Alfred Nobel left a will, with which he officially confirmed his desire to invest all his savings (in the region of 33 233 792 SEK) in the growth and support of science. In fact, this was the main catalyst of the 20th century, which contributed to the advancement of modern technical hypotheses.
Alfred Nobel had a plan, an incredible plan, which became known only after his will was opened in January 1897. The first share contained the usual orders for such a case. However, after such paragraphs came others, which said:
"All my real estate and movable property should be transferred by my executors into liquid values, and the capital thus collected should be placed in a reliable bank. These funds will belong to the fund, which will give out income from them in the form of a bonus to those who over the past year made the most significant contribution to science, literature or peace and whose activities have brought the greatest benefit to mankind .. Prizes for achievements in the field of chemistry and physics must be awarded by the Swedish Academy of Sciences, the prize for achievements in the field of physiology and medicine - by the Karolinska Institute , Prize in Literature - by the Stockholm Academy, Prize for Contribution to Peace - by a commission of 5 people appointed by the Storting of Norway My final will is also that the prizes should be awarded to the most worthy candidates, whether they are Scandinavians or not. , Nov. 27, 1895 "
Institutional administrators are elected by some organizations. Any member of the administration is kept under wraps until discussion. He can be of any nationality. A total of administrators Nobel Prize 15, 3 for each prize. They appoint an administrative board. The president and vice president of this council are appointed by the king of Sweden respectively.
Anyone who proposes their own candidacy will be disqualified.
A candidate in his own field can be nominated by the award winner from previous years, the organization responsible for the awarding of the award, and the one who objectively nominates for the award. Presidents of academies, literary and scientific communities, individual international parliamentary organizations, inventors working at large universities, and even members of governments also have the right to propose their own candidate. Here, although, it is worth checking: only famous people and large organizations. It is important that the candidate has nothing to do with them.
These organizations, which have the ability to seem overly tough, are excellent evidence of the distrust that Nobel felt for human weakness.
The Nobel status, which includes assets worth more than thirty million crowns, was divided into 2 shares. The first - 28 million kroons - became the main fund of the award. With the remaining funds for the Nobel Foundation, a building was purchased, in which it is still located, in addition, from this money, funds were allocated to the organizational funds of any prize and sums for expenses for organizations that make up the Nobel Council.
Since 1958, the Nobel Fund has invested in bonds, real estate and stocks. There are certain restrictions on investments abroad. These reforms were prompted by the need to protect capital from inflation, and it is clear that this means a lot in our time.
Let's take a look at some interesting examples of awarding the award in its entire history.
Alexander FLEMING. Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, 1945
Alexander Fleming was awarded the prize for the invention, Penicilinum and its healing effects in various infectious diseases. A happy coincidence - Fleming's invention of Penicilinum - was the result of a combination of circumstances so incredible that it is almost impossible to believe in them, and the press got a sensational story that can boggle the imagination of every person. In my opinion, he brought an invaluable contribution (yes, I think everyone will agree with me that inventors like Fleming will never be forgotten, and their discoveries will constantly protect us invisibly). We all know that the role of penicillin in medicine is hard to overestimate. This drug saved the lives of many people (in particular, in the war, where thousands of people died from infectious diseases).
Howard W. FLORY.Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, 1945
Howard Florey took the award for the invention of Penicilinum and its curative effect on various infectious diseases. Penicillin discovered by Fleming was chemically unstable and could only be obtained in small quantities. Flory led research on the drug and began manufacturing Penicilinum in the United States, thanks to a large investment in the project.
Ilya MECHNIKOV.Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, 1908
The Russian physicist Ilya Mechnikov was awarded a prize for his work on immunity. Mechnikov's most important contribution to science was of a methodological nature: the scientist's task was to investigate "immunity in infectious diseases from the standpoint of cellular physiology." Mechnikov's name is associated with the widespread commercial method of producing kefir. Naturally, the invention of M. is great and very useful; he laid the foundations of many further discoveries with his own labors.
Ivan PAVLOV.Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, 1904
Ivan Pavlov was awarded a prize for his work on the physiology of digestion. Experiments concerning the digestive system led to the discovery of conditioned reflexes. Pavlov's skill in surgery was unsurpassed. He was so good with both hands that it was never known which hand he would act in the next moment.
Camillo GOLGI. Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, 1906
In recognition of works on structure nervous system Camillo Golgi was awarded the prize. Golgi classified the types of neurons and made many discoveries about the structure of specific cells and the nervous system as a whole. The Golgi device, a thin network of intertwined threads within nerve cells, is recognized and believed to be involved in the modification and secretion of proteins. This unique scientist is known to everyone who studied the structure of the cell. In particular, I and our entire class.
Georg BEKESHI.Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, 1961
Scientist Georg Bekeshi studied the furniture of telephone sets, which distorted sound vibrations, in contrast to the eardrum of the ear. In communication with this, he began to study the physical characteristics of the hearing organs. Recreated the complete picture of the biomechanics of the cochlea, today's otosurgeons were able to implant artificial eardrums and auditory ossicles. This work by Bekesi is awarded. These discoveries are especially relevant in our time, when computer technology has developed before an incredible scale and the complexity of implantation moves to a qualitatively different level. He made it possible for many people to hear again with his own discoveries.
Emil von BERING.Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, 1901
For his work on serum therapy, mainly for its dissemination in the treatment of diphtheria, which opened new paths in medical science and gave doctors a victorious weapon against illness and death, Emil von Behring was awarded the prize. During World War I, the tetanus vaccine created by Bering survived for many German soldiers. Naturally, this was only the basics of medicine. However, no one, probably, doubts that this invention has given a lot for the development of medicine and for the whole of humanity as a whole. His name will forever remain etched in the history of mankind.
George W. BIDL.Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, 1958
George Beadle took the award for discoveries concerning the quality of genes in specific biochemical processes. Experiments have proven that certain genes are responsible for the synthesis of specific cellular substances. The laboratory methods invented by George Beadle and Edward Tatem have become useful in increasing the pharmacological production of penicillin, an important substance produced by special fungi. Everyone probably knows about the existence of the aforementioned penicillin, about its significance, because the role of the discovery of such inventors is invaluable in today's society.
Jules BORDET.Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, 1919
Jules Bordet was awarded the Immunity Discovery Prize. Bordet's research on whooping cough bacteria led to the first report of antigenic variability in microbes. This phenomenon is of significant medical importance, since pathogens (in particular the influenza virus), which are able to change their own antigenic structure, can be resistant to antibodies and vaccines.
Zelman A. VAKSMAN. Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, 1952
For the invention of streptomycin, the first antibiotic effective in the treatment of tuberculosis, Zelman Waxman was awarded a prize. Waxman was called the greatest benefactor of mankind, since before the acquisition of streptomycin, tuberculosis was not treated. The phenomenal increase in the number of such drugs is largely the result of programs created by Waxman's efforts. That was how important his discoveries were!
Otto WARBURGH. Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, 1931
Otto Warburg was awarded the prize for the invention of nature and the mechanism of action of the respiratory enzyme. This invention was the 1st demonstration of an effective catalyst, enzyme, in a living organism; this identification is important as it sheds light on the basic course of life support. Studied the etiology of cancer. Such fundamental discoveries, without a doubt, are of the greatest importance in the history of the development of living things on Earth.
John R. WEIN. Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, 1982
John Wayne is awarded a prize for discoveries concerning prostaglandins and similar biologically active substances. Prostaglandins are used in a variety of clinical situations, including preventing blood clots in devices used to maintain circulation during open heart surgery and protecting the myocardium from damage during angina attacks. This topic has become relevant in our time, in particular, thanks to the leaders of our state. Therefore, I decided to mention this invention as one of the most important and interesting.
Daniel Carlton Gajduzek took an award for discovering new mechanisms of origin and spread of infectious diseases. His research led to the recognition of a new category of human diseases caused by unique disease-causing agents - infectious proteins. Small protein strands found in the brain infected with slow viruses are believed to be the cause of the disease.
Christian De DUV.
Christian De Duve was awarded a prize for discoveries concerning the functional and structural organization of the cell. De Duve belongs to the invention of new organelles - lysosomes, which contain many enzymes involved in the intracellular digestion of nutrients. He continues to work on obtaining substances that increase e. Max Delbrück for discoveries regarding the replication device and the genetic structure of viruses. Delbrück revealed the possibility of exchange of genetic information between 2 different lines of bacteriophages (viruses that infect bacterial cells), if one and the same bacterial cell is infected with several bacteriophages. This phenomenon, called genetic recombination, was the first experimental evidence of DNA recombination in viruses.
Edward DOISY. Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, 1943
For invention chemical structure Vitamin K Edouard Doisy was awarded the prize. Vitamin K is essential for the synthesis of prothrombin, a blood clotting factor, and it has saved many people, including those with blockages in the bile ducts, who often died of bleeding during surgery before using vitamin K. efficacy and reducing side effects of drugs used for chemotherapy of leukemia.
Gerhard DOMAGK. Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, 1939
Gerhard Domagk took the award for inventing prontosil's antibacterial effect. The advent of prontosil, the first of the so-called sulfa drugs, was one of the greatest therapeutic advances in the history of medicine. More than a thousand sulfanilamide preparations have already been made h / w. Two of them, sulfapyridine and sulfathiazole, reduced pneumonia deaths to nearly zero.
Renato DULBECCO.
Renato Dulbecco, awarded an award for his research on the interaction of m / y tumor viruses and the genetic material of a cell, provided the astronomer with a means of identifying human malignant tumors caused by tumor viruses. Dulbecco discovered that tumor cells are transformed by tumor viruses so that they begin to divide indefinitely; he called this move cellular transformation.
Nils K. ERNE.1984 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine
1984 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine "For theories regarding specificity in the development and control of the immune system and the discovery of the principle of production of monoclonal antibodies."
Francois JACOB.Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, 1965
François Jacob was awarded a prize for discoveries concerning the genetic control of the synthesis of enzymes and viruses. The work demonstrated how structural information written in genes governs chemical processes. Jacob laid the foundation for molecular biology, the Department of Cell Genetics was invented for him at the College de France.
Alexis CARREL.Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, 1912
For recognition of his work on vascular suture and transplantation of blood vessels and organs, Alexis Carrel was awarded the prize. Such vascular autotransplantation is the basis of numerous important operations running now; for example, during coronary artery bypass surgery.
Georg KÖHLER.Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, 1984
Georg Köhler won the award with Cesar Milstein for his invention and development of principles for the production of monoclonal antibodies using hybridomas. Monoclonal antibodies have been used to treat leukemia, hepatitis B and streptococcal infections. They also played an important role in identifying AIDS cases.
Edward KENDALL.Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, 1950
Edward Kendall received an award for his discoveries concerning adrenal cortex hormones, their structure and biological effects. The hormone cortisone secreted by Kendall has an exclusive effect in the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis, rheumatism, bronchial asthma and hay fever, and in the treatment of allergic diseases.
Albert Claude.Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, 1974
Albert Claude was awarded the prize for discoveries concerning the functional and structural organization of the cell. Claude discovered the "new world" of microscopic anatomy of the cell, described the basic principles of cell fractionation and the structure of cells studied using electron microscopy.
Xap Gobind QORAN.Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, 1968
For decryption genetic code and its quality in protein synthesis Har GobindQoran is awarded the prize. The synthesis of nucleic acids, carried out by K., is a prerequisite for the final solution of the complexity of the genetic code. Quran has studied the mechanism of transfer genetic information, thanks to which amino acids are included in the protein chain in the required sequence.
Allan KORMAK.Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, 1979
Allan Cormack was awarded an award for the development of computed tomography, which clearly distinguishes soft tissue from surrounding tissue, even if the difference in absorption of rays is very small. Therefore, the tool allows you to identify healthy areas of the body and the affected ones. This is a significant step forward in comparison with other methods of acquiring X-ray illustrations.
Arthur KORNBERG. Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, 1959
Arthur Kornberg was awarded the prize for the invention of the mechanisms of biological synthesis of deoxyribonucleic acid and ribonucleic acid... Kornberg's work opened up new directions not only in biochemistry and genetics, but also in the treatment of hereditary diseases and cancer. They became the basis for the development of methods and directions for the replication of the genetic material of the cell.
Robert KOCH. Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, 1905
Robert Koch received an award for research and discovery in the treatment of tuberculosis. Koch's greatest triumph was when he was able to isolate the bacterium that causes tuberculosis. At the time, this disease was one of the leading causes of death.
Charles LAVEREN. Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, 1907
Karl LANDSTEINER. Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, 1930
Karl Landsteiner was awarded the Human Blood Group Invention Prize. With a group of inventors L. described another factor of human blood - the so-called rhesus. Landsteiner substantiated the serological identification hypothesis, not yet knowing that blood groups are inherited. Landsteiner's genetic methods are still used today in paternity tests.
Stanley Cohen.Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, 1986
Stanley Cohen was awarded the prize in recognition of the discoveries that are essential for the disclosure of the mechanisms of regulation of cell and organ growth. Cohen discovered epidermal growth factor (EGF), which stimulates the development of many types of cells and enhances a number of biological processes. EGF can become widespread in skin grafting and tumor treatment.
Rita LEVI-MONTALCHINI.Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, 1986
In recognition of her discoveries that are fundamental to understanding the mechanisms of growth regulation of cells and organs, Rita Levi-Montalcini was awarded the prize. Levi-Montalcini discovered the growth factor nervous tissue(FRNT), which is used to restore damaged nerves. Studies have shown that it is the disturbances in the regulation of growth factors that cause cancer.
George R. MINOT.Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, 1934
George Minot is the recipient of the Liver Discovery Prize for the Treatment of Anemia. Minot found that consumption of the liver has the best therapeutic effect in anemia. Later it was found that the cause of pernicious anemia is a lack of vitamin B12 contained in the liver. Having discovered the function of the liver, previously unknown to science, Minot came up with new way treating anemia.
John J. R. MACLEOD.Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, 1923
For the invention of insulin, John McLeod took the prize together with Frederick Banting. MacLeod used all the possibilities of his own department to achieve the acquisition and purification of large quantities of insulin. Thanks to McLeod, commercial production was soon established. The result of his research was the book "Insulin and its distribution in diabetes".
Herman J. MÖLLER.Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, 1946
Hermann Möller was awarded the prize for inventing the creation of mutations under the influence of X-ray irradiation. The invention, according to which heredity and evolution have the ability to deliberately change in laboratory conditions, with the advent of atomic weapons took on a terrible and new meaning. Möller convinced of the need to ban nuclear tests.
Thomas Hunt MORGAN. Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, 1933
Thomas Hunt Morgan was awarded the prize for discoveries related to the role of chromosomes in heredity. The idea that genes are localized in the chromosome in a specific linear sequence and, further, that the linkage is based on the proximity of 2 genes on the chromosome, can be attributed to the main achievements of the genetic hypothesis.
Charles NICOLE. Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, 1928
Charles Nicole was awarded the prize for establishing the body lice transmitter for typhus. The invention did not contain new principles, but it was of great practical importance. During World War I, servicemen were sanitized to remove lice from anyone entering or returning from trenches. As a result, losses from typhus have been significantly reduced.
Roger SPERRY.Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, 1981
Roger Sperry was awarded a prize for his discoveries concerning the functional specialization of the cerebral hemispheres. Research has shown that the left and right hemispheres perform different cognitive functions. Most of Perry's experiments have changed the way we study cognitive processes and found significant distribution in the diagnosis and treatment of diseases of the nervous system.
Howard M. THEMIN.Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, 1975
Howard Temin was awarded a prize for discoveries concerning the interaction of m / v tumor viruses and the genetic material of the cell. Temin discovered viruses with reverse transcriptase activity and existing as proviruses in the DNA of animal cells. These retroviruses cause a variety of diseases, including AIDS, some forms of cancer, and hepatitis.
The 2018 Nobel Prize in Medicine was awarded to scientists James Allison and Tasuko Honjo, who developed new methods of cancer immunotherapy, according to the Nobel Committee at Karolinska Medical Institute.
"The 2018 Physiology and Medicine Prize is being awarded to James Ellison and Tasuku Honzt for their discovery of cancer therapy by inhibiting negative immune regulation," a committee spokesman told TASS at the winners' announcement ceremony.
Scientists have developed a method for treating cancer by slowing down the inhibitory mechanisms of the immune system. Ellison studied a protein that slows down the immune system and found the ability to activate the system by neutralizing the protein. Working in parallel with him, Honjo discovered the presence of protein in immune cells.
Scientists have created the basis for new approaches in cancer treatment that will mark a new milestone in the fight against tumors, the Nobel Committee believes.
Tasuku Honjo was born in 1942 in Kyoto, in 1966 he graduated from the medical faculty of Kyoto University, which is considered one of the most prestigious in Japan. After completing his doctorate, he worked for several years as a visiting fellow in the Department of Embryology at the Carnegie Institution in Washington. Since 1988 - Professor at Kyoto University.
James Ellison was born in 1948 in the United States. He is a professor at the University of Texas and heads the Department of Immunology at the M.D. Anderson in Houston, Texas.
According to the fund's rules, the names of all candidates nominated for the 2018 award will only be available in 50 years. It is almost impossible to predict them, but from year to year experts name their favorites, RIA Novosti reports.
The press service of the Nobel Foundation also reported that on Tuesday, October 2, and Wednesday, October 3, the Nobel Committee of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences will name the winners in the field of physics and chemistry.
The Nobel laureate in literature will be voiced in 2019 due to who is in charge of this work.
On Friday, October 5, in Oslo, the Norwegian Nobel Committee will name the winner or recipients of the Peace Building Prize. This time there are 329 candidates on the list, of which 112 are public and international organizations.
The week of the prestigious prize will end on October 8 in Stockholm, where the winner in the field of economics will be named at the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences.
The sum of each of the Nobel Prizes in 2018 is 9 million Swedish kronor, which is about 940 thousand US dollars.
The work on the lists of candidates is carried out almost all year round. Every September, many professors from different countries, as well as academic institutions and former Nobel laureates, receive letters inviting them to participate in the nomination of candidates.
After that, from February to October, work is underway on the nominations sent, drawing up a list of candidates and voting at the choice of laureates.
The list of candidates is secret. The names of the awardees are announced at the beginning of October.
The awards ceremony is always held in Stockholm and Oslo on December 10, the day of the death of the founder, Alfred Nobel.
In 2017, 11 people who work in the USA, Great Britain, Switzerland, and one organization, the International Campaign to Ban Nuclear Weapons ICAN, became the winners of the award.
Last year, the Nobel Prize in Economics was awarded to the American economist Richard Thaler for teaching the world.
Among the medics - laureates of the award, there was a Norwegian scientist and doctor who arrived in Crimea as part of a large delegation. It is about the awarding of the prize when visiting the international children's center "Artek".
RAS President Alexander Sergeev, that Russia, like the USSR, is deprived of Nobel Prizes, the situation around which is politicized.
In early October, the Nobel Committee summed up the results of work for 2016 in various areas of human activity that brought the greatest benefit and named the nominees for the Nobel Prize.
You can show skepticism about this award as much as you like, doubt the objectivity of the choice of the laureates, question the value of the theories and merits put forward for nomination. All this, of course, has a place to be ... Well, tell me what is the Peace Prize awarded, for example, to Mikhail Gorbachev in 1990 ... or a similar prize that made a splash in 2009 even more American President Baraku Abama for world peace 🙂?
Nobel Prizes
And this 2016 was not without criticism and discussions of the new recipients, for example, the world ambiguously accepted the award in the field of literature, which went to the American rock singer Bob Dylan for his poems to songs, and the singer himself reacted even more ambiguously to the award, responding to be awarded after only two weeks ...
However, regardless of our common opinion, this high the award is considered the most prestigious award in the scientific world, has been living for more than a hundred years, has hundreds of awardees to his credit, a prize fund of millions of dollars.
The Nobel Foundation was founded in 1900 after the death of its testator Alfred Nobel- an outstanding Swedish scientist, academician, Ph.D., inventor of dynamite, humanist, fighter for peace, and so on ...
Russia in the list of awardees is 7th place, has in the entire history of awards 23 nobel or 19 awards(there are group ones). The last of the Russians to be awarded this high honor was Vitaly Ginzburg in 2010 for his discoveries in the field of physics.
So, the awards for 2016 are divided, the awards will be presented in Stockholm, the total size of the fund is constantly changing and the size of the award changes accordingly.
2016 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine
Few of ordinary people, far from science, delve into the essence scientific theories and discoveries that deserve special recognition. And I am one of those :-). But today I just want to dwell a little more on one of the awards for this year. Why exactly medicine and physiology? Yes, everything is simple, one of the most saturated sections of my blog "Be healthy", because the work of the Japanese interested me and I a little figured out its essence. I think the article will be of interest to people adhering to a healthy lifestyle.
So, a Nobel laureate in the field physiology and medicine for 2016 became a 71 year old Japanese Yoshinori Osumi(Yoshinori Ohsumi) is a molecular biologist from Tokyo technological university... The theme of his work is "Discovery of the mechanisms of autophagy."
Autophagy in translation from the Greek "self-eating" or "self-eating" is a mechanism for processing and utilizing unnecessary, worn-out parts of the cell, which is performed by the cell itself. Simply put, the cell eats itself. Autophagy is inherent in all living organisms, including humans.
The process itself has been known for a long time. The researches of the scientist, carried out back in the 90s of the century, discovered and allowed not only to understand in detail the importance of the autophagy process for many physiological processes taking place inside a living organism, in particular during adaptation to hunger, the response to infection, but also to identify the genes that trigger this process.
How does the process of cleansing the body take place? And in exactly the same way as we remove our garbage at home, only automatically: cells pack all unnecessary trash, toxins into special "containers" - autophagosomes, then move them into lysosomes. Here, unnecessary proteins and damaged intracellular elements are digested, while fuel is released, which is supplied to nourish cells and build new ones. It's that simple!
But what is most interesting in this study: autophagy starts faster and is more powerful in cases of experiencing by the body, and especially during FASTING.
The discovery of the Nobel Prize winner proves that religious fasting and even periodic, limited hunger are still beneficial for a living organism. Both of these processes stimulate autophagy, cleansing the body, relieve the load on the digestive organs, thereby saving from premature old age.
Disruptions in the processes of autophagy lead to the emergence of diseases such as Parkinson's, diabetes, and even cancer. Doctors are looking for ways to combat them with medication. Or maybe you just need not to be afraid to expose your body to healthy starvation, thereby stimulating the renewal processes in cells? At least occasionally ...
The work of the scientist once again confirmed how amazingly subtle and intelligent our body is arranged, how far from all the processes in it are known ...
The well-deserved prize of eight million Swedish kronor (932 thousand US dollars) will be received by the Japanese scientist along with other awardees in Stockholm on December 10, the day of Alfred Nobel's death. And I think, quite deservedly ...
Was it at least a little curious? How do you feel about such conclusions of the Japanese? Do they make you happy?
5.5. Nobel Prize. Nobel laureates in medicine and physiology.
The Nobel Prize was established on June 29, 1900 in accordance with the testament of the Swedish industrialist and scientist Alfred Nobel. To this day, it remains the world's most honorable science award.
Alfred Bernhard Nobel (Nobel, Alfred V., 1833-1896) - the inventor of dynamite, was an ardent pacifist. "My discoveries," he wrote, "would sooner end all wars than your congresses. When the warring parties discover that they can destroy each other in an instant, people will abandon these horrors and averting war."
Initially, A. Nobel's idea was to provide assistance to poor talented researchers, which he generously provided. The final idea is the Nobel Fund, the interest from which allows the payment of Nobel Prizes in the amount of 1 million 400 thousand dollars annually. Alfred Nobel's will says:
"All the realizable property remaining after me must be distributed as follows: my executors must convert the capital into securities by creating a fund, the interest from which will be given in the form of a bonus to those who have brought the greatest benefit to mankind during the previous year. These percentages should be divided by five. equal parts that are meant: the first part to the one who did the most important discovery or an invention in the field of physics, the second - to the one who has made a major discovery or improvement in the field of chemistry, the third - to the one who has achieved outstanding success in the field of physiology or medicine, the fourth - to the one who created the most significant literary work reflecting human ideals, the fifth - to the one, who will make a significant contribution to the cohesion of peoples, the elimination of slavery, the reduction of the number of existing armies and the promotion of a peace agreement. Prizes in physics and chemistry should be awarded by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, in physiology and medicine - by the Royal Karolinska Institute in Stockholm, in literature - by the Swedish Academy in Stockholm, the peace prize - by a committee of five elected by the Norwegian Storting. My special desire is that the nationality of the candidate does not influence the awarding of the prizes, so that the most worthy people receive the prize, regardless of whether they are Scandinavians or not. "
The mechanism for awarding the Nobel Prize has been established since 1900. Even then, the members of the Nobel Committee decided to collect documented proposals from qualified experts from different countries. A Nobel Prize cannot be awarded jointly to more than three persons. Therefore, a very small number of applicants with outstanding merit can hope for an award.
There is a special Nobel committee for awarding awards in each area. The Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences has established three committees - for physics, chemistry and economics. The Karolinska Institutet gave its name to the Physiology and Medicine Prize Awarding Committee. The Swedish Academy also elects a committee for literature. In addition, the Norwegian parliament, the Storting, elects a committee that awards the peace prizes.
Nobel Committees play a critical role in the selection process for laureates. Nobel committees receive the right to individually approve an applicant. These individuals include former Nobel Prize winners and members of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, the Nobel Assembly at the Karolinska Institute and the Swedish Academy.
Acceptance of applications ends on February 1. From that moment until September, members of the Nobel Committees and several thousand consultants evaluate the qualifications of candidates for the award.
An enormous amount of work has to be done to select the laureates. For example, out of 1000 who received the right to nominate candidates in each of the fields of science, from 200 to 250 people exercise this right. Since the proposals often coincide, the number of valid candidates turns out to be somewhat smaller. For example, the Swedish Academy selects from a total of 100 to 150 candidates. It is a rare case that a proposed candidate receives an award on the first submission, many applicants are nominated several times.
Subsequently, the Nobel Foundation invites the laureates and their families to Stockholm and Oslo on December 10. In Stockholm, the ceremony takes place in the Concert Hall in the presence of about 1,200 people.
The prizes in physics, chemistry, physiology and medicine, literature and economics are presented by the King of Sweden. In Oslo, the Nobel Peace Prize ceremony is held at the university, in the Assembly Hall, in the presence of the King of Norway and members of the royal family.
Below is a list of Nobel Prize winners in physiology or medicine and the exact wording of the decisions of the Nobel Committees.
1901. Emil Adolph von Bering (Germany) - for his work on serotherapy, and above all for its use in the fight against diphtheria.
1902. Ronald Ross (Great Britain) - for his work on malaria, which showed how it affects the body, which laid the foundation for important research on this disease and methods of combating it.
1903. Nils Ryberg Finsen (Denmark) - for the treatment of diseases, especially lupus, using concentrated light rays.
1904. Ivan Petrovich Pavlov(Russia) - in recognition of his work on the physiology of digestion, which allowed us to change and expand our knowledge in this area.
1905. Robert Koch (Germany) - for research and discoveries in the field of tuberculosis.
1906. Camillo Golgi (Italy) and Santiago Ramon y Cajal (Spain) - for their work on the study of the structure of the nervous system.
1907. Charles Louis Alphonse Laveran (France) - for his work on the role of protozoa as causative agents of diseases.
1908. Ilya Ilyich Mechnikov(Russia) and Paul Ehrlich (Germany) - for work on immunization (theory of immunity).
1909. Theodor Kocher (Switzerland) - for his work on physiology, pathology and surgery of the thyroid gland.
1910. Albrecht Kossel (Germany) - for his work on protein substances, including nucleins, which contributed to the study of cell chemistry.
1911. Alvar Gullstrand (Sweden) - for work on eye diopter.
1912. Alexis Carrel (France) - in recognition of his work on suturing vessels and transplanting vessels and organs.
1913. Charles Richet (France) - for work on anaphylaxis.
1914. Robert Barani (Austria) - for his work on the physiology and pathology of the vestibular apparatus.
1919 Jules Bordet (Belgium) - for discoveries in the field of immunity.
1922. Archibald Vivien Hill (Great Britain) - for the discovery of the phenomenon of latent heat production in muscles and Otto Meyerhof (Germany) - for the discovery of the laws of regulation of oxygen absorption by muscles and the formation of lactic acid in it.
1923. Frederick Grant Bunting (Canada) and Jack James Rickard McLeod (Great Britain) - for the discovery of insulin.
1924. Willem Einthoven (Netherlands) - for the discovery of the method of electrocardiography.
1926 Johannes Fiebiger (Denmark) - for the discovery of spiropteral cancer.
1927. Julius Wagner-Jauregg (Austria) - for the discovery of the therapeutic effect of malaria inoculation in the case of progressive paralysis.
1928. Charles Nicole (France) - for work on typhus.
1929. Christian Eikman (Netherlands) - for the discovery of the anti-neurotic vitamin and Frederick Gowland Hopkins (Great Britain) - for the discovery of the growth vitamin.
1930. Karl Landsteiner (Austria) - for the discovery of human blood groups.
1931. Otto Heinrich Warburg (Germany) - for the discovery of the nature and function of the respiratory enzyme.
1932. Charles Scott Sherrington (Great Britain) and Edgar Douglas Adrian (Great Britain) - for the discovery of the function of neurons.
1933 Thomas Hunt Morgan (USA) - for the discovery of the function of chromosomes as carriers of heredity.
1934. George Hoyt Whipple (USA), George Richards Minot (USA) and William Parry Murphy (USA) - for the discovery of liver extracts for the treatment of anemia.
1935. Hans Spemann (Germany) - for the discovery of the "organizational effect" in the process of embryonic development.
1936. Otto Loewy (Austria) and Henry Hollett Dale (Great Britain) - for the discovery of the chemical nature of the nervous reaction.
1937. Albert Szent-Gyorgyi Nagirapolt (USA) - for discoveries related to biological oxidation, primarily for the study of vitamin C and catalysis of fumaric acid.
1938. Roots Heimans (Belgium) - for the discovery of the role of the sinus and aortic mechanisms in the regulation of respiration.
1939. Gerhard Damagk (Germany) - for the discovery of the therapeutic effect of prontosil in certain infections.
1943. Henrik Dam (Denmark) - for the discovery of vitamin K and Edward Adelberg Doisy (USA) - for the discovery of the chemical nature of vitamin K.
1944 Joseph Erlanger (USA) and Herbert Spencer Gasser (USA), for their discoveries concerning the many functional differences between individual nerve fibers.
1945. Alexander Fleming (Great Britain), Ernst Boris Chain (Great Britain) and Howard Walter Flory (Great Britain) - for the discovery of penicillin and its therapeutic effect in the treatment of various infectious diseases.
1946. Hermann Joseph Müller (USA) - for the discovery of mutations caused by X-rays.
1947. Carl Ferdinand Corey (USA) and Gertie Teresa Corey (USA) - for the discovery of catalytic metabolism of glycogen, and also Bernardo Alberto Usay (Argentina) - for the discovery of the action of the hormone produced by the anterior pituitary gland on sugar metabolism.
1948. Paul Müller (Switzerland) - for the discovery of the action of DDT as a powerful poison for most arthropods.
1949. Walter Rudolf Hess (Switzerland) - for the discovery of the functional organization of the diencephalon and its connection with the activity of internal organs, as well as Antonide Egas Moniz (Portugal) - for the discovery of the therapeutic effect of prefrontal leucotomy in certain mental illnesses.
1950. Philip Showalter Hench (USA), Edward Kendall (USA) and Tadeusz Reichstein (Switzerland) - for research on adrenal cortex hormones, their structure and biological action.
1951. Max Tayler (USA) - for discoveries related to yellow fever and the fight against this disease.
1952. Zelman Waxman (USA) - for the discovery of streptomycin, the first antibiotic effective against tuberculosis.
1953. Hans Adolph Kpebs (Great Britain) - for the discovery of the tricarboxylic acid cycle and Fritz Albert Lipmann (USA) - for the discovery of coenzyme A and its role in intermediate metabolism.
1954. John Enders (USA), Frederick Chapman Robbins (USA) and Thomas Huckle Weller (USA) - for the discovery of the ability of the poliomyelitis virus to multiply in cultures of various tissues.
1955. Axel Hugo Theodor Theorell (Sweden) - for his study of the nature and modes of action of oxidative enzymes.
1956. André Frederic Cournan (USA), Werner Forssmann (Germany) and Dickinson Richards (USA) - for discoveries related to cardiac catheterization and pathological changes in the circulatory system.
1957. Diniele Bove (Italy) - for the discovery of synthetic substances capable of blocking the action of certain compounds formed in the body, especially those affecting blood vessels and striated muscles.
1958. George Wells Beadle (USA) and Edward Tatem (USA) - for the discovery of the ability of genes to regulate certain chemical processes ("one gene - one enzyme"), and Joshua Lederberg (USA) - for discoveries concerning genetic recombination in bacteria and structures of the genetic apparatus.
1959. Severo Ochoa (USA) and Arthur Kornberg (USA) - for the study of the mechanism of biological synthesis of ribonucleic and deoxyribonucleic acids.
1960. Frank Burnet (Australia) and Peter Brian Medawar (UK) - for studies of acquired immunological tolerance.
1961. Gyorgy Bekesy (Hungary, USA) - for the discovery of the physical mechanism of excitation in the cochlea of the inner ear.
1962. Francis Harry Creek (Great Britain), James Dewey Watson (USA) and Maurice Wilkins (Great Britain) - for the establishment of the molecular structure of nucleic acids and its role in the transmission of information in living matter.
1963. John Carew Eccles (Australia), Alan Lloyd Hodgkin (Great Britain) and Andrew Fielding Huxley (Great Britain) - for the study of the ionic mechanisms of excitation and inhibition in the peripheral and central parts of the membranes of nerve cells.
1964. Konrad Emil Bloch (USA) and Theodor Linen (Germany) - for the study of the mechanism of regulation of cholesterol and fatty acids metabolism.
1965. André Michel Lvov (France), François Jacob (France) and Jacques Lucien Mono (France) - for the discovery of the genetic regulation of the synthesis of enzymes and viruses.
1966. Francis Rous (USA) - for the discovery of tumorigenic viruses and Charles Brenton Huggins (USA) - for the development of methods of treating prostate cancer using hormones.
1967. Ragnar Granite (Sweden), Holden Hartline (USA) and George Wold (USA) for their research on the visual process.
1968. Robert William Holly (USA), Har Gobind of the Koran (USA) and Marshall Warren Nirenberg (USA) - for deciphering the genetic code and its function in protein synthesis.
1969. Max Delbrück (USA), Alfred Day Hershey (USA) and Salvador Eduard Luria (USA) - for the discovery of the viral reproduction cycle and the development of the genetics of bacteria and viruses.
1970. Ulf von Euler (Sweden), Julius Axelrod (USA) and Bernard Katz, (Great Britain) - for the discovery of signaling substances in the contact organs of nerve cells and the mechanisms of their accumulation, release and deactivation.
1971. Earl Wilbur Sutherland (USA) - for research on the mechanism of action of hormones.
1972. Gerald Maurice Edelman (USA) and Rodney Robert Porter (UK) - for establishing the chemical structure of antibodies.
1973. Karl von Frisch (Germany), Konrad Lorenz (Austria) and Nicholas Tanbergen (Netherlands, Great Britain) - for the creation and use in practice of models of individual and group behavior.
1974. Albert Claude (Belgium), Christian Rene de Duve (Belgium) and George Emile Palade (USA) - for their studies of the structural and functional organization of the cell.
1975. Renato Dulbecco (USA) - for his study of the mechanism of action of oncogenic viruses, and Howard Martin Temin (USA) and David Baltimore (USA) - for the discovery of reverse transcriptase.
1976. Baruch Blamberg (USA) and Daniel Carlton Gaiduzeck (USA) - for the discovery of new mechanisms of the emergence and spread of infectious diseases.
1978. Daniel Nathans (USA), Hamilton Smith (USA) and Werner Arber (Switzerland) - for the discovery of restriction enzymes and work on the use of these enzymes in molecular genetics.
1979. Allan McLeod Carmack (USA) and Godfrey Newbold Hounsfield (UK) - for the development of the method of axial tomography.
1980. Baruch Benacerraf (USA), Jean Dausset (France) and George Davis Snell (USA) - for their discoveries of genetically determined cell surface structures that regulate immunological responses.
1981 Roger Walcott Sperry (USA) for the discovery of the functional specialization of the cerebral hemisphere and David Hunter Hubel (USA) and Thorsten Niels Wiesel (USA) for their discoveries regarding information processing in the visual system.
1982. Sune Bergström (Sweden), Bengt Samuelson (Sweden) and John Robert Wayne (Great Britain) - for their work on the isolation and study of prostaglandins and related biologically active substances.
1983 Barbara McClintock (USA) - for the discovery of the migratory elements (mobile genes) of the genome.
1984. Niels Kai Erne (Great Britain) - for the development of the theory of the idiotypic network and Cesar Milstein (Argentina) and Georg Koehler (Germany) - for the development of a technique for obtaining a hybrid.
1985. Michael Stewart Brown (USA) and Joseph Leonard Goldstein (USA) - for disclosing the mechanism of regulation of cholesterol metabolism in animals and humans.
1986. Stanley Cohen (USA) and Rita Levi-Montalcini (Italy) - for research of factors and mechanisms of growth regulation of cells and organisms of animals.
1987. Suzumu Tonegawa (Japan) - for the discovery of the genetic basis for the formation of the variational richness of antibodies.
1988. Gertrude Elion (USA) and George Herbert Hitchings (USA) - for the development of new principles for the creation and use of a number of drugs (antiviral and antitumor).
1989. John Michael Bishop (USA) and Harold Eliot Varmus (USA) - for fundamental research on tumor carcinogenic genes.
1990. Edward Thomas Donnall (USA) and Joseph Edward Murray (USA) - for their contributions to the development of transplant surgery as a treatment for diseases (bone marrow transplantation and suppression of the recipient's immune system to prevent transplant rejection).
1991. Erwin Neyer (Germany) and Bert Zakman (Germany) - for their work in the field of cytology, which opens up new possibilities for studying cell function, understanding the mechanisms of a number of diseases, and developing special drugs.
1992. Edwin Krebs (USA) and Edmond Fisher (USA) - for the discovery of reversible phosphorylation of proteins as a regulatory mechanism of cellular metabolism.
1993. Roberts R., Sharp F. (USA) - for the discovery of the discontinuous structure of the gene
1994. Gilman A., Rodbell M. (USA) - for the discovery of messenger proteins (G-proteins) involved in the transmission of signals between cells and inside cells, and for elucidating their role in the molecular mechanisms of a number of infectious diseases (cholera, whooping cough, and etc.)
1995. Wishaus F., Lewis EB (USA), Nusline-Folard H. (Germany) - for the study of the genetic regulation of the early stages of embryonic development.
1996. Doherty P. (Australia), Zinkernagel R. (Switzerland) - for the discovery of the mechanism of recognition by cells of the body's immune system (T-lymphocytes), cells infected with a virus.
1997. Stanley Pruziner (USA) - for his contribution to the study of the pathogenic agent causing spongiform encephalopathy, or mad cow disease, in cattle.
1998. Roberta Furchgott (USA), Luis Ignarro (USA) and Ferid Murad (USA - for the discovery of "nitric oxide as a signaling molecule in the cardiovascular system").
2000. Arvid Karlsson (Sweden), Paul Gringard (USA) and Eric Kandel (USA) - for studies of the human nervous system, which made it possible to understand the mechanism of occurrence of neurological and mental diseases and create new effective drugs.
2001 - Leland Hartwell, Timothy Hunt, Paul Nurse - Discovery of Key Regulators of the Cell Cycle.
2002 - Sydney Brenner, Robert Horwitz, John Sulston - "For discoveries in the field of genetic regulation of the development of human organs."
2003 - Paul Lauterbur, Peter Mansfield - For the invention of the method of magnetic resonance imaging.
2004 - Richard Axel, Linda Buck - "For research on olfactory receptors and the organization of the olfactory system."
2005 - Barry Marshall, Robin Warren - "For his work on the study of the effect of the bacterium Helicobacter pylori on the occurrence of gastritis and gastric and duodenal ulcers."
2006 - Andrew Fire, Craig Mello - "For the discovery of RNA interference - the effect of quenching the activity of certain genes."
2007 - Mario Capecci, Martin Evans, Oliver Smithies - "For their discovery of the principles of introducing specific gene modifications in mice using embryonic stem cells."
2008 - Harald zur Hausen, for the opening human papillomavirus causing cervical cancer. ”Françoise Barré-Sinoussi and Luc Montagnier. For the discovery of HIV ”.
In 2009, the American scientists Elizabeth Blackburn, Carol Grader and Jack Shostak were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for their discovery of the mechanism of protection of chromosomes by telomeres. Their scientific work is essential for understanding the aging process and finding new ways to treat cancer.
2010 in Physiology and Medicine was awarded to the 85-year-old scientist from Great Britain Robert G. Edwards, who developed in 1978 the technology of in vitro artificial insemination (in vitro fertilization - IVF). Over the past twenty years, more than four million people have been born with this technology.
2011. Ralph Steinman, "For the discovery of dendritic cells and their implications for acquired immunity."
Jules Hoffman, Bruce Bötler "For his work on the activation of innate immunity"
2012. John Gurdon, Shinya Yamanaka, Development Biology and Induced Stem Cell Generation.
In 2016, the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine was awarded to the Japanese scientist Yoshinori Osumi for the discovery of autophagy and deciphering its molecular mechanism. Autophagy is the process of recycling spent organelles and protein complexes; it is important not only for the economical management of the cell economy, but also for the renewal of the cellular structure. Deciphering the biochemistry of this process and its genetic basis presupposes the ability to control and manage the entire process and its individual stages. And this gives researchers clear fundamental and applied perspectives.
Science rushes forward at such an incredible pace that the layman does not have time to realize the importance of the discovery, and the Nobel Prize is already awarded for it. In the 80s of the last century, in biology textbooks in the section on the structure of the cell, it was possible, among other organelles, to learn about lysosomes - membrane vesicles filled with enzymes inside. These enzymes are aimed at splitting various large biological molecules into smaller blocks (it should be noted that then our biology teacher did not yet know why lysosomes were needed). They were discovered by Christian de Duve, for which in 1974 he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine.
Christian de Duve and his colleagues separated lysosomes and peroxisomes from other cellular organelles using a then new method - centrifugation, which allows the particles to be sorted by mass. Lysosomes are now widely used in medicine. For example, the targeted delivery of drugs to damaged cells and tissues is based on their properties: a molecular drug is placed inside the lysosome due to the difference in acidity inside and outside it, and then the lysosome, equipped with specific labels, is sent to the affected tissues.
Lysosomes are indiscriminate by the nature of their activity - they break up any molecules and molecular complexes into their component parts. Narrower "specialists" are proteasomes, which are aimed only at the cleavage of proteins (see: "Elements", 05.11.2010). Their role in the cellular economy can hardly be overestimated: they monitor the enzymes that have served their life and destroy them as needed. This period, as we know, is determined very accurately - exactly as long as the cell performs a specific task. If the enzymes were not destroyed upon its completion, then the ongoing synthesis would be difficult to stop in time.
Proteasomes are present in all cells without exception, even in those without lysosomes. The role of proteasomes and the biochemical mechanism of their work were investigated by Aaron Chekhanover, Avram Gershko, and Irwin Rose in the late 1970s and early 1980s. They discovered that the proteasomes recognize and destroy those proteins that are labeled with the ubiquitin protein. The binding reaction with ubiquitin comes with the expense of ATP. In 2004, the three scientists received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for their research on ubiquitin-dependent protein degradation. In 2010, looking at school curriculum for gifted English children, I saw in the picture of the cell structure a series of black dots, which were marked as proteasomes. However, the schoolteacher at that school was unable to explain to the students what it is and what these mysterious proteasomes are for. There were no questions about the lysosomes in that picture.
Even at the beginning of the study of lysosomes, it was noticed that some of them contained parts of cellular organelles. This means that in lysosomes, not only large molecules are disassembled into parts, but also parts of the cell itself. The process of digesting one's own cellular structures is called autophagy - that is, "eating oneself." How do parts of cell organelles get into the lysosome containing hydrolases? Back in the 80s, he began to study this issue, studying the structure and function of lysosomes and autophagosomes in mammalian cells. He and his colleagues showed that autophagosomes appear in the mass of cells if they are grown on a nutrient-poor medium. In this regard, a hypothesis appeared that autophagosomes are formed when a reserve source of nutrition is needed - proteins and fats that are part of excess organelles. How are these autophagosomes formed, are they needed as a source of additional nutrition or for other cellular purposes, how are lysosomes found for digestion? All these questions at the beginning of the 90s had no answers.
Taking on independent research, Osumi focused his efforts on the study of yeast autophagosomes. He reasoned that autophagy should be a conservative cellular mechanism, therefore, it is more convenient to study it on simple (relatively) and convenient laboratory objects.
In yeast, autophagosomes reside inside vacuoles and then disintegrate there. Various proteinase enzymes are involved in their utilization. If the proteinases in the cell are defective, then the autophagosomes accumulate inside the vacuoles and do not dissolve. Osumi took advantage of this property to produce a yeast culture with an increased number of autophagosomes. He grew yeast cultures on poor media - in this case, autophagosomes appear in abundance, delivering food reserves to the starving cell. But his cultures used mutant cells with non-working proteinases. So, as a result, cells quickly accumulated a lot of autophagosomes in vacuoles.
Autophagosomes, as follows from his observations, are surrounded by single-layer membranes, inside of which can be a wide variety of contents: ribosomes, mitochondria, lipid and glycogen granules. By adding or removing protease inhibitors in cultures of non-mutant cells, an increase or decrease in the number of autophagosomes can be achieved. So in these experiments, it was demonstrated that these cell bodies are digested by proteinase enzymes.
Very quickly, in just a year, using the random mutation method, Osumi identified 13-15 genes (APG1-15) and corresponding protein products involved in the formation of autophagosomes (M. Tsukada, Y. Ohsumi, 1993. Isolation and characterization of autophagy-defective mutants of Saccharomyces cerevisiae). Among the colonies of cells with defective proteinase activity, he selected under a microscope those in which there were no autophagosomes. Then, by cultivating them separately, he figured out which genes they had corrupted. It took his group five more years to decipher, in a first approximation, the molecular mechanism of these genes.
We managed to find out how this cascade works, in what order and how these proteins bind to each other, so that the result is an autophagosome. By 2000, the picture of the formation of a membrane around the damaged organelles to be recycled became clear. The single lipid membrane begins to stretch around these organelles, gradually surrounding them, until the ends of the membrane come close to each other and merge, forming a double membrane of the autophagosome. This vesicle is then transported to the lysosome and fused with it.
In the process of membrane formation, APG proteins are involved, analogs of which were found by Yoshinori Osumi and colleagues in mammals.
Thanks to Osumi's work, we saw the whole process of autophagy in dynamics. The starting point of Osumi's research was the simple fact of the presence of mysterious small bodies in the cells. Now researchers have the opportunity, albeit hypothetical, to control the entire process of autophagy.
Autophagy is necessary for the normal functioning of the cell, since the cell must be able not only to renew its biochemical and architectural economy, but also to utilize unnecessary ones. In the cell there are thousands of worn out ribosomes and mitochondria, membrane proteins, waste molecular complexes - all of them need to be economically processed and put back into circulation. This is a kind of cellular recycling. This process not only provides certain savings, but also prevents rapid cell aging. Violation of cellular autophagy in humans leads to the development of Parkinson's disease, type II diabetes, cancer, and some disorders characteristic of old age. Controlling the process of cellular autophagy, obviously, has great prospects, both in fundamental and applied terms.
