, the activities of the righteous caliphs were not limited to the seizure of territories and the division of military spoils. Under Caliph 'Umar ibn al-Khattab, measures began to organize the administration of the conquered provinces, social and economic level whose development was often higher than that of political center caliphs - Hijaz. My reform activities he began by developing a system of land distribution, taxation, and administration.
The most important contribution of Caliph 'Uthman ibn 'Affan was the formation of a unified edition of the text of the Koran. By then everyone administrative center The Islamic state had its own authoritative edition of the sacred text of Muslims. On the instructions of 'Uthman, based on these lists, a consolidated text was verified, which was sent to Largest cities, and the remaining versions were subject to destruction.
During the reign of the fourth righteous caliph 'Ali ibn Abu Talib, a center of opposition was formed in Mecca; in addition, the governor of Syria and Palestine Mu'awiya ibn Abu Sufyan refused to swear allegiance to the new caliph. In 657, 'Ali moved his residence to Kufa to attract supporters (later they received the name "Shi'at 'Ali" - "Ali's party", Shiites). In the spring of the same year, the troops of Ali and Mu'awiya clashed near the village of Siffin. In this battle, neither side achieved decisive success, but Ali's position was seriously shaken. It was then that a group of supporters left him, who later received the name Kharijites (lit. “those who came out”, “those who departed”). After the death of 'Ali, his supporters elected Ali's son Hassan as caliph, who, under pressure from the Umayyads, renounced power.
From the book “History of Islam from its foundation to modern times” by August Muller, St. Petersburg. 1895
Difficulties in establishing succession to the throne
No matter how dangerous the Prophet’s last illness seemed from the very beginning, its end, which came after a visible improvement in the patient’s situation on the morning of the day of death, amazed everyone with its unexpected speed. Most of the community members dispersed peacefully after the service. Even Abu Bekr returned to his home on the outskirts. Fatima, the daughter of the Prophet, was also not at her father's deathbed. Her husband, Aliy, after the story with the necklace, was in an open quarrel with Aisha, in whose house Muhammad lay. Therefore, both husband and wife limited themselves to visiting the patient occasionally. Only Omar remained near Aisha at the dying bed and was present at the last breath of the Prophet. The fatal event did not take Omar by surprise: even the day before, he managed to eliminate the desire of the patient, who demanded writing materials; Therefore, it cannot be allowed that those demands that, with the onset of a terrible event, will necessarily be presented to all those close to the Prophet, do not come to his mind. However, whatever he thought about or managed to decide together with Abu Bekr, the end came so suddenly that it was impossible for now to do anything to strengthen public order and for the immediate transfer of power to the proper member of the community. And she, alas, was not able to wait and endure, at least for a moment, the absence of a common leader recognized by all.<…>
There was not a single word in the Koran that would indicate the order of succession of power. During his illness, Muhammad himself did not bother to make a direct order (...). Therefore, it was now impossible to do otherwise than to find a solution in the ancient customs of the Arab people, which, however, would have been a wasted effort, since any immediate justification for heredity was so alien to the freedom-loving morals of the Bedouins that even under the pressure of Byzantine and Persian hegemony it was difficult the right of inheritance could take root in the provinces of Ghassan and Hira (...). Suppose it often happened that after the death of a leader who was distinguished by courage and wealth, the choice of the elders of the tribe fell on the son, but this happened only when personal respect or the interests of the tribe leaned precisely towards this, and the slightest pressure in such a matter was felt by everyone to the point of painfulness . But Muhammad did not leave behind a single son. If Fatima, as the only surviving child of the Prophet, enjoyed personal respect, she was still only a woman and could not make serious claims in favor of her husband Aliy outside the close circle of the Hashemites and her few other personal adherents.
Whoever could manage to act faster than others in such dubious circumstances would undoubtedly have a significant advantage. For, despite the equality of all believers, repeatedly attested by Muhammad, this equality has not yet been practically consolidated on the battlefields in Persia and Syria; the people of Medina, the fugitives, the Ansars, and in general those who in recent times had taken a place among those around the Prophet were in control of everything, while the rest of the Arab tribes remained inert as before. Of course, only the people of Medina could participate in the election of a new ruler, not to mention the fact that it was simply impossible to wait for representatives from all parts of the country to gather.<…>It should have been foreseen that at the very first publication of the sad news, various population groups would immediately begin to form. For Omar, therefore, the most important thing was to prevent the spread of the sad news until at least Abu Bekr and a significant number of other fugitives gathered around him.<…>
(...) Omar left the house to the crowd of believers who still remained near the mosque (...) He announced to the people that only “hypocrites” could have imagined that the Messenger of God had died. “This is a deliberate lie,” he continued in the same spirit, “The Prophet, like Moses once, withdrew from his people only for 40 days; after this period he will return and punish with death all those who imagined that he was dead.” While he was talking like this, Abu Bekr also came up. Making sure that the unexpected event, alas, had truly happened, he exclaimed: “O you, for whom I would gladly sacrifice my father and mother, just as you were dear to me during your life, so now you, dead, are dear to me!” - and kissed the pale forehead of the one whom he revered not only as the “messenger of God”, but also as his constant and most faithful friend. Then, prompted by the urgent need to take care of and, above all, ensure the future of that great cause to which this extinguished life was entirely devoted, Abu Bekr hastily went out to the still waiting crowd, imperiously ordered Omar to be silent, and he himself, recalling some passages from the Koran that represented the deceased a man like everyone else, said: “Whoever wants to worship Muhammad, let him know that Muhammad is dead. Worship the Lord: God lives and will never die!”
Election of Abu Bekr
Meanwhile, among the fugitives standing in front of Aisha’s house, who were impatiently awaiting further orders from Abu Bekr and Omar, extremely unpleasant news began to spread that the Ansars had gathered in large number and are preparing to choose a new ruler from among themselves. It was impossible to wait any longer; both of the Prophet’s trusted representatives immediately rushed there, surrounded by a crowd of reliable Meccans. They arrived just in time: S a "d i b n U b a d a, since the death of Ibn Ubayy, the first person among the Khazrajs, had just made a short speech. He convinced his compatriots that the successor to the messenger of God should be chosen from those who helped him to get out of troubles and difficulties and brought victory to Islam. Some timid objections were heard; some found it risky and one-sided to decide such an important matter without the participation of the oldest confessors of the faith, but the majority of opinions were inclined to immediately recognize Sad as the ruler. At this very time, fugitives burst into the meeting in a thick crowd, led by Abu Bekr, Omar, and Abu Ubaid, revered by everyone for his piety and meekness. Abu Bekr spoke first. Calmly and friendly, he gave full justice to the merits of the men of Medina, but at the same time firmly stated that the future head of the community should be chosen from among the first companions of the Prophet. Khazraj Al-Munzir objected to this, suggesting that both parties elect a separate leader for each. Omar, immediately noticing the danger of the demand, spoke out with his characteristic energy and ardently began to prove that the rest of the Arabs would never want to obey a leader who was not from the tribe of the Prophet. The dispute flared up. Abu Ubaida began to beg the Ansars and persuade them to be peaceful, when suddenly Khazrajit Beshir, one of the 70 who were at Aqaba, a zealous hero of Islam, jumped forward, to the amazement of his fellow tribesmen. He loudly announces that he takes the side of the Meccans. Abu Bekr takes advantage of the moment of general confusion: “Look! - he exclaims. - Before you is Omar and Abu Ubaida. Swear allegiance to whomever you want!” Both named refuse and ask him himself, as the most worthy, to whom the Prophet entrusted the duty of replacing him as the one present at prayer, to accept the rank of ruler. Abu Bekr still hesitates, but the indomitable Beshir jumps out again and hits him lightly on his right hand - a sign of oath among the Arabs. The Khazraj are outraged; The Ausites, who were always watching with secret displeasure at the maneuvers of their ancient rivals, who were again trying to squeeze into the forefront, without thinking twice and bravely, despite their small numbers, took the side of Abu Bekr. Everyone quickly rushes to their leaders. The sick Sa'da, brought to the meeting on his bed, was almost trampled in the ensuing crush. Only the personal intervention of Abu Bekr saved him from the impudent insults of the passionate Omar. The dispute threatened to escalate into an open fight. At this time, new crowds of believers suddenly invade the house. These were people of the a slam tribe, wandering in the vicinity of Medina. Descended from the Khuza'ites, related to the Quraysh, carefully protected by the Prophet lately, as soon as they heard about what was happening, they hastened to come to the aid of their Meccan friends. The Khazraj now found themselves in the minority; the calmer people of both parties managed to separate the quarrels, and Abu Bekr could finally calmly continue to take the oath of the others.
Spiritual and temporal power of the caliph
Meanwhile, it was clear to every believer that Abu Bekr, as Omar put it in the election meeting, was appointed by the Prophet himself to act as a deputy during general prayer in the mosque: and prayer, as is known, was the basis of the entire religion. The rest of the community’s affairs could more easily be joined to this main responsibility; Thus, there was no need to create a new authority, which could not only be based on the orders of the Prophet himself. But, in fact, no new authority was created. Abu Bekr remained only in a slightly expanded sense what he had already been a few days ago, namely: the deputy ambassador of God, the caliphate of ra sul l'l ahi - the simple title of caliph means nothing more. the idea of unlimited power and splendor, which to this day, according to children’s views, is associated with the name of the Caliph of Baghdad as the third in the alliance, next to the emperor and the pope, does not in the least change the essence of things, for the caliph had, in fact, the right to be called only “the governor of Islamism.” Of course, over time, circumstances gave this rank a different meaning. Already the successor of Abu Bekr considered it necessary to slightly outline the increasing brilliance of the head of the community by adding to the title the words: emir "l-Mumina, that is, “commander of the faithful,” but the modest title of caliph in the eyes of all the rulers of Islam had an ever-increasing importance.<…>
On the basis of Islam, the one who is recognized as the deputy of the Messenger of God combines the rank of head of the secular and spiritual. The power of the caliph cannot therefore be equated with the temporal power of the pope, as it was formerly in his Ecclesiastical region, or compared with the spiritual supremacy of the king of Saxony as bishop of the evangelical subjects of his whole country. Imagine the power of the highest Roman Catholic hierarchy combined with the power of unlimited rule Louis XIV, or government structure, which was carried out in Geneva by Calvin, and for a short time in England by Cromwell, or, finally, existing theoretically in Russia.<…>
(...) The serene exercise of dual rule was possible only as long as the overwhelming majority of Muslims were imbued with the consciousness that the Caliph rules, truly unswervingly following the words of God and the example of the Prophet. But even in this case, the caliph’s power was limited by his love for the freedom of a powerful people, the sensitive sensitivity of which was spared even by Muhammad where the interests of faith were not violated; and the stormy impulses of this love became all the more dangerous for his successors, the more ancient secular habits took over, spreading to the widest circles of new confessors of the faith outside the peninsula.
Military policy of the caliphs
We already know that even Muhammad made preliminary orders to spread the faith outside the peninsula among other peoples and, above all, among the neighboring Persians and Byzantines. His message to the Shah of Persia did not have any special results; This was followed by embassies and reconnaissance missions to the south of Syria, the defeat at Muta, and later the annexation of the border districts, up to and including Ayla. Since then, a new, more serious campaign was planned for the country east of the Jordan. An army was already gathering, which by the time of Muhammad’s death they had managed to pull together to Medina. Following his basic rule - to carry out exactly the plans of the Prophet in everything - Abu Bekr sent troops to the north, under the leadership of Osama, despite the immediate fall of the central tribes of Arabia. Probably, this decision reflected the intention to simultaneously give the Ansars an opportunity to calm down and help them, away from the capital, forget their failure in choosing a caliph. But naturally the dangerous position of Medina among the rebel Bedouins prevented the campaign from being given greater significance; Therefore, Osama hurried to return back two months later, having only managed to make a demonstration to the Byzantine border. Too hot work awaited the troops inside Arabia. But, after continuous struggle for three quarters of a year, order was finally restored, Islam reigned again throughout the entire peninsula. However, much remained to be accomplished in individual details until worship was finally introduced everywhere and the collection of taxes was regulated; Now, only little by little, the tribes began to get used to it, especially in remote provinces, to march at the first call of the Caliph for a military gathering in Medina. But it could be feared, despite the severe punishment of the rebels, that with the passage of time the tendency towards disobedience would again stir here and there in the stubborn Arab heads. Abu Bekr foresaw this. He deliberately sent to the borders, as the uprising was suppressed, every free thousand people, assuming very thoroughly that every success from the outside, every news of a successful raid would arouse in the ever-worried tribes of Central and Southern Arabia a desire to join the military enterprises that offered such brilliant hopes.<…>In any case, this military policy served as a necessary counterbalance for all possible future uprisings: only on the battlefields in Persia and Syria, the recent victors and vanquished at Buzakha, in the “garden of death” and on the fields of Yemen, could rally into those mighty hordes of warriors which, with their uncontrollable pressure, soon shook half the world.
Reasons for the victories of Islam
The first raids began under Abu Bekr, heading towards southern Palestine and the Euphrates lowlands.<…>. (...) By the end of his life, Omar ruled, in addition to Arabia itself, the north-eastern coast of Africa, Egypt, Syria, Mesopotamia, Babylonia and the western half of Persia, in general in space - over a country the size of Germany and Austria-Hungary combined<…>.
(...) in 30 (651) the sphere of Islamic rule extended from the Oxus all the way to the greater Syrt and was equal in space to almost half of Europe.
If these conquests represent a revolution, the like of which in scope and speed the world has not seen since the time of Alexander, then the more compelling question arises: what were the reasons that made it possible for these extraordinary successes to take place. Alexander the Great, as is known, tore apart the helpless masses of the Persian hordes with the wedge of his iron phalanx; the unstoppable flow of German settlers, with their endless number of mighty bodies, crushed the so skillfully armed and led legions of the Romans, a people weakened due to extreme effeminacy. Here we come across something special: mass, and superiority of weapons, and military art- everyone is on the side of the Greeks and Persians. Of course, even approximately the number of fighters that Muslim Arabia could send against the infidels to the east and west is almost unknown. Although the figures of the first armies, according to the information that has reached us, seem to be quite plausible, we know absolutely nothing about the size of the reinforcements that undoubtedly had to be sent from Arabia from time to time to various points in the theater of war. The gaps in the ranks of the Arabs were enormous, partly due to very bloody battles, and even more due to the need to leave detachments in conquered areas for free movement everything further forward. Likewise, we are deprived of any remotely reliable source for certain population statistics.<…>
In accordance with everything we know, the Muslims in 15 (636) could hardly have had more than 80,000 men in the ranks outside Arabia.<…>
(...) Short news and assumptions agree on one thing: that it was in the first decisive minutes that Muslims almost always had to fight with at least double the strength of their opponents. The reason that, despite this, they almost always emerged victorious, historians are accustomed to attribute to the religious fanaticism that inspired the followers of the Prophet. Giving complete justice to the truly incomparable courage of the Arabs and their contempt for death, we must, however, say that it is difficult to explain the success of an endless series of victories by this alone. At the same time, we should not forget that fanaticism only gradually became universal: the thirst for spoils, let us say, half compensated for the lack of faith in the first battles.<…>Therefore, we should look, at least in part, for the reasons for success in something else.<…>(...) in large decisive battles, the Persians and Byzantines experienced an obvious lack of overall leadership. So, for example, as is known, the Persian commander-in-chief fought at Kadesiya not on his own impulse, but only following the urgent order of the king. In the battle of Hieromax, the Greek army, as if on purpose, was divided into three camps, treating each other with malice and thinly hidden distrust. These discords, doubly dangerous in view of the incomparable discipline of the Muslims, were symptoms of deep-rooted diseases that were devouring the Persian and Byzantine states.
<…>(...) What struck the enemies most of all was the exemplary discipline of the followers of Islam, to which the Arabs of the center and south, now emerging for the first time, willingly obeyed, beyond all expectations. On the other hand, the same people who 10 years ago considered a simple ditch to be an impregnable stronghold, and four years later did not know what to do, finding themselves in front of the simple walls of the small fortress of Central Arabia, Taif, are now continuously taking one Byzantine fortress after another , and later they themselves build fortified camps in Persia, as if they were doing something they had been accustomed to doing for a long time. Meanwhile, they wisely refrain from imitating practices of dubious merit, such as the elephant squadrons, which the Persians, due to national stubbornness, still adhered to, despite the fact that 1000 years ago, almost 1000 years ago, in the battles with Alexander, their complete unsuitability for war was proven .
Thus, the historian appears, on the one hand, to have spiritual and physical mobility, unlimited inspiration combined with strict discipline, military talent, not constrained by a developed and frozen routine, although not particularly numerous troops, and on the other - clumsiness, discord, next to the courage of a certain type, spiritual weakness, rich external means and a large superiority in numbers.
Capture of Hira
The first raids began under Abu Bekr, heading towards southern Palestine and the Euphrates lowlands. In 12 (633) the kingdom of Hira was already temporarily occupied.<…>
(...) By the end of 11 (beginning of 633) the Arabs reached the borders of Persia proper. Inside the peninsula there was nothing more to do for the warlike and predatory Bedouins. Then they began to remember what noble booty they had once mined in countries on the other side of the borders, and even once, after the fall of the Lakhmids, 25 years ago they defeated the Persian governor of Hira himself. The children of the desert, perhaps, also heard that there, in Persia, there was chaos again: the new king Iezdegerd, who sat on the throne at the end of 632, could not cope with the adherents of his underage competitor, Hormizd V, and others internal enemies. The Arabs took advantage of this opportune moment to scour a foreign country, following the example of their fathers. Rumors soon reached the caliph's ears about Musanna's successful predatory raids to the mouth of the Euphrates. He was officially invited from Medina to gather as many hunters as possible in his tribe and place himself under the command of Khalid, whose troops, meanwhile, found themselves free after the complete calm of Central Arabia. Many more of the tribes of the newly converted joined the hordes of the faithful located at Akraba, forming a venerable army of up to 10,000 people; Musanna also joined her with his 8,000 bekrits. Then Khalid moved at the end of 11 (at the beginning of 633) to the mouth of the Euphrates, into the Persian possessions. The large valley of the Euphrates and Tigris, that is, Babylonia and Chaldea, the lowland part of Mesopotamia and the area between both rivers, the countries bordering on one side with the Syrian desert, and on the other reaching the Median mountains, the Arabs have been accustomed from time immemorial to call Sevad, or Iraq.
In those days, and several centuries later, this country, irrigated in all directions by an ancient, highly branched system of canals, was one of the most fruitful, one might even say, the most fertile in the whole world. It was precisely in order to protect it from the predatory attacks of desert predators that the Persians organized the border state of Hiru. Therefore, it was necessary to first take this main center of the Christian-Persian-Arab tribes and then cross the Euphrates. But Abu Bekr decided otherwise. He ordered Khalid to directly invade the southern tip of Sevad; Meanwhile, at the same time, another detachment, under the leadership of Ida, was sent further to the east, across the steppes, to Hira, in order to divert a possible enemy attack on Khalida’s flank.<…>We have not even received even a somewhat clear picture of the disposition of both troops and tactical movements during the struggle. One way or another, the Persians were beaten (Muharrem 12 = March 633), despite the fact that, according to the rather dubious testimony of Arab historians, they were partly connected with each other by a chain; That’s why this first skirmish is called a “chain fight.” Hormizd himself fell, as they say, by the hand of Khalid; the winners received rich spoils. For the first time, the nomads were able to see one of those precious tiaras that Persian nobles usually wore, decorated with rows of noble stones. Hitherto, as a rarity, in the form of fragments of unknown value, they sometimes ended up inside Arabia, but now it was intended entirely for the state treasury. In the same way, an elephant captured in battle was sent to Medina, highest degree arousing the amazement of the inhabitants of Medina, who had never seen such an animal. When they saw it, some of the most naive women seriously doubted whether it was God's creation or an artificial imitation of nature. But the Bedouins saw much more amazing things during their raids. After the “chain battle,” the entire army bravely crossed the Euphrates and rushed to plunder the southern part of Mesopotamia, killing adults everywhere and taking wives and children with them - it’s very clear, this was done only on the estates of the Persian large owners, officials and police officials. Peaceful peasants, mostly Aramaic, that is, of Semitic origin, were left alone. Khalid was so wise as not to slaughter the goose that laid the golden eggs. And so that she would not become too fat, this, as we will see later, was taken care of with great skill. So the Arabs continued to penetrate further into the country (...).
<…>The combined army settled down (Safar 12 = May 633) on the right bank of the Euphrates, almost in the rear of Khalid, who meanwhile continued to plunder on the left. But at the very first news, the Arab commander realized the enormity of the threatening danger: Khalid quickly turned back, crossed the Euphrates and boldly attacked the enemies who were still standing at Ulleys. The battle was difficult, its outcome remained doubtful for a long time. The fierce Arab in his soul made a vow to his God, if only He would grant him victory, that the river would flow with blood instead of water. The battle was truly won. And so the military commander gives the order to seize fugitives everywhere, divert the water of the river and immediately kill hundreds of prisoners on the spot. Naturally, blood flowed in streams. They turned on the water again, and, in a way, the vow was fulfilled. From now on, the stream began to be called the “bloody river.”
The path to Hira was now clear. First, by land, then on boats, along canals, the army approached the city itself, the old residence of the Lakhmids. The Arabs set up camp right next to the castle of Havarnak. The city was fortified, and the garrison could have held out for some time, but the Persian governor suddenly disappeared somewhere, and the majority of the inhabitants, Aramaic Christians, chose to capitulate after a short resistance. However, they did not want to renounce their faith for anything; a tribute was imposed on them, which the “possessors of the Scripture” had to pay as the price for tolerance.
Battle of Buweiba; founding of Basra
The rival nobles of Ctesiphon seem to have made peace for a time, and one of the descendants of Mikhran, one of the seven most famous Persian noble families, crossed the Euphrates with 12,000 people. Musanna patiently waited for the enemy beyond one of the western canals of the Euphrates at Buweib, near Hira, leaving this time to the Persians themselves to act. Mihran, it seems, did not know about the number of Muslims and expected to meet their weak remnants after the battle at the bridge. He made the same mistake as Abu Ubaid: he crossed the canal in sight of the enemy army and attacked the Arabs waiting for him on the other side. The Persians fought especially bravely this time, and despite this, victory leaned towards the faithful thanks mainly to the brave restraint of the Namirites. Wanting to complete the defeat of the enemy, Musanna ordered one flying detachment to destroy the bridge in the rear. This maneuver almost became disastrous: deprived of retreat, the Persians rushed with the courage of despair at the attackers, and the battle began to boil again. Musanna himself later reproached himself for subjecting the Muslims to new, completely unnecessary losses, but the battle still ended in the complete destruction of the enemy army: almost none of the Persians were saved. Such a significant defeat opened the eyes of the Persians. They saw that half-measures could not break the extraordinary tenacity with which the daring Arabians, who had previously undertaken their raids quite often, now decided to continue them, apparently continuously. Therefore, Rustem decided to first gather serious military forces in order to put an end to the tiresome border war with an irresistible onslaught and one blow. We have already pointed out more than once that the internal situation of the Persian state presented great obstacles to such an undertaking. Therefore, it took more than a year before the new militia, partly collected in distant provinces, could reach the capital. The Arabs took advantage of this moment of relative peace as best they could. Throughout Mesopotamia and the delta of the Euphrates and Tigris, over an area of about 80 miles, counting from the tip of the Persian Gulf upward, they darted in all directions and plundered horse detachments, occupying one city after another, all the way to the Tigris above Ctesiphon. At the same time, they laid the foundation for a firm settlement in the conquered country, establishing the fortress of Basra at the present Shat al-Arab, the main branch of the united Euphrates and Tigris. A wide channel becomes accessible to sea vessels; that is why this place subsequently became the focus of all maritime trade of the Islamic state, and with the founding of Baghdad under the Abbasids, it became the natural harbor of residence for the caliphs.
Battle of Cadesia
Complaints from the inhabitants of Mesopotamia about the predatory raids carried out unhindered by the Bedouins in all directions became so frequent that King Yazdegerd and his close nobles lost all patience. It was indeed difficult to endure such a shame, and the army set off on a campaign according to the direct order of the king. And now, probably, Rustem was waiting for the arrival of some militias from the most distant provinces; This is the only way to explain, more or less plausibly, the incomprehensible stoppage of the movement against Sa'da's army. Just as at first the Persians were harmed by the fact that for too long they mistook Khalid's invasion for one of those simple Arab raids for the sake of booty that had been repeated periodically since time immemorial. times, and they thought it would be relatively easy to cope with it, so at the present time the desire of the Persians to overcome any resistance by piling up an overwhelming number of troops served to their destruction. The indecisiveness of actions in general, as a direct consequence of the court’s intervention in Rustem’s way of waging war, was further aggravated by the inactivity of the leader himself. , which gave more and more confidence to the Arabs who were increasing in number every day. And then, as luck would have it, at the moment that decides the fate of the battle, fresh Syrian troops appeared. Something fatal has happened, to which both people and people bow blindly, without resistance. states.
The best forces of both great nations stood here, at Cadesia, opposite each other, in 16 (637). Around the famous ancient Sassanian leopard skin banner rallied the flower of Persian chivalry in dense squadrons clad in armor. Ahead of them were lined up 30 war elephants, and then, all around, an endless army, at least it seemed to the Arabs, was worried. In the very middle, on a precious throne, sat Eranspahpat (state commander) Rustem, in order to look at the deeds of his heroes, like Xerxes on the shores of Attica, opposite Salamis. On the other side, a whole horde of the oldest and closest companions of the Prophet could be seen; Among them were 99 participants at Bedra, 310 who swore allegiance at Hudeibiya and 300 who were present at the occupation of Mecca. Particularly worthy of attention is the way Sad positioned his army. He based, of course, a division into tribes, for diligent competition between them was always the main motivating reason for their courage. Among the tribes, to facilitate their tactical mobility, he placed There was a separate leader over every 10 people. The commander-in-chief himself, by sad chance, could not take part in the battle; a serious illness confined him to the ramparts of Kuda, a small fortress built on one of the canals of the Euphrates. From there he was forced to give orders. The Arabs, of course, did not like this; they were used to seeing their commander in the midst of battle, they especially expected this from Sad, so “undaunted by the whistling of arrows.” It is quite possible, however, that it was better this way. He could now turn all his attention to the general course of the battle, and in the clash of such impressive numbers of troops it was not so easy to understand what was happening. Unfortunately, extremely scanty news has also reached us about the progress of the battle. From many different legends, you can, of course, collect enough individual data, and from these pieces you have to restore one way or another the overall picture. At the same time, one cannot help but notice that it remains in great doubt whether the battle lasted 3 or 4 days. The earliest sources also tell us about its beginning in different and completely contradictory ways. Finally, in all the various news there is a clear desire to attribute the main merit of the decisive blow to this or that hero; Therefore, we must carefully exclude all such one-sided legends. In general, the only positive thing we can say is that first perform brightly
In the Holy Quran, the Almighty says (meaning): “Among the Muslims there are men who are faithful to the covenant (steadfastness with the Prophet) they made with Allah. Among them there are those who fulfilled their vow (fighting in the path of Allah), there are also those for whom the time for its fulfillment had not yet come, but they did not change (the covenant) in any way."
This verse also applies to Umar ibn al-Khattab, who left an indelible mark on the history and development of Islam.
Umar ibn al-Khattab is the second righteous caliph, the commander of the faithful, for whom the Messenger of Allah (peace and blessings of Allah be upon him) prayed, asking the Almighty: “O Allah, strengthen Islam with Umar ibn al-Khattab,” and when Umar accepted Islam, this gave Muslims strength and power. The Prophet called him al-Faruk, that is, the instrument through which Allah separates truth from lies. That the Prophet called him so was one of the miracles of the Messenger. The reign of Umar ibn al-Khattab was the strengthening of truth and justice, he conquered many countries and spread Islam in them.
In the “Biography of the Prophet Muhammad,” Ibn Hisham quotes the words of Ibn Masud: “We did not have the opportunity to pray near the Kaaba until Umar accepted Islam. And having accepted Islam, he opposed the Quraish so that we could pray near the Kaaba, and we prayed with him." Umar was truthful to Allah in such a way that He put the truth in his mouth and heart, and until Allah inspired this in him, he was not one of those to whom the Almighty inspires. Tirmidhi reports from Ibn Umar, Ibn Majah and al-Hakim that the Messenger of Allah said: “Verily, Allah put the truth in the mouth and heart of Umar.”
Bukhari reported from Abu Hurayrah: “The Messenger of Allah said: “Among those who came before you were those who had inspiration from Allah. If there is one like this in my ummah, it will be Umar."
We also find that the verses of the Quran were revealed by the Almighty to confirm the words and opinions of Umar. Thus, verses were revealed regarding his opinion on the prisoners taken at Badr, as well as in connection with the prayer at the station of Ibrahim (maqam Ibrahim) near the Kaaba, on the prohibition of intoxicating drinks, on wearing the hijab and on other important issues. All of them confirm his nickname al-Faruk, given to him by the Prophet. This fact also confirms that Allah put the truth in the mouth and heart of Umar.
When Umar ibn al-Khattab was caliph, he judged according to truth and justice, and his commitment to justice remained famous for centuries. Umar strengthened Islam and made the Islamic state powerful. His deeds confirm the words of the Almighty that (meaning) “To those of you who believed and did good deeds, Allah promised that He would certainly make them successors on earth, just as He made successors to those who came before them; and promised that He would strengthen their faith, which He approved for them."
The life of Umar ibn al-Khattab was similar to the life of the prophets and messengers. This is confirmed by the words of the Messenger of Allah himself, who said: “If there had been a prophet later, he would have been Umar ibn al-Khattab.” Umar ibn al-Khattab was very afraid of the wrath of the Almighty, he often cried, trembling before Him. He cared about following the sunnah of the Messenger of Allah and the path of the first righteous caliph Abu Bakr. He firmly adhered to truth and justice, was zealous for the religion of Allah, sought to improve the lives of Muslims, was knowledgeable in the Book of Allah, and was not afraid for the sake of Allah of reproaches from those who reproached him. In his quest for truth and justice, he went so far that one day, standing on the minbar, he said: “Oh, Muslims, what will you say if I lean towards this world so much?” and bowed his head. One man stood up and said: “We will correct you with a saber like this,” and ran his hand across his throat. Umar asked him: “Do you mean me?” He replied: “Yes, I meant you.” Then Umar said: “May Allah have mercy on you! Praise be to Allah, thanks to Whom there is someone in my flock who will correct me if I deviate!”
One day al-Akhnaf ibn Qays, the ruler of Iraq, came to Umar with a delegation. It was on a hot summer day, and the delegation found him wrapped in an aba and applying special oil to one of the camels intended for alms. Umar said: "Oh, Akhnaf, take off your clothes and help the Commander of the Faithful with this camel. This camel is alms, in it is the share of the orphan, the widow and the poor." One of the arrivals said: “May Allah forgive you, why don’t you command the slave collecting alms to do it for you?” Umar then asked: “And who is more of a slave than me and Akhnaf? I am a slave, responsible for alms just like Akhnaf. The duty of the one entrusted with the affairs of Muslims is also what a slave is obliged to do for his master in advising Muslims and carrying out assignments."
One day, while at home and taking refuge from the incredible heat, Usman ibn Affan saw a man leading two camels. The day was so hot that Uthman thought: “What is wrong with him? Why doesn’t he stay in Medina until the cool of the evening sets in, and then go on his way?” Uthman said to his freedman: “Look who it is.” He replied: “I see a man with a cape tied around his head. He is leading two young camels.” Soon the man approached. He turned out to be Umar ibn al-Khattab - the Commander of the Faithful. Then Uthman asked him: “What brings you to this hour?” Umar replied: “Two lagging young camels, intended for alms. I want to bring them to pasture. I was afraid that they would disappear and Allah would ask me for them.” Uthman said: "Go into the shade and drink water. We will relieve you of this task and send someone who will do it for you." Umar said: “Go to your place.” But Usman continued: “We have someone who will do this for you.” However, Umar was unshakable and set off on his journey. Then Uthman said: “Whoever wants to look at a strong, trustworthy person, let him look at him!”
There are many stories about Umar's dedication in serving his flock and establishing truth and justice. History has never known a caliph who served people as sincerely, honestly and fairly as Umar did. At the same time, he was ascetic and was content with the least. He ate cakes made only from wholemeal flour, wore rough clothes and often said: “We know better the delicacy of food than many who eat it, but we reserve it for the day when every nursing mother has forgotten her baby, and every one who bears a burden, will lose his child."
Jabir ibn Abdullah al-Ansari reported: “Once Umar ibn al-Khattab saw me carrying meat.” "What is this, Jabir?" - he asked. I replied: “I wanted meat, so I bought it.” “Whatever you want, will you buy? Are you not afraid of the verse that says that “for everyone there will be a degree of reward according to their deeds, so that He will fully reward them for their actions, and there will be no injustice to them?” "
Umar ibn al-Khattab was also an excellent military leader. He sent troops to take the cities of the Persians and Byzantines, where the people subsequently accepted Islam. During his reign, Iraq and Isfahan were taken, cities in Ash-Sham and Egypt were conquered. During his era, the greatest battles in the history of Islam took place: the Battle of Yarmouk, al-Qadisiyah, Nahavand and others. The Commander of the Faithful, Umar ibn al-Khattab, sent troops from Medina, appointed leaders and determined military plans. The great achievements of Umar eclipsed the military successes of other great commanders and heroes of history.
Against this great man, the enemies of Islam could do nothing but a cowardly attack: they sent a fire-worshipping slave named Abu Lulua, and during the morning prayer, standing behind Umar, he stabbed him several times in the back. So the second righteous caliph fell by the death of a shahid. This marked the end of one of the most important stages of Islamic history.
May Allah have mercy on the Commander of the Faithful, Umar! His adoption of Islam became a help for Muslims, and the period of his reign was their victory, he strengthened the foundations of the Islamic state, made it powerful, suppressing its enemies. May the Almighty reward him with all his Muslim Ummah best reward!
On the planet, it has very interesting story, filled with bright events and facts. Many experts believe that the once powerful and influential Arab Caliphate owes its emergence to the successful activities of the Prophet, who managed to unite in a single faith a large number of previously separated tribes. The best period of this theocratic state can be considered the decades when the righteous caliphs were at its head. All of them were the closest associates and followers of Muhammad, who were related to him by blood. Historians consider this period of the formation and development of the caliphate to be the most interesting; it is often even called the “golden era”. Today we will talk in detail about all four Rightly Guided Caliphs and their most significant achievements at the head of the Muslim community.
The concept of "caliphate": a brief description
At the beginning of the seventh century, the Prophet created a small community of fellow believers, spread across Western Arabia. It was called ummah. Initially, no one imagined that thanks to the military campaigns and conquests of the Muslims, it would significantly expand its borders and become one of the most powerful associations for several centuries.
The words “caliphate” and “caliph” translated from Arabic mean approximately the same thing - “heir”. All rulers were considered the successors of the Prophet himself and were very revered among ordinary Muslims.
Among historians, the period of existence of the Arab Caliphate is usually called the “golden age of Islam,” and the first thirty years after the death of Muhammad were the era of the righteous caliphs, which we will tell our readers about today. After all, it was these people who did a lot to strengthen the position of Islam and the Muslim state.
Rightly Guided Caliphs: names and dates of reign
The first caliphs accepted Islam during the life of the Prophet. They were well aware of all the nuances of life in the community, because they always helped Muhammad in matters of governing the ummah and took a direct part in military campaigns.
The four righteous caliphs were so respected by the people during their lifetime and after death that later a special title was invented for them, literally meaning “walking the righteous path.” This phrase fully reflects the attitude of Muslims towards their first rulers. Further caliphs were not awarded this title, since they did not always come to power through honest means and were not close relatives of the Prophet.
By year of reign, the list of caliphs is as follows:
- Abu Bakr al-Siddiq (632-634).
- Umar ibn al-Khattab al-Faruk (634-644).
- Uthman ibn Affan (644-656).
- Ali ibn Abu Talib (656-661).
During their reign over the caliphate, each of the Muslims listed above did everything possible for the prosperity of the state. Therefore, I would like to tell you more about them.
The first righteous caliph: the path to the heights of power
Abu Bakr al-Siddiq was one of the first who wholeheartedly believed the Prophet and followed him. Before meeting Muhammad, he lived in Mecca and was quite rich. His main activity was trade, which he continued to engage in after converting to Islam.
While still in Mecca, he began active work to develop the Muslim community. The Righteous Caliph Abu Bakr al-Siddiq spent huge sums of money on this and was engaged in the ransom of slaves. It is noteworthy that each of the slaves received freedom, but in exchange had to become a true believer. We think it goes without saying that this deal was very profitable for the slaves. Therefore, the number of Muslims in Mecca grew rapidly.
After the Prophet decided to move to Medina, the future caliph followed him and even accompanied Muhammad when he was hiding in a cave from assassins sent.
Subsequently, the Prophet married the daughter of Abu Bakr al-Siddiq, which made them blood relatives. After that, he more than once went with Muhammad on military campaigns, performed Friday prayers and led pilgrims.
In the year six hundred and thirty-two, the Prophet died without leaving heirs or appointing a new successor, and the Muslim community faced the choice of a new leader.
The reign of Abu Bakr
Muhammad's companions could not agree on the candidacy of the caliph, and only after they remembered the numerous services of Abu Bakr to the Muslim community, the choice was made.
It is worth noting that the righteous caliph was a very kind and absolutely not vain person, so he also involved other followers of the Prophet in the administration, distributing responsibilities between them.
Abu Bakr al-Siddiq gained power at a very difficult time. After the death of Muhammad, many people and tribes turned away from Islam, believing that they could now return to their former life. They broke their treaty obligations to the caliphate and stopped paying taxes.
For twelve years, Abu Bakr took action to maintain and expand the boundaries of the caliphate. Under him it was formed regular army, which managed to advance to the borders of Iran. At the same time, the Caliph himself always admonished his soldiers, forbidding them to kill women, babies and old people, as well as to mock their enemies.
In the thirty-fourth year of the seventh century, the army of the caliphate began to conquer Syria, but the ruler of the state at that time was dying. In order to prevent conflicts in the caliphate, he himself chose a successor among his closest associates.
Second Caliph
Umar ibn ruled the Muslim country for ten years. Initially, he was very skeptical about Islam, but one day he happened to read a surah, and he became interested in the personality of the Prophet. After meeting him, he was imbued with faith and was ready to follow Muhammad anywhere in the world.
Contemporaries of the second righteous caliph wrote that he was distinguished by incredible courage, honesty and selflessness. He was also very humble and pious. Very large sums of money passed through his hands as the Prophet's chief advisor, but he never succumbed to the temptation to enrich himself.
Umar ibn al-Khattab al-Faruk often took part in military battles and even married his beloved daughter to Muhammad. Therefore, it is not surprising that on his deathbed the first caliph named Umar as his successor.
Achievements of Umar ibn al-Khattab
The second righteous caliph did a lot for the development of the administrative system of the Muslim state. He created a list of people who received annual benefits from the state. This register included the Prophet's companions, warriors and members of their families.
Umar also laid the foundations of the tax system. It is interesting that it concerned not only monetary payments, but also regulated relations between different citizens of the caliphate. For example, Christians did not have the right to build their homes higher than Muslim houses, to have weapons and to publicly display their symbols of faith. Naturally, the faithful paid taxes less than the conquered peoples.
The merits of the second caliph include the introduction new system calculus, the legal system and the construction of military camps in the conquered territories to prevent uprisings.
Umar ibn al-Khattab al-Faruk paid great attention to construction. He managed to enshrine urban planning rules at the legislative level. The example of Byzantium was taken as a basis, and most cities of that time were distinguished by slender and wide streets with beautiful houses.
During the ten years of his reign, the caliph laid the foundations of national and religious unity. He was merciless towards his enemies, but at the same time he was remembered as a fair and active ruler. Many historians believe that it was during this period of time that Islam declared itself as a strong and fully formed religious movement.
Third ruler of the caliphate
During his lifetime, Umar created a council of six of his closest associates. It was they who had to choose a new ruler of the state who would continue the victorious march of Islam.
He became Uthman ibn Affan, who remained in power for about twelve years. The third righteous caliph was not as active as his predecessor, but he belonged to a very ancient and noble family.
Uthman's family converted to Islam even before the Prophet moved to Medina. But relations between the aristocratic family and Muhammad were quite tense. Despite this, Uthman ibn Affan would have married the daughter of the Prophet, and after her death he received an offer to marry his other daughter.
Many believe that Uthman's numerous connections made it possible to spread and strengthen Islam during Muhammad's lifetime. The future caliph knew many noble families and thanks to his active work, a large number of people accepted Islam.
This strengthened the position of the then small community and gave a powerful impetus to the creation of a religious state.
The reign of Caliph Uthman
If we describe these years briefly, we can say that the third caliph retreated from the principles adhered to by his predecessors. He placed family ties above all else, thereby throwing the caliphate back into the days of the proto-state.
Uthman's relatives and associates had a penchant for money-grubbing and sought to enrich themselves at the expense of other residents of the caliphate. Naturally, this led to increased material inequality and unrest.
Surprisingly, during this difficult period, the boundaries of the caliphate continued to expand. This was facilitated by military conquests, but it was extremely difficult to keep the conquered peoples in obedience to the caliph.
This eventually led to a rebellion, which resulted in the death of the Caliph. After his death, a bloody period of civil strife began in the state.
Fourth Caliph
The Righteous Caliph Ali ibn Abu Talib, who became the fourth ruler of the “golden era,” was one of very unusual people. Of the entire galaxy of caliphs, he was the only blood relative of Muhammad. He was his cousin and the second person to convert to Islam.
It so happened that Ali and the Prophet were brought up together. Therefore, it is not surprising that the Caliph married the daughter of Muhammad. Subsequently, from their union two boys were born, to whom the Prophet was very attached. He talked for a long time with his grandchildren and was a frequent guest in his daughter’s family.
Ali often took part in military campaigns and was distinguished by simply legendary courage. However, until his election as caliph, he did not hold important government positions.
Ali ibn Abu Talib as caliph: historians' assessment
Ali's personality seems extremely contradictory to experts. On the one hand, he did not have organizational skills, political talents and flexible mind. It was under him that the preconditions for the collapse of the caliphate emerged, and Muslims were divided into Shiites and Sunnis. However, no one can deny his fanatical devotion to the cause of Muhammad and loyalty to his chosen path. Moreover, his untimely death elevated him to the rank of martyr. He is credited with many feats and deeds worthy of a saint.
Based on the foregoing, historians conclude that Ali turned out to be a true Muslim, but was never able to contain the separatist sentiment in the caliphate.
