Classification of methods by type (nature) of cognitive activity (I.Ya. Lerner, M.N. Skatkin). Classification of teaching methods by the nature of cognitive activity (according to the degree of cognitive activity of schoolchildren) Classification of methods by nature

From the point of view of the nature of cognitive activity, the lessons can be divided into two

large groups:

a) reproductive;

b) creative.

They differ from each other, mainly in the degree of cognitive activity and creative independence that the student shows in the process of work.

In organizing student activities, each of these types of lessons has its own characteristics.

Reproductive activities suggest the least degree of independence. They are most expedient in those cases when it is required for a relatively short period of time to master the necessary system of specific knowledge or methods of action. Reproductively, such lessons are usually organized in which it is necessary to master as clearly as possible complex and laborious techniques of processing materials, marking methods, rules of work, etc. Such lessons are found both in the first and in all other classes, since as the degree of difficulty increases creative tasks to be solved, as a rule, require more and more subtle and complex practical actions. In addition, the program provides for the development of various types of folk crafts. A respectful attitude towards folk traditions requires that the methods of activity developed over the centuries are studied as carefully as possible. All this often involves turning to the reproductive type of lessons, in which the teacher demonstrates actions and explains them in detail, and the students repeat, reproduce and remember as accurately as possible. This usually means frontal training of reception with the provision of individual assistance as needed.

As already mentioned, mastering practical techniques should not turn into an end in itself. On the basis of the mastered ways of activity, students can perform creative work.

Creative lessons suggest that the predominant is the creative activity of students. The organization of these lessons requires from the teacher, first of all, a clear understanding of the very meaning of creativity.

The concept of "creativity", perhaps, should be attributed to one of the most widespread and frequently encountered in the methods of labor training. In everyday life (including pedagogical), it is often generally identified with any handicrafts: exhibitions of "children's creativity" abound in sketched, copied, made according to instructions, products of a purely reproductive plan; everything that a child has made with his own hands is absolutely groundlessly referred to as "creativity."

Even more often, in manuals for labor training, one can find the so-called "creative tasks" or special "pages of creativity", in which "creativity" seems to be mechanically joined to all the rest (non-creative) work and is reduced to the fact that the child is invited to contribute whatever change into a craft, painted to the smallest detail in strict instructions. For example, a student first copies a sample (say, a picture in the applique technique); the sample is accompanied by templates of all the details (including those that are easier and more expedient to make yourself), explanations about the materials and step-by-step instructions are given. After that, it is proposed to perform "creative" work; do such a picture, but change something in it. At the same time, it does not explain in any way what exactly should be expected from the changes made, whether the picture should convey a certain mood or it changes according to some logical principle - no, it's quite simple something do it differently than in the sample, and it will already be creativity! Meanwhile, the psychological nature of creativity has nothing to do with such tasks, and the teacher should understand this well.

First of all, let us note that creativity involves the creation of something new that does not yet exist in human practice. It can be a new scientific idea, a new artistic image, a new way of working, etc. As already mentioned, educational creativity usually has no objective novelty; schoolchildren usually discover what is already known to mankind as a whole. However, the essence of creativity for them remains the same: creative activity- discovery, independent search. With this in mind, those that are the result of direct copying should immediately be deleted from the list of creative works.

Taking into account the scientific, psychological and didactic foundations of creative activity forces us to make radical changes in the usual organization of manual labor lessons. First of all, this concerns tasks that would instruct the student to "independently" make a product, guided by an instruction card detailing the entire course of work. Unfortunately, such an understanding of independence in school everyday life is also quite widespread: "independently" means by itself, separately from the teacher and from other students. But what is the educational meaning of such "independent" work? If a child works according to prescriptions and according to instructions, and at the same time he still makes everything to the smallest detail according to templates, it does not matter if these instructions are given directly by the teacher or they are drawn on a card. There is no independent work in this case! Such tasks contradict the scientific understanding of cognitive independence.

Speaking about creativity, one should, first of all, pay attention to such works in which the younger student is actively develops a product in accordance with the task at hand. It is the task that creates a certain attitude towards creative search, makes him think, look for the necessary methods of action, and not just mechanically copy. Creative activityorganically includes the formulation and solution of problem situations: they can be of an artistic or logical type, but they necessarily constitute the very essence of the work,

Based on this, it makes sense in general terms to recall what exactly in the psychology of thinking is referred to as problem learning. As noted by A.V. Brushlinsky, with problem learning, the separation of the processes of obtaining new knowledge and their application is eliminated. In traditional (non-problem) training, the necessary knowledge and skills are formed before solving problems; then tasks are proposed in which the student must apply and consolidate this knowledge. With problem-based learning, new knowledge is acquired and discovered in the very process of solving practical and theoretical problems. Of course, these tasks should be really inscribed in the tasks offered to the children.

Let us illustrate the differences in the problem-creative and reproductive organization of students' work with a simple example. For example, a teacher shows first graders (who are mastering origami techniques for the first time) how to make a shape similar to a tulip flower from a square of paper, while they compare the resulting product and the image of a real flower. Further, the teacher proposes to independently determine and perform additional folds so that the resulting shape more resembles an unblown tulip bud. For clarity, no paper sample is given and, of course, methods of work are not shown. Only the real bud (or its image) is shown, looking at which pupils they themselves must think about how to make a narrow one out of a wider, wider form.

In this case, they acquire the necessary knowledge:

about the figurative nature of origami, the ways of obtaining certain forms in this technique, about the variety of forms of nature, and not in finished form, but making a kind of creative "discoveries".

Now let's try to imagine the organization of the same work in a slightly different way.

First, the pupils, under the dictation of the teacher, make the same tulip (at first "blossomed", then more closed); every time they have a sample before their eyes. Then they are given a sample of a slightly different kind, where the same shape plays the role of a "bell", and the task is formulated something like this:

“Now make your own picture“ Bell ”. In order for the children to cope with the task for sure, patterns of the remaining parts are also given - leaf and stem.

You might think that the differences between these two activities are the smallest; in any case, on both, the students do part of the work independently. Nevertheless, the second option, in contrast to the first, is built in the classical style of an information-reproductive lesson; "Independent" work on it is purely reproductive, training, not creative. In essence, children do not receive any new knowledge in this work and, of course, do not make any discoveries: the final result of the work (sample) is already before their eyes, the methods of work have just been mastered, it remains only to consolidate them.

How to construct a lesson - reproductive or creative - does not depend on the teacher's spontaneous desire. This should be justified by the objectives of the lesson. Keeping in mind that the meaning of object-oriented practical activity is to intensify the cognitive processes of creativity, we each time think over which method will be most appropriate in a particular case.

If the teacher understands the meaning of reproductive and creative activity, then at each lesson he will be able to properly organize the preparation of children for work. Let's say a reproductive lesson is based on the use of a single model and allows building a single plan of action. Creative work is prepared and structured in a completely different way.

Artistic creativity, first of all, it involves the creation by the child of an original image (expressing a certain mood, attitude, etc.) and the embodiment of this image through the independent selection of the necessary means. Consequently, such a lesson excludes pattern work. At the same time, it is necessary to help students, firstly, to conjure up the corresponding image and, secondly, to find the most appropriate ways of its embodiment. For this purpose, in the lesson, we still use samples, but they have a completely different educational meaning. These are not samples for copying, but analog samples, which demonstrate possible creative solutions the task at hand. Using these samples, the teacher explains what exactly needs to be looked for, how it can be done, what practical actions can be taken.

Such an organization of the creative lesson stems from the psychological nature of creativity, which assumes that in the process of creative search, a person nevertheless starts off from something. “That which does not seem like anything does not exist,” Paul Valéry said rightly. Just as creativity and thinking never deal with what is already absolutely known and fully cognized, it cannot deal with what absolutely it is not known that at least partially did not enter consciousness. As we have already noted, real creativity is not any meaningless originality at all, namely targeted search consistent with the task at hand. In order for the task, the direction of the search to be comprehended by a person, they must be presented in one way or another; for this, there are preparatory, clarifying types of visibility. For example, a child should compose a composition on some topic (for example, "Festive fireworks" or "Spring is coming!"). An image cannot arise from scratch. The corresponding samples are offered not for copying, but in order to awaken imagination, to actualize existing knowledge. First of all, they give an idea of the image and mood that should be reflected in the composition (in the first case - the mood of the holiday, a solemn and joyful state; images of bright flashes against the background of a dark sky; in the second - the mood of the approaching spring, the image of awakening nature: blue the sky reflected in the water, the last snow, spring tree trunks). Samples help to capture this mood, and thus, in the mind of the child is formed purpose work: express it through the creation of an adequate artistic image. And already for this image, he himself selects the appropriate means, materials and methods of work. Of course, he does this with the help of a teacher, but he does not copy or repeat instructions, but looks for his own solution.

In the same way, they are organized and intellectual and logical creative work. First, the child is asked to understand the patterns in accordance with which this or that structure is composed, and then he must perform the work using these patterns, The purpose of the work for the student, and in this case is to solve a certain problem, in accordance with which, he deliberately uses materials and modes of operation.

Considering the creative, search activity of children, one should especially dwell on the so-called artistic combinatorial works. They also involve the creation of an original artistic image, but it is developed in a slightly different way, and this activity itself has a specific meaning for students.

Artistic combinatorial tasks are more reminiscent of a kind of play with material, the search for unplanned artistic effects, the use of unexpected means. This work is very important for children, as it greatly contributes to the development of flexibility and originality of thinking. It should be remembered that all types of artistic creation are built on a completely special basis, which does not involve the advancement of "scientific hypotheses" (as in intellectual problematic situations), but the free operation of the corresponding images. It is these qualities that form artistic combinatorial works. Fulfilling them, schoolchildren, of course, are also guided by some kind of plan, but it is specially set in a very general form. In addition, such tasks are usually associated with the development of something unusual, outlandish, non-existent, so as not to shackle imagination (this can be, say, a sketch of a car house, an alien alien, a fantastic animal, etc.). For example, by constructing “toys-unbelievable” (“Wonderful Workshop”, pp. 150-153), children can compose them directly in the course of work. The assignment says that "these toys are entirely the fruit of your imagination." Therefore, the child can freely experiment without fear of ruining the product. The work can be constructed in a similar way, but "transforming" a spot of arbitrary shape into some kind of image ("Skillful hands", pp. 46-47, "ABC of skillful hands", p. 57). In such cases, the design is dictated by the associations that arise in children when they see a given form. Initially, these associations may not be very clear, but as the image is embodied, they may change at all. Stimulating creative work in artistic combinatorial tasks, the teacher should encourage children to experiment freely, encourage any original solutions.

Let's pay attention to such lessons when schoolchildren create a product according to instructions from ready-made, fully marked parts, cutting them out directly from the pages of the album. These are, for example, Santa Claus, a New Year's card, a mask, a frame-pass to a school desk. Why are such tasks needed if the main program setting is the development of creative independence, and not work according to prescriptions? The fact is that this method allows you to quickly equip children with the knowledge and experience of performing more complex design techniques(in particular, in paper and plastic - techniques for modeling a volumetric shape from a flat workpiece). All other ways to achieve the same result would require an immeasurably large and in fact unjustified investment of time. And in this case, having become acquainted with the technique, so to speak, "from the hands of the instructor," the child, according to the finished result, somehow comprehends it, and then consciously uses it in creative activity. In addition, all such tasks require not just reproductive action, but force a meaningful attitude to work, and, where possible, stimulate creativity and purposeful search. At the same time, guiding the technological side of the matter, the teacher, as in other lessons, directs the thoughts of children either according to a rational-logical or an artistic type. Creating, for example, a figurine of Santa Claus, first-graders, against the background of mastering the techniques of paper plastic that are common for all, have the opportunity to give the product originality and artistic expressiveness precisely due to the creative use of these techniques.

LESSON STRUCTURE

What does the structure of the lesson really depend on - the number of stages or their sequence? Should they always be the same or different? There can be only one answer: it all depends on the content and tasks.

Each stage carries a certain semantic and emotional load, and together they must be connected and a single, logically harmonious whole. A lesson cannot be a kaleidoscope of disparate tasks. Like any creative act, it has its beginning; development and completion;

1. Organization of the lesson, the establishment of order and discipline.

2. Preparing students for practical work (introductory conversation, story of the teach gel);

1. Practical work on the manufacture of the product;

2. Summing up the results of the lesson; evaluation of the work done;

3. Cleaning of the workplace.

Organization of the lesson. As a rule, if no unusual procedure for entering the classroom after recess is planned, the children themselves go to their workplaces. At this time, children are excited, they have not yet calmed down after the break. We need to somehow establish order. There are several options. Sometimes the teacher offers to check if they have everything ready for the lesson. Either let the children stand for a few seconds near their desks, or when the children do not have to be calmed and disciplined: just before the bell rings, the teacher, outside the door, invites them to quietly enter the classroom and take their places.

Thus, the organization of the lesson is a necessary first structural element of a lesson of any kind and content, but it can be passed in different ways.

Preparing students for the upcoming practical work. The main purpose of this stage is the actualization of those knowledge, skills and abilities of students: which will be used, replenished and developed in practical work; conversation, analysis of samples - analogs, demonstrating possible imaginative solutions; ways of constructing certain forms; demonstration of individual technological methods; musical fragments, slideshow, reading of poems. Inclusion of elements of play and entertainment in the lesson. Riddles are no less common technique of “preparing students for work”.

Practical work on the manufacture of a product for schoolchildren can be implemented in various organizational forms: individual or collective.

The stage of practical production of the product takes up most of the lesson time. Along the way, his teacher provides individual assistance to students, helps to cope with individual operations. Can suggest some ideas. Even if a child is working on his product and realizing an individual idea, it makes sense to support the creative communication of children, the exchange of ideas.

If the teacher from time to time demonstrates to everyone some unusual solutions, especially successful ideas of individual children. Firstly, it creates an additional incentive for creative searches; secondly, it helps students not to lose the main direction of work.

Summing up the results of the lesson evaluation of the work done. The main point of this stage of the lesson is not about assigning marks to students. And its other content components are much more important. This is a) drawing the attention of children to the results obtained, an overall assessment of achievements;

b) repetition and generalization of what was learned in the lesson;

c) the formation of the ability to consider and evaluate each other's works;

d) development of interest and attentive attitude to the creativity of others;

e) the formation of friendly relationships in the team. More often than other techniques, you can use the organization of an exhibition of students' works with their collective viewing and discussion.

Cleaning of workplaces - each student must definitely put work tools in order, collect rubbish from the table and put down materials suitable for further work.

4. THE AFTERWORD

The focus on developmental learning in technology lessons will help students, future primary school teachers, in their challenging job of organizing technology lessons.

For pedagogues-methodologists, heads of pedagogical practice, this material will help in the process of educational activities to orient students towards a deep and lasting mastery of knowledge, their integration in the process of preparing and passing pedagogical practice, as well as in the process of independent professional development.

LITERATURE

1. Geronimus T.M. Technique of teaching technology with a workshop. - M.: AST - PRESS BOOK, 2009. - 336 p.

2. Vygonov V.V. Workshop on labor training. - M., 2009;

3. Konysheva N.M. Theory and methods of teaching technology in elementary school: textbook. manual for ped students. universities and colleges / N.M. Konysheva. - Smolensk: Association XXI century, 2007. - 296 p.

4. Our man-made world (from the natural world to the world of things): A textbook on artistic work for the third grade of elementary school / Konysheva NM, - M., 2007;

5. Secrets of the masters: A textbook on artistic work for the IV grade of primary school / Konysheva NM, - M., 2008;

6. Skillful hands: A textbook on artistic work for the 1st grade of elementary school / N.M. Konysheva, - M., 2008;

7. Wonderful workshop: A textbook on artistic work for the II grade of primary school / Konysheva NM, - M., 2007;

APPENDIX No. 1

Sample lesson outline

2nd grade

Lesson topic: Transformation of leaves (creation of an image by association).

Lesson Objectives:

1) the formation of the ability to consider and study the shape of objects:

2) the development of associative thinking, the ability to create, an artistic image in association with the form of an object,

3) the formation of techniques for creating a frontal composition;

4) fixing the technique of gluing dried leaves and seeds on a paper base.

This classification was proposed back in 1965 by I.Ya. Lerner and M.N. Skatkin. Since the success of teaching to a decisive degree depends on the orientation and internal activity of the trainees, the nature of their educational activity, it is precisely the nature of the activity, the degree of independence and creativity of students that should serve as an important criterion for choosing a method. AND I. Lerner and M.N. Skatkin proposed to single out five teaching methods, and in each of the following, the degree of activity and independence in the activities of the trainees grows: explanatory-illustrative (information-receptive); reproductive; problem statement method; partial search (heuristic); research.

The essence explanatory and illustrative the method is expressed in the following characteristic features: knowledge is offered to students in a "ready-made" form; the teacher organizes the perception of this knowledge in various ways; students carry out the perception and comprehension of knowledge, fix them in their memory. A rather low level of mental activity takes place here.

V reproductive method training, the following features are distinguished: knowledge is offered to students in a "ready-made" form; the teacher not only communicates knowledge, but also explains it; students consciously assimilate knowledge, understand it and remember it. The criterion for assimilation is the correct reproduction (reproduction) of knowledge; the necessary strength of assimilation is provided by repeated repetition of knowledge. The main purpose of this method is the formation of skills in the use and application of the acquired knowledge. The activity of the trainees is to master the techniques of performing actions, individual exercises in solving problems; mastering instructions, algorithms, samples of practical actions. The main advantage of this method, as well as the explanatory-illustrative method discussed above, is economy. It provides the ability to transfer a significant amount of knowledge and skills in the shortest possible time and with little effort. The strength of knowledge, due to the possibility of their multiple repetition, can be significant.

Both of these methods do not guarantee the development of students' creativity.

Problem statement method(or problematic method) is a transition from performing to creative activity. At a certain stage of learning, students are not yet able to independently solve problem problems, and therefore the teacher shows the way to study the problem, setting out its solution from beginning to end. And although students with this method of teaching are not participants, but only observers of the course of thought, they learn a good lesson in solving cognitive difficulties. In other words, the main purpose of the method lies in the disclosure of various problems by the teacher in the studied educational material and in showing the ways of their solution. At the same time, the activity of trainees is not only in the perception, comprehension, memorization and reproduction of ready-made scientific conclusions and methods of action, but also in tracing the logic of evidence, the development of mental operations by the teacher (statement of the problem, hypothesis, implementation of evidence, etc.).

The essence partial search (heuristic) method learning is expressed in the following characteristic features: knowledge is not offered to students in a "ready-made" form, they need to be obtained on their own; the teacher organizes not a message or presentation of knowledge, but the search for new knowledge using a variety of means; under the guidance of the teacher, students independently reason, solve emerging cognitive tasks, create together with the teacher and solve problem situations, analyze, compare, generalize, draw conclusions, etc., as a result of which they form conscious solid knowledge. The method is called partial search because students are not always able to independently solve a complex educational problem from start to finish. Therefore, educational activity develops according to the scheme: teacher - students - teacher - students, etc. Part of the knowledge is communicated by the teacher, part - the students acquire by themselves answering the questions posed or solving problematic tasks, or working on computer programs. One of the modifications of this method is heuristic conversation. The activity of students consists in active participation in heuristic conversations, mastering the techniques of analyzing educational material in order to formulate a problem and find ways to resolve it.

The essence research teaching method comes down to the fact that: the teacher, together with the students, formulates a problem, the solution of which is devoted to a segment of study time; knowledge is not communicated to students. Students independently obtain them in the process of solving (researching) the problem, comparing various options for the answers received. The means to achieve the result are also determined by the students themselves; the teacher's activity is reduced to the operational management of the process of solving problem problems; the educational process is characterized by high intensity, research character; learning is accompanied by increased interest, the knowledge gained is distinguished by depth, strength, and effectiveness. The methods of educational and cognitive work of students develop into research skills. The main content of this method is to provide the teacher with conditions for the development of students' motivation for search and creative activity, their mastery of the methods of scientific knowledge, methods of creative activity. The activity of the trainees consists in mastering the techniques of self-posing problems, developing research tasks, finding ways to solve them and verifying the data obtained, etc. The research method of teaching provides for the creative assimilation of knowledge, therefore its disadvantages are the significant time and energy of teachers and students. The use of the research method requires a high level of pedagogical qualifications.

Brief information is presented in the table:

Teaching methods by the nature of the cognitive activity of students
The essence	Method and its purpose	Teacher activities	Student activity	Student mental activity levels
TRADITIONAL LEARNING - the process of transferring known off-the-shelf knowledge.	Explanatory - illustrative (organizing the assimilation of information by students and ensuring its successful perception)	Communication of educational information by various means: the use of conversation, various manuals, videos, experiments, etc.	Perception, comprehension and memorization of the information communicated	Recognition
Reproductive (formation of skills and abilities to use and apply the knowledge gained)	Development and application of various exercises and tasks, use of various instructions and programmed learning	Mastering the techniques of performing individual exercises in solving various types of problems, mastering the algorithm of practical actions	Playback
PROBLEM LEARNING is a process of active search and discovery by students of new knowledge.	Problematic presentation (disclosure in the studied educational material of various problems and showing ways to solve them)	Identification and classification of problems that can be posed to students, their formulation in the process of conducting an experiment, observations, etc.	Tracking the logic of evidence, the movement of the student's thoughts	Application
Partially - exploratory (gradual preparation of students for self-formulation and problem solving)	Leading students to formulate a problem, find evidence, draw conclusions from the given facts, etc.	Active participation in heuristic conversations, mastering the methods of analyzing educational material in order to formulate a problem and find ways to solve it, etc.	Application creativity
Research (ensuring the organization of creative search activity of students to solve new problems for them)	Presenting new problems to students, developing and setting research assignments, etc.	Students mastering the techniques of self-posing problems, finding ways to solve them, etc.	Creation

5) The XX century is characterized by the search for new teaching methods that activate the cognitive activity of students. Indicators of such activation are the steady interest of students in knowledge and their independence in the implementation of various types of activities. ... New teaching methods are called active, or innovative .

Based on the general principles of teaching, the teacher should have an idea of when to rationally apply the appropriate teaching methods, that is, to know their comparative capabilities.

When choosing and combining teaching methods, it is necessary to be guided by the following criteria:

1. Compliance of the methods with the principles of teaching;

2. Compliance with the goals and objectives of training;

3. Compliance with the content of the topic;

4. Compliance with the educational opportunities of schoolchildren: age (physical, mental); the level of preparedness (education, upbringing and development); the peculiarities of the classroom;

5. Compliance with the existing conditions and the allotted time for training;

6. Compliance with the capabilities of the teachers themselves (experience, theoretical and practical preparedness, personal qualities of the teacher, etc.).

43. Classification of methods by type (nature) of cognitive activity (I. Ya. Lerner, M.N. Skatkin)

This classification is the most famous.

Type of cognitive activity- This is the level of independence of cognitive activity, which students achieve when working according to the teaching scheme proposed by the teacher. In this classification, the following methods are distinguished: explanatory and illustrative (informational and prescription); reproductive; problem statement; partial search (heuristic); research.

The essence information-receptive method it is expressed in the following characteristic features: knowledge is offered to students in a “ready-made” form; the teacher organizes the perception of this knowledge in various ways; students carry out perception (reception) and comprehension of knowledge, fix them in their memory.

When receiving, all sources of information are used (word, visualization, etc.), the logic of presentation can be developed both inductively and deductively. The managing activity of the teacher is limited to the organization of the perception of knowledge.

V reproductive teaching method the following features stand out: knowledge is offered to students in a “ready-made” form; the teacher not only communicates knowledge, but also explains it; students consciously assimilate knowledge, understand it and remember it. The criterion for assimilation is the correct reproduction (reproduction) of knowledge; the necessary strength of assimilation is provided by repeated repetition of knowledge.

The main advantage this method is economical.

The reproductive method must be combined with other methods.

Problem statement method is transitional from performing to creative activity. At a certain stage of training, students are not yet able to independently solve problem problems, and therefore the teacher shows the way to study the problem, setting out its solution from beginning to end. And although students with this method of teaching are not participants, but only observers of the course of thought, they learn a good lesson in solving cognitive difficulties.

The essence partial search (heuristic) method learning is expressed in the following characteristic features:

- knowledge is not offered to students in a "ready-made" form, they need to be obtained on their own;

- the teacher organizes not a message or presentation of knowledge, but the search for new knowledge using a variety of means;

- students, under the guidance of a teacher, independently reason, solve emerging cognitive tasks, create and resolve problem situations, analyze, draw conclusions, etc., as a result of which they form conscious solid knowledge.

The essence research method learning comes down to the fact that:

- the teacher, together with the students, formulates a problem, the solution of which is devoted to a segment of study time;

- knowledge is not communicated to students. Students independently obtain them in the process of researching a problem, comparing various options for the answers they receive. The means to achieve the result are also determined by the students;

- the teacher's activity is reduced to the operational management of the process of solving problem problems;

- the educational process is characterized by high intensity, learning is accompanied by heightened interest, the knowledge gained differs in depth.

The disadvantages of this method are the significant time and energy consumption of teachers and students.

Topic 1.9

Teaching Methods and Tools

1 The essence of teaching methods. Classification of teaching methods.

2 Traditional teaching methods

3 Innovative teaching methods

4 Didactic tools

Ch1. Teaching methods

The method of activity is the way of its implementation, which leads to the achievement of the set goal. Choosing the right method, we confidently and in the shortest way get the desired result.

Observing the process of teaching at school, didactics and methodologists drew attention to the huge variety of activities of the teacher and students in the classroom. These activities have come to be called teaching methods.

Any method presupposes a set goal, an activity corresponding to it, and the necessary means.

Teaching method - This is an orderly activity of the teacher and students, aimed at achieving the set goal of learning.

Teaching methods are, on the one hand, teaching methods, and on the other, teachings (V. I. Andreev). Teaching methods are a system of techniques and the corresponding rules of pedagogical activity developed taking into account didactic laws and principles, the purposeful application of which by the teacher can significantly increase the effectiveness of managing the activities of students in the process of solving a certain type of pedagogical (didactic) tasks.

Teaching methods are a system of techniques and the corresponding learning rules developed taking into account didactic principles and regularities, the purposeful application of which significantly increases the effectiveness of self-government of the student's personality in various activities and communication in the process of solving a certain type of educational problems.

These definitions require a separation of the concepts of "method" and "reception". Each teaching method consists of separate elements (parts, details), which are called methodological techniques. In turn, a technique as an element of a method and, accordingly, a fragment of activity consists of a system of the most rational actions.

In relation to the method, the techniques are of a private subordinate nature. Technique and method are related as part and whole. With the help of the technique, a pedagogical or educational task is not completely solved, but only only its stage, some part of it. The same methodological techniques can be used in different methods. Conversely, the same method for different teachers may include different techniques.

Teaching methods and methodological techniques are closely related to each other, they can make mutual transitions, replace each other in specific pedagogical situations. In some circumstances, the method acts as an independent way of solving a pedagogical problem, in others - as a technique that has a particular purpose. Conversation, for example, is one of the main methods of persuasion, and at the same time it can be a methodological technique used at various stages of the implementation of the teaching method.

Techniques determine the originality of the methods of work of teachers and students, give an individual character to their activities.

There are many classifications of teaching methods, which are associated with the choice of different bases reflecting aspects of their study.

1) Classification of methods by purpose, i.e. on their main tasks (authors M.A. Danilov, B.P. Esipov).

The most practical didactically seem to be classification for didactic purposes developed by M. A. Danilov and B.P. Esipov ... They proceeded from the fact that if teaching methods are ways of organizing student learning activities to solve didactic goals and objectives, then, therefore, they can be divided into the following groups:

Ø methods of acquiring new knowledge;

Ø methods of formation of skills and knowledge and application of knowledge in practice;

Ø methods of testing and assessing knowledge, skills, and abilities.

2) by the nature of the movement of thought from ignorance to knowledge:

Ø inductive (conclusions from particular to general),

Ø deductive (conclusions from the general to the particular).

3) Traditional classification by sources of knowledge or by the way information is perceived : verbal methods, visual and practical.

Verbal methods:

Story Is a monologue, sequential presentation of educational material in a narrative or descriptive form. It is used to convey factual information that requires imagery and consistency of presentation. The story is used at all stages of training, only the presentation tasks, its style and volume change. Its leading function is teaching, accompanying functions are developmental, upbringing, incentive and control and correctional. The effectiveness of the story as a method of presenting material involves mobilizing the interest of students, arousing their attention. The developmental meaning of the story is that it brings the mental processes of representation, memory, thinking, imagination, emotional experiences into a state of activity. The story can be used with children of any age. But the greatest effect is observed in the teaching of primary schoolchildren.

Basic requirements for the story:

· Reliability and validity of facts;

· A sufficient number of striking examples proving the stated provisions;

· Clear logic and proof of presentation;

• imagery and emotional coloring;

· The presence of elements of personal assessment and the teacher's attitude to the content of the material that is being studied;

· Must be short (up to 10 minutes).

If with the help of the story it is not possible to provide a clear and clear understanding of certain provisions, then the method of explanation is used.

Explanation- This is the interpretation of patterns, essential properties of the studied object, individual concepts, phenomena. The evidential form of presentation is characteristic. Used in various age groups.

Requirements:

Accurate and clear formulation of the essence of the problem

Consistent disclosure of causation, reasoning and evidence

Use of comparison, analogy, juxtaposition

In many cases, the explanation is combined with observations, with questions, and can develop into a conversation.

Conversation- a dialogical teaching method, in which the teacher, by posing a carefully thought-out system of questions, leads students to understand new material or checks their assimilation of what has already been learned.

The conversation is used in order, firstly, to actualize the knowledge known to students with the help of purposeful and skillfully posed questions, and, secondly, to achieve the assimilation of new knowledge by them through independent reflections and generalizations.

There are such types of conversations:

· Introductory or introductory, organizing conversations;

· Conversations-messages or identification and formation of new knowledge (heuristic);

· Synthesizing, systematizing or consolidating;

· Control and correction.

During the conversation, questions can be addressed to one student (one-to-one conversation) or to students of the whole class (frontal conversation). One of the types of conversation is the interview.

Features of using the "conversation" method:

· Each conversation should be a system of interconnected consistently built questions aimed not at solving a specific goal;

· Conversations should not be unnecessarily long, since each of them is aimed at solving one specific goal;

· Conducting the conversation ends with the final word of the teacher (a conclusion that ideally formulates the students together with the teacher), summarizing the results of educational work on this issue;

· The conversation should involve as many students as possible;

· Conducting a conversation organized in the lesson should be complemented by various types of visualization;

· Do not ask double, prompting questions containing ready-made answers.

Depending on the objectives of the lesson, conversations can include questions of both reproductive and productive levels. When preparing the questions of the conversation, it is important to take into account the real level of knowledge that the students possess. So, if during the conversation, students find it difficult to answer the teacher's question, then several leading questions should be formulated.

Lecture. A lecture differs from a story in that it is used for a detailed theoretical message, analysis and substantiation of complex and voluminous questions. The lecture, as a rule, consists of three parts: introductory, main and final. In the introductory part, the goals, topic and relevance of the lecture are indicated. The main part provides a comprehensive analysis of the issue. In the final part, the problems considered during the lecture are briefly analyzed, conclusions are formulated and tasks for independent work are determined.

When using the lecture method of presenting the material, the teacher orally conveys information to the group, can also use visual teaching aids, using a chalkboard, posters or slide show.

The lecture method is not free from a number of shortcomings, even if the lecturer has the highest qualifications. Communication during the lecture is mainly one-sided, and the only exceptions are situations when the lecturer answers the questions of the audience. Basically, students listen, watch and take notes behind the lecturer, practically having no opportunity for feedback, practice or control of the correct understanding of the material presented. The assimilation of the material largely depends on the characteristics of the studied material (content, complexity, structuredness) and on how widely visual aids are used during the lecture.

The lecture does not allow taking into account the different level of knowledge, professional experience and abilities of the trainees, and the pace of presentation of the material is determined by the teacher for the group as a whole. Despite these shortcomings, lectures remain the most frequently used method, since, firstly, it is the most "usual" method of presenting material, and secondly, not all teachers are proficient in other methods of presenting material.

Conditions for the effectiveness of a school lecture:

· Drawing up a detailed plan of the lecture by the teacher;

· Informing students of the plan, familiarizing them with the topic, purpose and objectives of the lecture;

· Logically harmonious and consistent presentation of all points of the plan;

· Short summarizing conclusions after covering each point of the plan;

· Logical connections during the transition from one part of the lecture to another;

• problematic and emotional presentation;

· Living language, timely inclusion of examples, comparisons, striking facts;

· Contact with the audience, flexible management of the mental activity of students;

· Multilateral disclosure of the most important provisions of the lecture;

· The optimal pace of presentation, allowing students to write down the main points of the lecture;

· Highlighting (dictating) what should be written down;

· The use of visualization (demonstrations, illustrations, video), facilitating the perception and understanding of the studied provisions;

· A combination of lectures with seminars, practical classes, in which individual provisions are thoroughly examined.

Pros of lecture presentation of material:

The teacher has full control over the content and sequence of presentation of the material. Good opportunities to quickly change the sequence, completeness of the disclosure of certain topics or individual issues and the pace of presentation of the material, depending on the reaction of the audience.

The ability to reach a large audience.

Relatively low financial costs per student (especially if there are a large number of students).

Limitations of lectures:

Low activity of listeners, the inability to receive feedback reduce the effectiveness of mastering the educational material.

Inability to take into account differences in educational level and professional experience of students.

High requirements for the skill of the lecturer. Not every teacher is able to achieve a high level of attention and involvement of the audience throughout the lecture.

Study discussion as a teaching method based on the exchange of views on a specific problem. Moreover, these views reflect either the own opinions of the participants in the discussion, or are based on the opinions of others. The main function is to stimulate cognitive interest.

It is advisable to use this method if the students have knowledge of the topic of discussion, have a significant degree of maturity and independent thinking, are able to argue, prove and substantiate their point of view. Therefore, it is necessary to prepare students for the discussion, both in content and in formal terms.

The educational discussion needs a clear methodological organization and a time limit. Its participants should not go beyond 15, -2 minutes, it is necessary to summarize the results of the section, chapter, topics of the course.

Working with a textbook or book Is one of the most important teaching methods. The main advantage of the method is the ability for the student to repeatedly process educational information at an accessible pace and at a convenient time. Educational books successfully perform all functions: teaching, developing, educating, motivating, control and correctional.

The most widespread are two types of work with a book: in the classroom under the guidance of a teacher and at home independently in order to consolidate and expand the knowledge gained in the lesson.

There are a number of techniques for independent work with printed sources. The main ones are:

note-taking- a summary, a short record of the content read. The survey is conducted from the first (from oneself) or from the third person;

drawing up a text plan. The plan can be simple or complex. To draw up a plan, it is necessary to break the text into parts and head them;

citation- a verbatim excerpt from the text. Imprint (author, title of work, place of publication, publisher, year of publication, page) must be indicated;

annotation- a short summary of the content read without loss of essential meaning;

peer review- writing a short review expressing your attitude about what you read;

drawing up a certificate- information about something obtained after searches. References are statistical, biographical, terminological, geographic, etc .;

drawing up a formal logical model- a verbal and schematic image of what has been read;

drawing up a matrix of ideas-Presentation in the form of a table of comparative characteristics of homogeneous objects, phenomena in the works of different authors

pictographic entry- wordless image

Visual teaching methods

Demonstration consists in the visual and sensory acquaintance of students with phenomena, processes, objects in their natural form. It serves mainly to reveal the dynamics of the phenomena under study, but it is also widely used to familiarize oneself with the external appearance of an object, its internal structure or location in a series of similar objects. When demonstrating natural objects, they usually start with the appearance (size, shape, color, parts and their relationships), and then move on to the internal structure or individual properties that are specially emphasized and emphasized (frog breathing, device operation, etc.). Demonstration of artwork, clothing samples, etc. also starts with a holistic experience. The display is often accompanied by a schematic sketch of the objects considered. Demonstrations of experiences are accompanied by drawing on the board or showing diagrams that facilitate understanding of the principles underlying the experience.

The effectiveness of the demonstration is facilitated by the correct choice of objects, the teacher's ability to direct the attention of students to the essential aspects of the demonstrated phenomena, as well as the correct combination of various methods. The demonstration process should be structured so that all students can see the demonstrated object well, can perceive it, if possible, with all senses, and not only with the eyes, so that the most important significant aspects of the object make the greatest impression on students and attract maximum attention, as well as provide the opportunity for independent measurement. studied qualities of the object.

The demonstration method is closely related to illustration method... Illustration involves showing and perceiving objects, processes and phenomena in their symbolic representation using posters, maps, portraits, photographs, drawings, diagrams, reproductions, flat models, etc.

Demonstration and illustration techniques are used in close connection, complementing and enhancing synergy. When students must perceive a process or phenomenon as a whole, a demonstration is used, when it is required to understand the essence of the phenomenon, the relationship between its components, they resort to illustration.

The essence of many phenomena and processes is revealed with the help of flat models - dynamic and static, color and black and white. When used correctly for the intended purpose and didactic tasks, these models are of great help to teachers and learners, and they greatly facilitate the process of conceptualization. Without geographical maps, diagrams, graphs, tables, etc., high-quality and fast training is hardly possible.

The effectiveness of the illustration depends to a large extent on the presentation technique. Choosing visual aids and a form of illustration, one should think carefully about their didactic purpose, place and role in the cognitive process. The teacher is also faced with the problem of determining the optimal amount of illustrative material. Experience shows that a large number of illustrations distract students from clarifying the essence of the studied phenomena. Illustrations are prepared in advance, but shown only at the moment necessary in the course of training. In some cases, it is advisable to use handouts (photographs, diagrams, tables, etc.). In the modern school, screen technology is widely used to provide high-quality illustration.

Video method as a separate method of teaching became possible due to the intensive penetration of new sources of screen presentation of information into the practice of educational institutions - overhead projectors, projectors, movie cameras, educational television, video players and video recorders, as well as computers. This method serves not only for the presentation of knowledge, but also for their control, consolidation, repetition, generalization, systematization - therefore, it successfully performs all didactic functions.

The teaching and upbringing functions of the video method are determined by the high efficiency of the impact of visual images.

The use of the video method in the educational process provides an opportunity to give students more complete, reliable information about the phenomena and processes being studied, increase the role of visibility in the educational process, satisfy the needs, desires and interests of students, free the teacher from part of the technical work related to the control and correction of knowledge and skills , checking notebooks, etc .; establish effective feedback, organize full and systematic control, objective accounting of progress.

Practical teaching methods

Among the practical methods, the most effective are exercises. This teaching method is the systematic repetition of actions in order to master them or improve their quality. Without properly organized exercises, it is impossible to master educational and practical skills and abilities. The advantage of the method is that it provides an effective formation of skills.

Distinguish special, derivative and commented exercises. Repeatedly repeated exercises aimed at the formation of educational, labor skills and abilities are called special. If previously used ones are introduced into special exercises, they are called derivatives. Such exercises contribute to the repetition and consolidation of earlier skills. Without derivative exercises, the skill is forgotten. The commented exercises activate the educational process, the conscious fulfillment of educational tasks. Their essence is that the teacher and students comment on the performed actions, as a result of which they are better understood and assimilated. The method of commented exercises provides a high pace of the lesson, contributes to the conscious, lasting assimilation of the material by all students.

Also distinguish oral, written, graphic and educational and work exercises.

For exercises to be effective, they must meet a number of requirements. These include the student's conscious focus on improving the quality of activities, knowledge of the rules for performing actions, consciously taking into account and controlling the conditions in which it should be performed, taking into account the results achieved, and distributing repetitions over time.

Laboratory method based on the independent conduct of experiments, research by students and is used primarily in the study of physics, chemistry, biology. Experiments can be conducted individually or in groups. Students are required to be much more active and independent than during a demonstration, where they act as passive observers, rather than participants and performers of research. The laboratory method makes it possible to acquire the skills and abilities of handling equipment, provides excellent conditions for the formation of important practical skills: to measure and calculate, process the results and compare them with existing ones, check the known and choose new ways of independent research.

The laboratory method is complex, requires special, often expensive equipment, careful preparation of the teacher and students. Its use is associated with a significant investment of energy and time. Therefore, when planning a laboratory method, the teacher must be confident that the benefits of research outweigh the effectiveness of teaching, which can be achieved in simpler, more cost-effective ways.

The difference practical method from the laboratory lies in the fact that in the activities of students, the application of already acquired knowledge to the solution of practical problems prevails. The ability to use theory in practice is highlighted. The method performs the function of deepening knowledge and skills, contributes to solving problems of control and correction, stimulating cognitive activity. There are five stages through which the cognitive activity of students usually passes in practical classes:

1.explanation of the teacher - the stage of theoretical comprehension of the work;

2. show - briefing stage;

3. trial - a stage at which two or three students do the work, and the rest of the students observe and, under the guidance of the teacher, make comments if a mistake is made during the work;

4. performance of work - the stage at which everyone independently performs the task; the teacher at this stage pays special attention to those students who do poorly on the task;

5. control - at this stage, students' work is accepted and evaluated. The quality of performance, respect for time, materials, speed and correct performance of the task are taken into account (E. Ya. Golant).

The practical method, better than others, teaches schoolchildren to perform the task conscientiously, contributes to the formation of such qualities as thriftiness, economy, etc. Students develop a habit of thoroughly organizing the work process: understanding the goals of the upcoming work, analyzing the task and the conditions for its solution, drawing up a plan and schedule performance of work, preparation of materials and tools, careful quality control of work, analysis of conclusions.

Cognitive game (didactic)- this is a specially created situation that simulates reality, from which students are invited to find a way out. The main purpose of the method is to stimulate the cognitive process.

Among the traditional school games are a variety of math, linguistic games, travel games, games such as electronic quizzes, games with thematic sets "Constructor", "Handyman", "Young chemist", etc.

Classification of methods by the nature of students' cognitive activity (authors I. Ya Lerner, M.N. Skatkin).

Both of these methods do not guarantee the development of students' creativity.

Brief information is presented in the table:

Teaching methods by the nature of the cognitive activity of students
The essence	Method and its purpose	Teacher activities	Student activity	Student mental activity levels
TRADITIONAL EDUCATION - the process of transferring known off-the-shelf knowledge.	Explanatory - illustrative (organizing the assimilation of information by students and ensuring its successful perception)	Communication of educational information by various means: the use of conversation, various manuals, videos, experiments, etc.	Perception, comprehension and memorization of the information communicated	Recognition
	Reproductive (formation of skills and abilities to use and apply the knowledge gained)	Development and application of various exercises and tasks, use of various instructions and programmed learning	Mastering the techniques of performing individual exercises in solving various types of problems, mastering the algorithm of practical actions	Playback
PROBLEM LEARNING - the process of active search and discovery by students of new knowledge.	Problematic presentation (disclosure in the studied educational material of various problems and showing ways to solve them)	Identification and classification of problems that can be posed to students, their formulation in the process of conducting an experiment, observations, etc.	Tracking the logic of evidence, the movement of the student's thoughts	Application
	Partially - exploratory (gradual preparation of students for self-formulation and problem solving)	Leading students to formulate a problem, find evidence, draw conclusions from the given facts, etc.	Active participation in heuristic conversations, mastering the methods of analyzing educational material in order to formulate a problem and find ways to solve it, etc.	Application creativity
	Research (ensuring the organization of creative search activity of students to solve new problems for them)	Presenting new problems to students, developing and setting research assignments, etc.	Students mastering the techniques of self-posing problems, finding ways to solve them, etc.	Creation

Based on the general principles of teaching, the teacher should have an idea of when to rationally apply the appropriate teaching methods, that is, to know their comparative capabilities.

When choosing and combining teaching methods, it is necessary to be guided by the following criteria:

1. Compliance of the methods with the principles of teaching;

2. Compliance with the goals and objectives of training;

3. Compliance with the content of the topic;

4. Compliance with the educational opportunities of schoolchildren: age (physical, mental); the level of preparedness (education, upbringing and development); the peculiarities of the classroom;

5. Compliance with the existing conditions and the allotted time for training;

6. Compliance with the capabilities of the teachers themselves (experience, theoretical and practical preparedness, personal qualities of the teacher, etc.).

Given this basis, teaching methods can be divided into two large groups:

a) reproductive;

b) creative.

They differ from each other, mainly in the degree of cognitive activity and creative independence that the student shows in the process of work.

A lesser degree of autonomy is assumed when using reproductive methods. From the name itself it follows that the student, within the limits of these methods, repeats and reproduces. However, this does not mean that reproductive methods should not take place in the system of developmental education. This group usually includes the so-called explanatory-illustrative and proper reproductive methods, which, upon closer examination, are two sides of the same method.

Explanatory and illustrative method involves the presentation of knowledge to students in a finished form (in the form of a story, an explanation of the teacher, instructions in a textbook, etc.). In this case, students are required to memorize or reproduce the information received - t. That is, the reproductive method acts on their part.

As in other academic disciplines, these methods are most appropriate in cases where it is required in a relatively short period of time to master the necessary system of specific knowledge or methods of action. Reproductively, lessons are usually organized in which you need to master new techniques for processing materials, methods of marking, rules for using tools, etc. Such lessons are found both in the first and in all other grades: as the degree of difficulty of the creative problems to be solved increases, as a rule, more and more subtle and complex practical actions are required that must be mastered by the students. Any practical knowledge, in order to become skills and abilities, must be repeatedly repeated by children, that is, reproduced. The goals achieved by the reproductive method (consolidation and clarification of knowledge, the assimilation of methods of operating with this knowledge, the assimilation of experience in the implementation of those methods of activity, the pattern of which is already known), are unattainable by other methods.

Reproductive methods are also justified in the lessons of acquaintance with folk crafts. A respectful attitude to folk traditions requires that the methods of activity developed over the centuries be studied in their present, historically formed form, therefore, students must repeat, reproduce these methods and remember them as accurately as possible.

Nevertheless, in general, mastery of practical techniques should not turn into an end in itself. In this regard, even reproductive methods, if possible, should not turn into direct instructions that require the student to only follow the instructions mechanically. Many Russian psychologists in the last century noted that one of the significant disadvantages of labor training is its intellectual impoverishment, associated, among other things, with the exclusive use of the instructional method. According to E.V. Guryanov (1958), the explanations and instructions of the leader should not reduce mental activity only to memorizing and passively following instructions, but should encourage the student to actively seek solutions to the assigned tasks, resorting to the help of the leader only when necessary. ...

It should also be borne in mind that in the educational process conditions must be created under which the transfer of any experience (knowledge, methods of action, etc.) would simultaneously contribute to a deeper socialization of the individual: in the sense of ensuring interaction between people in the process of activity, as well as in sense of upbringing students' initiative and creative qualities.

Studies show that for this task, specific techniques for transferring experience, including those used in the implementation of reproductive teaching methods, are of fundamental importance. One of the possible techniques, still widespread in the lessons of practical labor, is that the training of any activity or the manufacture of a product is organized by the step-by-step execution of individual fragments: actions and operations. These fragments (stages) are sequentially shown and explained by the teacher or instructional and technological map. In the context of the modern educational process, this learning path is becoming less and less acceptable. The fact is that when moving from parts to the whole, “obtaining integral activity becomes a problem, because the whole is not equal to the sum of the parts. However, self-study ... can be very effective, since the activity can be divided into any digestible fragments, the development of which (each separately) will be easier than shelling ... Thus, the prospect of a certain "self-study" opens (as in a simplified version with a self-instruction manual) ... and the illusion of mastering any activity is created. "

What's wrong with this way of learning? The fact that it is based on the principle of constructing a mechanism assembled from separate parts and assemblies (that is, in this way something inanimate is created - "technology", "machine"). In the educational sense, here we can speak mainly about loading memory, and not about the upbringing of intellectual initiative and an integral creative personality.

That is why the so-called instructional (or technological) maps, containing detailed instructions on materials, methods of work, etc., are certainly irrelevant from the point of view of modern pedagogy and psychology of developmental education. Using such a map, a student can really work without the help and participation of a teacher (like a self-instruction manual). Supporters of such methods even argue that it is in such cases that the student works "independently" and develops independence in himself as a personality trait. However, as we can see, these statements fundamentally contradict scientific data.

In this regard, another way is more preferable in the framework of the reproductive method: when the activity is mastered not as a set of techniques, but as a holistic education. In this case, the student also repeats, reproduces the techniques and operations that he must master, however, he acts in closer cooperation with the teacher and immediately becomes involved in the implementation of the learned activity as a whole: in the creation of a complex structure, composition, etc. What he cannot yet do on his own will be done with the help of the teacher. This method, although it is applied within the framework of reproductive teaching methods, makes it possible to build the educational process as a productive cooperation between a student and a teacher through their direct communication.

Activity with this method is mastered by the trainee as personally motivated, lively, productive, not mechanical.

Many of the works that are offered in our textbooks are organized in this way, starting with the first grade. Firstly, the productive collaboration of the student, teacher and other students is foreseen in numerous collective works. In each of these works, schoolchildren master certain actions and operations, but at the same time they have the opportunity to obtain a more significant overall result of their activities. Secondly, taking into account this factor, children in a number of cases are offered work using already partially prepared materials: marked blanks, decorated backgrounds, formats for compositions, etc. All this also makes it possible to organize the activities of students within the framework of reproductive methods more holistically, and not in the form of separate fragments.

Creative methods, As their name implies, it is assumed that the search, creativity principle prevails in the activities of students. This group includes problem statement, partial search (or heuristic) and research methods.

All creative methods involve posing and solving problem situations. With non-problematic, “communicative” learning, the necessary knowledge and skills are formed before solving problems and at first independently of it; then tasks are proposed in which the student must apply and consolidate this knowledge.

With problem-based learning, new knowledge is acquired, discovered by the student himself precisely in the process of solving practical and theoretical problems.

The essence problem statement method lies in the fact that the teacher, in the course of his story, explanation does not just set out the material, but constructs on its basis a problem situation and himself reveals the contradictory process of its evidence-based solution.

At the same time, students follow the train of thought and reasoning of the teacher, mentally check their persuasiveness. In this, the problem presentation differs from the explanatory and illustrative one: it inevitably presupposes the participation of the listeners in the process of creative thinking revealed to them.

Within the framework of partial search methods schoolchildren are even more actively involved in solving the problem. Heuristic conversation is one of such methods, which are successfully used in work with younger schoolchildren. In it, in contrast to the usual conversation, the teacher asks questions that lead the children to some kind of "discovery", resolution of a contradiction, and an independent finding of a solution. And students do not just answer questions, but learn to reason, analyze, find evidence.

For example, in the second grade, when studying the section "What Our Things Talk About", schoolchildren get acquainted with the problem of the socio-psychological information content of the objective world. They will learn that each item must be suitable for the setting and conditions in which it is used, and that the appearance of the item can be guessed at its owner. Conversation heuristic is the best way to lead children to think about these complex issues. On the one hand, the teacher can rely on the life experience of the children, and on the other hand, makes them look at the problem in a new way. For example, on the topic "Can a house tell about its owner?" children can be invited to conduct a discussion as follows: “What do you think Malvina’s house should look like? Describe it. And Thumbelina's little house? Why does Baba Yaga feel comfortable in a hut on chicken legs? But Ilya Muromets would be too cramped there, and Malvina - dirty! Is not it?"

Partial search methods in technology lessons involve the use of special tasks that put students in the position of active actors, and not just performers. This contributes to an increase in the consciousness of learning, familiarizing children with creative thinking and is a stimulus for the development of their cognitive activity. These tasks include, for example, a mental analysis of the sample device (without dividing it into parts), calculation of the dimensions of workpieces by the overall dimensions of the product, making sketches of parts, etc.

The actions of schoolchildren in such cases are associated with the internal activity of the personality, primarily with thinking.

“Thinking as a process,” notes A. V. Brushlinsky, “appears especially clearly, first of all, in those cases when, for example, a person long and persistently solves a mental problem or problem (mathematical, technical, psychological) that is difficult for him. In the general result of his long and persistent attempts, he finally finds a solution to this problem, or, conversely, does not find it ”(). Let's pay special attention to the last phrase: for a cognizing, thinking person, a positive result is not only a successful solution to a problem, but even its “non-solution”; failure in attempts to solve it is also a product of thinking as an activity, it also contributes to the formation of the most important new formations in the psyche: more and more adequate ways of thinking and cognition are being formed in a person, new knowledge, methods of mental actions, motives, feelings, abilities, as well as attitudes towards what he does.

For some reason, teachers believe that mistakes made by students indicate a poor organization of their cognitive activity. The fear of mistakes is especially noticeable in the lessons of practical work: after all, all detailed instructions and instructions are offered precisely in order to exclude even the slightest deviations from work, especially mistakes. Meanwhile, scientists have carried out special studies that convincingly prove the usefulness and importance in the educational process of those erroneous actions that a student performs in the course of solving a problem. Therefore, it is advisable to set tasks for students in such a way that they independently look for ways to complete them, and the mistakes made in this case will contribute to a better understanding of the problem and stimulate cognition.

Let us note again that if a task does not cause any difficulties in the child at all, then it does not require thinking for its fulfillment. In the same way, a second grader does not need thinking to answer the simplest question: "How much is 2 x 2?" Here the decisive role is played by the corresponding skills and elementary arithmetic operations firmly fixed in his memory. In all such cases, psychologist A. M. Matyushkin suggests using the more correct term “task” instead of the word “task” (which requires thinking for its solution), for the performance of which there are enough well-developed, automated skills.

In the practice of teaching younger schoolchildren, partial search methods stand next to research methods that offer the highest level of creativity.

Their use requires from the teacher, first of all, a correct understanding of the very meaning of creativity. This concept, perhaps, should be attributed to one of the most widespread and frequently encountered in the methods of labor training. In everyday life (including pedagogical), it is often generally identified with any handicrafts: exhibitions of "children's creativity" abound in sketched, copied, made according to instructions, products of a purely reproductive plan; everything that the child has made with his own hands (even by stage-by-stage and mechanical copying of actions) is absolutely groundlessly referred to as “creativity”.

Even more often, in manuals for labor training, one can find so-called "creative tasks" or special "pages of creativity" in which "creativity" is mechanically joined to all other (non-creative) work. It usually boils down to what the child is asked to make any change in a craft made according to detailed instructions. For example, a student first copies a sample (say, a picture in the applique technique); the sample is accompanied by templates of all the details (including those that are easier and more expedient to make yourself), explanations about the materials and step-by-step instructions are given. After that, it is proposed to perform "creative" work: to do the same picture, but change something in it. At the same time, it does not explain in any way what exactly should be expected from the changes made: should the picture convey a certain mood or it changes according to some logical principle, no, it is enough just to do something differently from the sample, and it will already be " creation"! Meanwhile, the psychological nature of creativity has nothing to do with such tasks.

First of all, let us note that creativity presupposes the creation of something new that does not yet exist in human practice; it can be a new scientific idea, a new artistic image, a new mode of activity, etc. Educational creativity usually does not have objective novelty; schoolchildren more often discover what is already known to mankind as a whole. However, the essence of creativity for them remains the same: creative activity- always a discovery (even for yourself). Real creativity is not at all any meaningless originality, namely targeted search consistent with the task at hand.

To help students comprehend the problem, the direction of the search should be indicated. For example, when creating a postcard, notebook, gift wrapping, you need to consider for which particular occasion, for which user the item is intended. Artistic application is created with the expectation of what impression it should make on the viewer (lyrical, actively joyful, etc.). When developing a technical structure, a number of requirements are formulated that it must satisfy (for example, fold in a certain way, have certain dimensions, etc.).

With this formulation of the task, the goal of the work for the student is to solve the problem; in accordance with her, he deliberately uses materials and methods of activity: he does not copy a sample and does not repeat instructions, does not offer spontaneous (i.e., random, unintentional) options, but seeks own solution.

In this way, the essence of the research method lies in the fact that the teacher models a problem situation and presents it to the students in the form of such a task, the fulfillment of which involves a creative search for his own solution in exact accordance with the stated conditions or a given goal. Using this method allows you to put students in the position of co-authors, "co-developers" or even independent creators of the design and image of the product. Solving certain problems in the learning process, students activate mental activity, master the procedures of the creative process, and at the same time creatively master the methods of cognition.

The research method in technology lessons actually takes on features project activities.

Lecture number 4. The technology of manual processing of materials. Elements of graphic writing.

The main attention is paid to the formation of materials processing techniques and the corresponding special knowledge of a technological nature.

We will proceed from the fact that the subject "Technology" should receive a general educational meaning at school, therefore, the content of training students is not limited to mastering practical methods of work and technical and technological knowledge, but includes this knowledge and skills in a broader cultural context.

All this is by no means abstract, but practical. According to the way in which substantive accents are placed in a particular program, lessons can be classified in different ways and their main types can be distinguished.

In accordance with the technological approach, the classifications of practical labor lessons are most often given according to the materials used in the work (lessons on working with paper, fabric, wood, natural materials, etc.); on practical operations (lessons in teaching sculpting techniques, working with scissors, with a needle, lessons in the formation of paper folding skills, etc.); on the subject content (lessons of applique, embroidery, knitting, etc.).

However, it should be noted that the most significant differences are determined not by the materials and technologies of their processing, but by the inner content of the work. For example, from paper, using the same cutting, folding and gluing techniques, you can make a technical model of a rocket, or you can create an artistic panel. It is clear that according to the semantic content, these are different types of work, therefore, the lessons should be built according to their meaning - in different ways.

Considering that classifications of lessons according to the "technological" principle are no longer relevant for the modern school, they are not considered in this book. In our opinion, in determining the types of lessons in practical work, it makes sense to turn to those specific grounds that are most significant in terms of deepening education and student development in the process of working on products. We understand as such a basis content and semantic orientation of the artistic and design activities of students.

On this basis, three main types of lessons can be distinguished:

a) rational-logical;

b) emotional and artistic;

c) practical and technological (lessons in the formation of techniques and skills of practical work).

In the lessons of each of these types, the development of schoolchildren proceeds in a special way; Accordingly, the activities of students and teachers are organized in different ways.

Rational-logical type lessons are based on solving technical, technological, logical problems, which are often built by analogy with engineering and design or psychodiagnostic tasks. They are more conducive to the formation of constructive abilities, technical thinking, logical operations, analytical qualities of the mind. These tasks are performed rationally and include the operations of analysis and synthesis, comparison, classification, etc. In such lessons, calculations, calculations, execution of sketches, drawings, diagrams are appropriate, which helps to better analyze the structure, to identify which principle is subordinate to the mutual arrangement of parts , to establish ways of doing work, etc. The creative tasks that schoolchildren solve in such lessons have a pronounced intellectual character: it is the analysis and identification of patterns in the design of a product, features of the form, principles and methods of obtaining it, etc. For example, for a lesson in which second graders get acquainted with the principle of obtaining a sweep of a volumetric product and make a stand for a brush, in a textbook on technology for grade 2 "Wonderful workshop" and a workbook (author N.M. Konysheva), they are offered a number of tasks, allowing a better understanding of this principle.

It should be noted that most often there are such works in which rational-logical analysis constitutes only some part of the entire activity, since there are quite rare products that do not imply any artistic diversity at all. Even those forms and compositions that are created in a purely rational way are usually not devoid of artistic expressiveness (due to their strict correctness, harmony), and the work of students in such lessons is aesthetic in nature due to the clarity and consistency of their actions. Nevertheless, the main content of the work in the lessons of the rational-logical type is, as a rule, a logical, rational analysis of the device of the product.

In contrast, the content lessons of emotional and artistic type make up the search and embodiment of the original artistic image, expressing a special emotional state, attitude, experience. These include, for example, performing various artistic compositions on a plane ("Festive fireworks", "Fairy bird"), making decorative toys from eggshells, sculpting compositions from plasticine, creating sculptures from natural materials, etc.

In such lessons there is no place for strict regulation of actions: after all, an image can be created only individually, only "from oneself", and an idea on the same topic can be embodied in different versions. Each product is "composed" by the author through the creative use of materials and methods of processing them. If the work on the product turns into only a set of techniques and rules, then the artistic form becomes indifferent to the inner content of the image, which deprives the students' activity of all meaning. In such lessons, you cannot limit yourself to analyzing a sample and direct students to copy it. Therefore, all the work in the lesson is aimed at awakening the creative thought of students, stimulating the emergence of their own ideas and helping in its subsequent original embodiment.

Rational-logical and artistic directions in the lesson can be combined. This applies to those activities that are devoted to the manufacture of products with a specific utilitarian purpose (for example, postcards, potholders, dishes, jewelry, packaging, etc.); most of them are in the course of design education. These are true lessons artistic design, beauty and rationality are inextricably fused in them. How should we define their typology? In the same way - proceeding from the semantic core of the work. The fact is that for some of these products the decorative side is predominant (and the constructive one completely obeys it), for others, on the contrary, the main meaning of the product is the convenience of its design (and the decor is of an applied nature). For example, a vase for flowers or a greeting card, first of all, should be expressive in appearance, highly artistic. Therefore, the shape, size, design features and everything else in these objects is thought out and executed on the basis of the impression they should make. Consequently, such lessons should be attributed primarily to the emotional and artistic type. The device of the products and the methods of their manufacture, of course, also need to be analyzed, but this analysis is entirely subordinate to the main question: how to enhance the artistic impression through the design, choice of material and its processing.

And for such products as a pincushion, a notebook, a brush stand, the main point lies in their useful function; this function should be expressed, first of all, through the construction - it is the main subject of analysis in the lesson. Such classes are predominantly of a rational-logical nature, therefore, the analytical activity of students is based on logical reasoning.

Consider, for example, such a lesson as making a needle case in a cover (grade 2, the textbook "Wonderful workshop" by N. M. Konyshev). By focusing the children’s attention on the fact that the proposed design of the needle bar is convenient for storing needles during the trip, the teacher guides them in their further reflections. The product should be flat and small so that it is convenient to put it in a wallet (Fig. 4). But having the same dimensions of the cover (6x8 cm), the needle bar can be opened either along the long or short side; cover patterns may vary. The tasks of drawing sketches of flat patterns and calculating their dimensions are very appropriate in this case. Do not violate the logic of such a lesson and other calculations that are provided in the tasks for it. For example, based on a given size of the cover, students can calculate the size of the cloth insert and the paper spine for pasting it; independent calculations in this case will help them better understand the design, since they will draw attention to the fact that in it the shape and size of all elements are interrelated.

But making a box-packaging for a New Year's gift in grade 2 presupposes a more "equal" combination of rational and logical creativity with artistic creativity: children comprehend the design of the box in terms of its function (depending on the size and proportions of the gift, the size and proportions of the box change) and think over decor, also based on the features of the function (not just a box, but a New Year's fabulous packaging). In such cases, the teacher should determine exactly where logical reasoning will be appropriate in the structure of the lesson, and where the decorative and artistic ideas of schoolchildren will have to be stimulated.

List of main literature

1. New pedagogical and information technologies in the education system: textbook. manual / ed. E.S. Polat. - M .: Academy, 2007 .-- 270s. - 2 pcs.

2. Konysheva, NM Methods of labor training for younger students: Fundamentals of design education: textbook. allowance / N.M. Konysheva. - M .: Academy, 1999 .-- 192 p. - 5 pieces.

3. Kruglikov, GI Technique of teaching technology with a workshop: textbook. manual for stud. higher. ped. study. institutions / G.I. Kruglikov. - M .: Publishing Center "Academy", 2002. - 480 p. https://cloud.mail.ru/public/3ysk/iv4z7ZACH

32. Tolstova, O.S. Pedagogical technologies: textbook. allowance / O.S. Tolstov. - Kinel: RIO SGSKhA, 2016. - Part 1. - 131 p. https://cloud.mail.ru/public/Ged5/BdUKXwKd2

33. State educational standard of primary general education [Text]: text with amendments and additions for 2011 / Ministry of Education and Science Ros. Federation. - Moscow: Education, 2011.

34. Approximate basic educational program of an educational institution [Text]: primary school [comp. E.S. Savinov]. - 3rd ed. - Moscow: Education, 2011.

35. Galyamova E.M. Technique of teaching technology [Text]: textbook for universities / EM. Galyamova, V.V. Vygonov - Moscow: Academy, 2014.

36. N.M. Konysheva Theory and methods of teaching technology in elementary school: textbook. manual for colleges and universities / N.M. Konysheva. - Smolensk: Association of the 21st century, 2007.

37. G.I. Kruglikov. Technique for teaching technology with a workshop: textbook for universities / G. I. Kruglikov - 2nd ed., Ster. - M .: Academy, 2004.