On August 1 (July 19), 1914, the world was plunged into the abyss of war by the imperialists. What had been prepared for so long by the imperialist governments in secret from the masses has come true. The first world imperialist war began. 33 states were drawn into the war, over 70 million people were put under arms. The war was fought on land, at sea and from the air. During the war, many new, hitherto unseen weapons were used. The war was fought simultaneously on several continents - Europe, Asia and Africa. This scope of the war was determined, first of all, by its imperialist nature. There was a sharp discontinuity in capitalist production, which led to catastrophic consequences. The unevenness of capitalist development was its unconditional law. This unevenness worsened between individual countries and inevitably gave rise to frequent regroupings of forces between imperialist states. In pursuit of monopoly high profits, they resort to wars. Due to the fact that already at the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th centuries the entire territory of the globe was divided between capitalist states, the young imperialist states could satisfy their aspirations only by redividing the world. This redivision of the world under capitalist private property according to “fairness” is impossible. The question arose about its forced redistribution. And power changes with the course of economic development. After 1871, Germany grew stronger 3-4 times faster than England and France, Japan 10 times faster than Russia.
The struggle for a new redistribution of the world - for the redistribution of foreign lands, colonies, for the seizure of markets for goods, raw materials and markets for the investment of capital - was the main reason for the imperialist war that broke out in 1914. This war had been prepared for a long time; its organizers and perpetrators were the imperialists of all countries. For the imperialists, war was also a means of strangling the revolutionary movement.
Russian-German contradictions were of great importance in the outbreak of the war. If official German circles outwardly, starting from the 20th century, rarely resorted to threats against Russia and even repeatedly offered her an alliance, then in fact the German military, financiers and industrialists developed a broad program for the dismemberment of Russia and its complete reduction to the rank of a second-rate power. In this regard, Germany had a strong ally in Austria-Hungary.
However, German imperialism did not want to be content with only peaceful economic penetration into Russia. The presence in Russia of a large number of German banks, German factories, shops, and the widespread sale of German goods on the Russian market did not satisfy the German imperialists. They dreamed of ousting the successful French and English capitalists from Russia. In this regard, German imperialism had a strong base in Russia.
The actions of German capitalists and landowners caused great economic damage to Russia. German landowners essentially achieved a ban on the import of Russian grain and livestock into Germany, and German industrialists, under a trade agreement with Russia in 1904, received favorable conditions for themselves, which gave them the opportunity to widely sell goods on the Russian market.
But if in relation to the old Russian possessions the German capitalists have so far limited themselves to only newspaper and magazine statements, then they have ceased to take into account the interests of Russia in Turkey and the Balkans, openly setting the goal of ousting Russia from these areas. Türkiye became increasingly dependent on Germany. In exchange for German loans and promises of support for Turkish policy in Europe, Germany at the beginning of the 20th century obtained Turkey’s consent to the construction of the Berlin-Baghdad railway.
By starting the construction of a railway through Turkish territory, German imperialism firmly captured many important levers of Turkish economic life and dealt a strong blow to its competitors - both England and Russia. In conditions of widespread economic expansion, Germany managed to penetrate through Turkey into Persia, and above all into the Russian “sphere of influence.” These successes of the German imperialists could not but cause a sharp aggravation of Russian-German relations. Germany's infringement of Russian interests in Turkey and Persia, which had long been considered the sphere of the colonial policy of the Russian autocracy, increased tensions between German and Russian capitalists.
Taking advantage of its economic successes in Turkey, Germany began to take over the Turkish army. In 1913, sensational news came to St. Petersburg: German General Liman von Sanders was appointed commander of the Turkish army corps located in the Constantinople area, and several dozen more German officers received the most important command posts in the Turkish army.
Russia turned to England and France for help, but England found it inconvenient to raise the question of removing the German general from Constantinople, since its own admiral was there, commanding the Turkish fleet, and she did not want to give up her positions for the sake of Russia. France, according to one of its diplomats, decided to take this opportunity to finally “break the bridge” between St. Petersburg and Berlin.
Austria-Hungary, being in a military alliance with Germany, had the same aggressive program towards Russia as its powerful partner. Austrian landowners and capitalists wanted to tear away part of Poland from Russia, but their main goal was the complete ousting of Russia from the Balkans, and, first of all, the subjugation of Serbia. Among the Austrian ruling classes, the idea of creating a triune Austro-Hungarian-Slavic monarchy enjoyed particular success. Austria had already begun to implement this idea in 1908-1909. It completely occupied and turned the territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina into Austrian possession. Now she was preparing to take over Serbia.
This policy of Austria-Hungary met with decisive rebuff from Tsarist Russia. A powerful labor movement has developed in all capitalist countries.
On February 8, 1914, a meeting of a number of ministers took place. The meeting set the Russian government the task of accelerating the construction of the Black Sea Fleet, equipping the landing corps and ensuring its transfer by strengthening the transport fleet and building strategic railways. At the same time, the task was set to more actively promote the rapprochement of Serbia and Romania with Bulgaria against Austria-Hungary.
In accordance with this course, the subsidy to Montenegro was renewed (subject to its close union with Serbia), and negotiations began with the Serbian and Greek prime ministers on the restoration of the Balkan Union. A meeting between Nicholas II and the Romanian king also took place, during which negotiations continued to bring Romania to the side of Russia.
Finally, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs decided to immediately begin negotiations on concluding an agreement between Russia and England.
On the eve of the war, Russia's allied relations with France became even closer. In 1911-1913 Regular meetings of the chiefs of the general staffs of Russia and France were held, at which decisions were made to increase the number of forces deployed against Germany and speed up the timing of their concentration. Thus, everything was very clear here.
So, Europe split into two camps. The Entente was created as part of England, France and Russia, which opposed the Triple Alliance represented by Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy. Tsarist Russia played a subordinate role in the Entente and was a reserve of Western European imperialism.
A frenzied arms race ensued. Germany was the leader in this race, but other powers, to the best of their ability, tried to keep up with it. All this, of course, was covered up with the slogans “preserving peace,” but the more billions were thrown into service, the more soldiers were put under arms, the more inevitable the approach of the moment became when, according to the ancient saying, the guns themselves begin to fire.
In Russia, the arms race especially intensified after the Bosnian crisis. In 1908, the “Great Program to Strengthen the Army” was adopted, according to which the number of troops and artillery increased significantly.
At the same time, programs were developed to restore the Baltic Fleet and strengthen the Black Sea Fleet to complete superiority over the Turks. All programs were designed for three to four years, and were expected to be completed around 1917.
1913 and at the latest by the spring of 1914, after which a critical moment will come when Germany is in the most favorable conditions for starting a victorious war.
In Austria-Hungary, the arms race also developed rapidly. Diplomatic successes, military successes - only in this did the ruling circles of Vienna see the salvation of the collapsed empire.
The awareness of their military superiority at the moment, the awareness that this superiority could soon come to naught, led the ruling circles of Berlin and Vienna to the decision of the need to start a war against Russia and France at the first opportunity.
By the beginning of the new century, the concept of “imperialism” had become widespread in economic and political literature, as well as in the press, to characterize new trends in the economic life and politics of the main capitalist countries. Various contents were put into this concept, but for the most part it was used to define the expansion and expanding colonial policy of major powers. Only V.I. Lenin, on the basis of a deep theoretical analysis of the entire set of economic and political changes that have occurred in the world, gave a comprehensive and truly scientific definition of imperialism as monopoly capitalism, the highest and final stage of capitalism.
World economic crisis of 1900-1903. and development of monopolies
The process of developing the old, “free” capitalism into monopoly capitalism - imperialism - ended at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries. The turning point in the development of monopolies was the deep economic crisis that hit in 1900-1903. European countries and the United States of America.
The industrial cycle that followed the crisis of 1890 developed unevenly, but its results were very significant. Economic recovery in the last years of the 19th century. passed under the sign of an unprecedented acceleration in the development of heavy industry: within a few years, world coal production increased by almost 65%, iron smelting by more than 70%, and steel production by almost three times. Each country had its own characteristics of industrial growth. In Russia it was associated primarily with the growth of railway construction. In the United States of America and Germany, enterprises in the iron and steel, shipbuilding and electrical industries, as well as housing, commercial premises, etc., were intensively built; In Germany, in addition, the military industry played a major role. In England, along with the rise of heavy and light industry, there was also an increase in foreign trade; the construction of military ships continued to grow even during the years of crisis. In France, metallurgy, as well as electrical engineering and other new branches of production, were not yet of great importance, while light industry, in particular textiles, was developing at a relatively high pace. During the years of industrial expansion there was a significant expansion of the world market. During these same years, the construction of railways intensified in a number of colonial and semi-colonial countries - in Asia, Africa, South America, and also in Australia. “The construction of giant railways, the expansion of the world market and the growth of trade,” wrote V.I. Lenin, “all this caused an unexpected revival of industry, the growth of new enterprises, a frantic pursuit of a market for sales, the pursuit of profit, the founding of new societies, the attraction of the production of a mass of new capital, made up in part from the small savings of small capitalists. It is not surprising that this frantic worldwide pursuit of new unknown markets led to a huge collapse" ( V. I. Lenin, Lessons of the crisis, Works, vol. 5, pp. 74-75.).
A new crisis came suddenly. Its first symptoms appeared in the summer of 1899 in Russia; here it turned out to be the deepest and most lasting. In mid-1900, the crisis began to manifest itself in Germany, and after it England, France and other countries of Western Europe were drawn into its whirlpool. Foreign trade fell sharply. Many banks declared bankruptcy, and even the largest were threatened with collapse. In the United States of America, the crisis arose somewhat later: in 1901, on the New York Stock Exchange, shares of the largest industrial monopolies, the Steel Trust (and others), began to fall catastrophically, after which a sharp decline in production began in a number of key industries - coal, metallurgy, shipbuilding , cotton; The crisis in the United States reached its greatest depth in 1903-1904, when European countries were already planning to ease it. In general, the global economic crisis of 1900-1903, developing unevenly, had one very significant feature: it gave a powerful impetus to the processes of concentration of production and centralization of capital. Contributing to the death of some industrial enterprises and at the same time the strengthening of others, more powerful in technical and economic terms, this crisis was marked by an increase in the role of monopolies, expansion and strengthening of their dominance.
The acceleration of the process of concentration of capital was facilitated by the rapid progress of technology. In the last years of the 19th and early 20th centuries. The steam engine began to be replaced by an electric one. New industries emerged and grew - electrical engineering, automotive and others. The chemical industry of the main capitalist countries has created dozens of previously unknown products; chemistry was introduced into metallurgical production and the textile industry. The invention of a method for producing high-quality (tungsten) steel revolutionized mechanical engineering, making it possible to create machines with higher productivity and begin their mass production. Rapid technical progress was accompanied by specialization, and in some industries (coal, metallurgical, chemical) and combination of production.
Enterprises equipped with the latest technology required such large capital investments that not only the individual funds of even the richest capitalists, but also the individual capital of entire joint-stock companies were insufficient for them. It was beneficial for several dozen of the largest enterprises in any industry to come to an agreement with each other, especially since the association promised an unprecedented amount of profit. Already at the beginning of the 20th century. monopolies began to acquire decisive importance in the economy of capitalism.
The classic country of monopoly capital was then Germany, where monopolies arose earlier and covered production more strongly than in other countries.
In 1905, there were at least 385 cartels in Germany, uniting 12 thousand enterprises. They provided about three-fifths of all production and occupied a dominant position in the main branches of industry.
In the United States of America, the process of monopolization began in the second half of the 80s, but it unfolded with all its force at the end of the 19th and in the first years of the 20th century. In 1901, at the beginning of the global economic crisis, 75 trusts were created here, uniting more than 1,600 enterprises with a total share capital of almost 3 billion dollars, and in 1903-1905. monopolized enterprises produced 70% of the total steel production in the country, 75% of coal, 84% of oil, etc.
In somewhat different forms and more slowly, monopolies were created in England, France, Russia, Japan and other capitalist countries.
The purpose of monopolies was to provide profits that far exceeded the normal average profit. Monopolies limited competition, but at the same time caused its extreme aggravation. The competitive struggle took place both between the participants of monopolistic associations themselves for a share in production and profits, and against other monopolies, against all competitors and rivals who were not part of this association, for establishing their dominance over them. Monopolists, using various methods, took away part of the profits from the owners of non-monopoly enterprises and ruined the petty bourgeoisie. In addition, by artificially increasing the prices of goods, they shifted the burden of monopoly high prices onto the consumer and thereby further worsened the situation of the working masses.
Banking monopolies and the emergence of financial capital
The centralization of banking in some countries proceeded even faster than the centralization of industry. Large banks, absorbing or subjugating less powerful ones, turned into banking monopolies. At the beginning of the 20th century. Germany was dominated by the six largest banks; in France - three or four; In the United States, the most powerful were the two banks that served and were controlled by the financial groups of Rockefeller and Morgan.
Thanks to the colossal concentration of money capital, banks began to control enormous social capital and became co-owners of the means of production in industry and throughout the economy. The formation of banking monopolies, in turn, accelerated the monopolization of production. By threatening with deprivation of credit and other measures of economic pressure, banking capital forced the trade, industrial and transport enterprises it controlled to quickly follow the path of unification into cartels and trusts. It was enough for the bank to seize a controlling stake in a joint stock company in order to subordinate it to itself. Such a company often itself controlled a number of “subsidiary” companies, which also became involved in the bank’s sphere of influence. Thus, a few of the largest financiers who dominated a bank or a group of banks were able to control gigantic capital, the largest enterprises, and even entire industries. The system of including directors and other representatives of banks into the supervisory boards of trade, industrial and transport enterprises, insurance companies and, on the other hand, the entry of industrial monopolists into the boards and councils of banks has become widespread.
One of the ways to further enrich the financial oligarchy was speculation in securities issued by joint-stock companies. Taking part in the creation of joint-stock companies and banks or reorganizing them, the financial oligarchy usually took possession of a significant part of the shares and kept them in their safes, in order to then, by putting them on sale, appropriate huge profits, sometimes twice the original capital invested.
By making supplies to the state on a large scale, especially in connection with the constant arms race, placing government loans, and finally receiving subsidies from the state treasury, powerful financial and industrial monopolists multiplied their wealth.
Export of capital. International monopolies and the division of the world between them
Monopoly unions of capitalists of major powers began to enter into agreements with each other and create international cartels with the aim of dividing sales markets and areas of investment of capital. However, the creation of international monopolies did not lead to a weakening of imperialist contradictions. On the contrary, it was a step toward a new explosion of these contradictions based on an even more intense competitive struggle for the redivision of the world market. The struggle between two giant oil trusts - the Anglo-Dutch Royal Dutch Shell and the American Standard Oil - unfolded in Mexico, Indonesia, Venezuela, Romania, Galicia - wherever oil deposits were discovered, as well as in all oil markets. products. At the same time, international monopolies began to emerge in electrical engineering and some other industries. The struggle of monopolists for spheres of domination, for the “right” to enslave and rob other peoples gave rise to constant clashes between the imperialist powers, intertwining themselves in a tangle of irreconcilable contradictions.
In the era of imperialism, the military-strategic role of colonies and dependent countries as strongholds and suppliers of cheap cannon fodder also increased. Even when a particular colony did not bring immediate economic or strategic benefits, the imperialist powers fought for its possession, since only monopoly ownership created a guarantee against the encroachments of rivals. At the beginning of the 20th century. The economic signs of a new historical stage in the development of capitalism have already fully developed: the dominance of monopolies, the formation of financial capital, the particularly important importance of the export of capital as opposed to the export of goods; the beginning of the economic division of the world by international capitalist unions, the completion of the territorial division of the world by the largest capitalist powers ( See V.I. Lenin, Imperialism as the highest stage of capitalism, Works, vol. 22, p. 253.).
In general, capitalism during this period developed immeasurably faster than before. But its growth lagged far behind the opportunities provided by the achievements of science and technology. The dominance of monopolies often became an obstacle to the introduction of scientific and technological achievements into production. The establishment of monopoly prices often eliminated incentives for technical progress. “Of course,” wrote V.I. Lenin, “the opportunity to reduce production costs and increase profits through the introduction of technical improvements acts in favor of changes. But the tendency towards stagnation and decay, characteristic of a monopoly, continues in turn to operate, and in certain branches of industry, in certain countries, for certain periods of time it takes over" ( Ibid., p. 263.).
Imperialism acted as a deeply reactionary force fighting against democracy and striving to consolidate its dominance and enslave the broad masses of the people. The content of the foreign and colonial policy of the imperialist powers was the desire to increase oppression over the overwhelming majority of humanity. Imperialism tried to imbue philosophy and history, literature and art to one degree or another with reactionary ideas, tastes and ideas of the ruling classes, instilled in order to corrupt the masses or distract them from the struggle for economic, political, social and national liberation. In particular, racial theory in its various variants occupied a large place in the ideology of imperialism: in Germany these were statements about the historical mission of the “German race”, supposedly designed to dominate the rest of the European peoples, especially the Slavic ones; in England and the United States - about the superiority of the “Anglo-Saxon race” over all peoples; in France - about the superiority of the “Latin race” and “Gallic culture”; In Japan, the idea of its “divine mission” to lead China and, moreover, all of Asia took root. Racial theories aimed at justifying military and colonial aggression were one of the most typical and disgusting manifestations of the corrupting spirit that imperialism introduced into all spheres of social, political and spiritual life.
2. The first wars of the era of imperialism. The beginning of the struggle for the redivision of the world
With the advent of the era of imperialism, the struggle of the capitalist powers for the territorial division of the world gave way to an even more acute struggle for its redivision in accordance with the changed balance of forces. The “old” colonial powers - Great Britain, France, Russia - sought to maintain and further expand their empires. Germany, the United States of America, Japan and Italy, which had recently entered the arena of colonial politics, demanded their “place in the sun,” that is, their large share in the robbery of the peoples of colonial and semi-colonial countries. Entering into intense rivalry, the imperialist powers did not hesitate to use armed force. V.I. Lenin wrote that “under capitalism, any other basis for dividing spheres of influence, interests, colonies, etc., is unthinkable, except taking into account the strength of the participants in the division.. for the uniform development of individual enterprises, trusts, industries, countries under capitalism will be can not" ( V. I. Lenin, Imperialism as the highest stage of capitalism, Works, vol. 22, p. 281.). The inevitable companion of monopoly capitalism was the predatory imperialist wars it generated.
The advent of the era of monopoly capitalism was marked by three wars of an imperialist nature - the Spanish-American, Anglo-Boer and Russian-Japanese.
Spanish-American War 1898
The first of these wars was started by American imperialism. In an effort to acquire new colonies, he hoped to implement his plans by redistributing the colonial possessions of weaker and backward powers. To this end, the ruling circles of the United States decided to take advantage of the serious difficulties experienced by the decrepit Spanish monarchy. The islands of Cuba and Puerto Rico in the Caribbean Sea, the Caroline and Mariana Islands, the Philippines, and the Palau islands on the continent were still under her rule. Spain's economic position in its colonies was undermined both from within - due to the backwardness of the Spanish economy, and from without - by the increased penetration of capital from other powers. At the same time, the population of the colonies waged a stubborn national liberation struggle against Spanish oppression. The liberation movement took on the largest proportions in Cuba and the Philippines. The uprising in Cuba began back in 1868. In 1878, the landowners and part of the bourgeoisie of Cuba entered into an agreement with the Spanish colonialists, and the movement was suppressed. But in 1895 a new uprising broke out in Cuba, and in 1896 in the Philippines.
Cuba and Puerto Rico attracted the attention of the ruling circles of the United States not only as a valuable source of raw materials (sugar cane) and a profitable area for investing capital, but also as a strategic key on the approaches to Central America and the Caribbean, to the Isthmus of Panama, through which it was planned to dig channel. In the Pacific, American imperialism has set its sights on the Philippine Islands to pave the way for the markets of East Asia.
The reason for the Spanish-American War was the liberation uprising in Cuba. Having launched hypocritical propaganda against “Spanish atrocities,” the American imperialists especially successfully used the news that on February 15, 1898, an explosion occurred under mysterious circumstances on the American ship Maine, which was stationed off Havana. All attempts by the Spanish government to avoid armed conflict were in vain. The American government consistently led the way to war. At the same time, it counted on the fact that other imperialist states, including England and Germany, would not be able to interfere with it due to the deep contradictions between them. Moreover, England, busy at this time with its own colonial expansion, especially in South Africa, was interested in a rapprochement with the United States. The German government's efforts to put together an anti-American diplomatic coalition of European powers failed. On April 20, 1898, the United States presented Spain with a deliberately harsh ultimatum. The ultimatum demanded that Spain abandon Cuba. Despite the fact that Spain was ready to make concessions, American imperialist circles started a war. Military operations began on April 21, 1898. On this day, the American fleet blocked Cuba. At the same time, Cuban rebels waged a successful fight against the Spanish garrisons. After the American fleet, taking advantage of its triple superiority, destroyed the Spanish squadron sent to the shores of Cuba, American troops began active operations. However, the main burden of the struggle fell on the shoulders of the Cuban rebels. However, when the Spanish authorities capitulated, the Americans removed the Cuban representatives from the negotiations. Having thrown off the mask of fighters for the liberation of the Cuban people, the United States occupied Cuba.
Events of the same nature developed in the Philippines. Long before the start of the war, the American naval command ordered the Pacific Squadron to be ready for an attack on the Philippines. On May 1, the Spanish fleet, consisting of outdated, poorly equipped and poorly armed wooden ships, was burned and sunk in Manila Bay.
By this time, the American military authorities had established contact with the exiled Philippine junta figures (Aguinaldo and others) and brought them to the Philippines, hoping to take advantage of the national liberation movement of the Filipino people against the Spanish colonialists. In a stubborn struggle, the Filipino people eliminated Spanish rule and formed an independent Philippine Republic. The participation of American troops in the expulsion of the Spanish garrisons was insignificant. But American military authorities prevented the Filipino rebels from occupying Manila. Having agreed with the Spanish command on its surrender, they launched a stage-like assault to demonstrate their supposedly decisive role in the defeat of the Spanish forces and thereby ensure the further annexation of the Philippines.
On December 10, 1898, a Spanish-American peace treaty was concluded in Paris, according to which Cuba was declared “independent”, but in fact fell under an American protectorate. The Philippine Islands, Puerto Rico, and Guam, the largest of the Mariana Islands, were ceded to the United States.
The Filipino people rose up to fight for their independence. The colonial war of American imperialism against the Philippine Republic was long and brutal. American troops burned settlements, devastated entire areas and mercilessly killed residents.
The German imperialists also took part in the division of the Spanish colonies. In February 1899, Germany forced Spain to sell it the Caroline, Mariana (excluding Guam) and Palau islands. In the same year, the United States of America and Germany divided the Samoan archipelago, and the island of Tituila and some other, smaller ones went to the United States. Together with the previously captured Hawaiian Islands, these new American possessions formed a system of support bases in the Pacific Ocean - on the approaches to Japan and Korea, China and Southeast Asia.
Boer War
At the end of the 90s, the ruling circles of England were busy preparing soldiers in South Africa. Large English capitalist companies interested in the gold and diamond mines of the Transvaal and the Orange Republic did not abandon their plans to seize the Boer states. The British government, however, was forced at first to take into account the possible opposition of Germany, whose economic and political influence in the Boer republics was quite significant. In an effort to eliminate or weaken the influence of their German rival in South Africa, the British imperialists decided to support his expansionist policy in the Middle East (in particular, the project to build the Baghdad Railway).
In March 1899, Cecil Rohde came to Berlin, where, in negotiations with the German government, he revealed England's intention to seize the Boer republics and build a trans-African railway from Cape Town to Cairo. “But,” he said, “Germany can operate in Asia Minor without damage.” Thus, plans for the redistribution of spheres of influence in South Africa and Western Asia were intertwined. Following this, in the spring and summer of 1899, J. Chamberlain and the Governor of the Cape Colony, Milner, began to provoke the Transvaal, openly interfering in its internal affairs and putting forward more and more new political demands, in the hope that they would be rejected by the Boers. For his part, Transvaal President Kruger, understanding the inevitability of war, but wanting to gain time necessary to purchase weapons from European countries, entered into negotiations with England. In the fall of 1899, the British government concentrated troops near the borders of the Boer republics. To prevent the impending invasion, the Boers declared war on England in October 1899 and began military operations. Developing an energetic offensive, they defeated large detachments of the British and captured part of the Cape Colony.
Bourgeois public opinion in England was shocked by what happened. The imperialist press created an atmosphere of “national tragedy.” Lord Roberts was appointed commander of the South African troops, and Kitchener, who had advanced during the conquest of Sudan, was appointed chief of his staff.
The Boers who defended their independence showed great tenacity and courage. However, the resources of the British Empire and the two small Boer republics were too unequal. Despite the first victories, the 60,000-strong Boer army could not resist the 450,000-strong enemy army. In addition, continuing the policy of oppression and exploitation of the indigenous population of the country, the Boers withdrew significant forces from the front and sent them to the rear to suppress the uprising of local tribes that had begun.
In February 1900, a systematic offensive by the British began. In June, British troops captured the Transvaal capital, Pretoria. Roberts proclaimed the annexation of the Transvaal and the Orange Republic to the British Empire. President Kruger was forced to emigrate to Europe.
Nevertheless the Boers continued to resist; guerrilla warfare began.
Mobile detachments of Boers under the command of Louis Botha, Smuts and De Beth interrupted English communications, attacked British detachments, captured strong points, and carried out daring raids even in the immediate vicinity of the capital. The protection of railways, concentration and supply bases required a huge number of troops, which were dispersed over a large area. The occupiers suffered losses in endless skirmishes.
In the fight against the Boers, the British command acted mercilessly. The strongholds of the guerrilla war - farms - were destroyed, the population was herded into camps behind barbed wire, where people, especially children, died in the thousands from hunger and disease.
Blockhouses were set up along the railroads at gunshot distance, and anyone approaching the railroad tracks was shot. Using his colossal numerical superiority, Kitchener methodically pushed the Boer detachments into barbed wire pens and forced them to surrender.
The peace treaty was signed on May 31, 1902. The Boers became British subjects. The English financial oligarchy achieved the accession of a new source of major profits to the empire. In 1910, the former Transvaal and Orange republics became part of the new British dominion - the Union of South Africa. The British colonialists managed to achieve rapprochement with the top of the Boers thanks to the jointly pursued policy of oppression of the indigenous African population and immigrants - the Chinese and Indians.
Russo-Japanese War 1904-1905
An important source of imperialist contradictions at the beginning of the 20th century. The Far East appeared. Already in the last years of the 19th century, after the Sino-Japanese War of 1894-1895, the struggle of powers for influence in China, as well as in Korea, intensified.
Immediately after the end of the Sino-Japanese War, the ruling circles of Japan began to prepare for a new war, this time against Russia, hoping to oust it from Manchuria (Northeast China) and Korea and at the same time seize Russian territories in the Far East, in particular Sakhalin.
On the other hand, among the ruling circles of Tsarist Russia, the desire for expansion in Northern China and Korea intensified. For this purpose, with the participation of French capital, the Russian-Chinese Bank was created in 1895, in the board of which the Tsarist Ministry of Finance played a decisive role.
At the same time, it was decided to begin construction of a section of the Siberian Railway that would pass through Chinese territory. The initiator of this project, Minister of Finance S. Yu. Witte, believed that Russia's receipt of a concession for the construction of this road would open up wide opportunities for economic penetration and strengthening of Russia's political influence throughout Northern China. After lengthy negotiations, the tsarist government obtained China's consent to grant a concession. At the insistence of the Chinese side, the concession was formally transferred not to the Russian government, but to the Russian-Chinese Bank, which, in order to implement it, created the “Society of the Chinese Eastern Railway”. The signing of the concession agreement (September 8, 1896) opened a new stage in the Far Eastern policy of tsarism and in the development of contradictions between Russia and Japan, which also sought to seize the North-Eastern provinces of China.
The situation was complicated by the fact that Russian-Japanese rivalry had also intensified in Korea by this time. According to the agreement signed in Seoul on May 14, 1896, Japan and Russia received the right to maintain their troops in Korea, and the agreement signed in Moscow on June 9 of the same year recognized mutually equal rights in this country for both powers. By founding the Russian-Korean Bank and sending military instructors and a financial adviser to Seoul, the tsarist government at first actually acquired greater political influence in Korea than Japan. But soon Japan, relying on the support of England, began to oust Russia. The tsarist government was forced to recognize Japan's predominant economic interests in Korea, close the Russian-Korean Bank and recall its financial adviser to the Korean king. “We have clearly given Korea under the dominant influence of Japan,” is how Witte assessed the situation.
After Germany captured Jiaozhou and the struggle for the division of China intensified between the main capitalist powers, the tsarist government occupied Lushun (Port Arthur) and Dalian (Dalian), and in March 1898 achieved the conclusion of an agreement with China on the lease of the Liaodong Peninsula, the occupation of the leased territory by Russian troops and granting a concession for the construction of a branch from the Chinese Eastern Railway to Port Arthur and Dalniy. In turn, the ruling circles of Japan accelerated preparations for a new, broader expansion, hoping to complete these preparations before Russia completed the construction of the Chinese Eastern Railway. “War became inevitable,” General Kuropatkin later wrote, “but we did not realize this and did not adequately prepare for it.”
The popular uprising of the Yihetuan and imperialist intervention in China further aggravated the contradictions between the powers, in particular between Russia and Japan. European powers, as well as the United States of America, played a significant role in the growth of the Russian-Japanese conflict. In preparation for the war with Russia, the Japanese government sought allies and sought to isolate Russia in the international arena. England, Russia's long-time rival not only in China, but also in the Near and Middle East, became such an ally.
In January 1902, an agreement on the Anglo-Japanese alliance was signed, directed primarily against Russia. Thanks to the alliance with England, Japan could begin to implement its aggressive plans in the Far East, confident that neither France nor Germany would interfere in its conflict with Russia. On the other hand, England had the opportunity, with the help of Japan, to inflict a serious blow on Russia and, in addition, to a certain extent strengthen its influence in Europe in the fight against a new rival - Germany.
The ruling circles of the United States of America also hoped, with the help of Japan, to weaken Russia's influence in the Far East and strengthen their own influence in China (in particular, Manchuria) and Korea. To this end, the American imperialists were prepared to provide Japan with far-reaching support. In turn, Germany, seeking to undermine or weaken the alliance between France and Russia, as well as to free its hands in Europe and create more favorable conditions for its penetration into the Middle East, secretly pushed both Russia and Japan to war against each other. Thus, the planned war against Russia corresponded to the interests of not only Japanese, but also British, American and German imperialism.
The tsarist government, convinced that the international situation was developing unfavorably for Russia, decided to sign an agreement with China (April 8, 1902), according to which the Chinese government received the opportunity to restore its power in Manchuria, “as it was before the occupation of the designated area by Russian troops " The tsarist government even pledged to withdraw its troops from there within a year and a half. However, under the influence of court and military circles, the most typical representative of which was the clever businessman Bezobrazov, an aggressive, adventurist course prevailed in the Far Eastern policy of tsarism. The Bezobrazov clique sought concessions in Korea and insisted that the tsarist government keep Manchuria in its hands at any cost. The war with Japan was also supported by that part of the ruling circles that saw in this war a means of preventing the revolution that was brewing in Russia.
Another group, led by Witte, was also a supporter of expansion in the Far East, but believed that at the moment it was necessary to act primarily by economic methods. Knowing that Russia was not prepared for war, Witte wanted to delay it. In the end, the policy of tsarism was won by the course of military adventure. Exposing the Far Eastern policy of Russian tsarism, Lenin wrote: “Who benefits from this policy? It benefits a handful of capitalist bigwigs who conduct trade with China, a handful of manufacturers producing goods for the Asian market, a handful of contractors who are now making a lot of money on urgent military orders... This policy is beneficial to a handful of nobles who occupy high positions in the civil and military service. They need a policy of adventure, because in it they can curry favor, make a career, and glorify themselves with “exploits.” Our government does not hesitate to sacrifice the interests of the entire people to the interests of this handful of capitalists and bureaucratic scoundrels" ( V. I. Lenin, The Chinese War, Works, vol. 4, pp. 349-350.).
The ruling circles of Japan were well informed about Russia's unpreparedness for war in the Far East. Covering up their true, aggressive goals with all sorts of diplomatic tricks in negotiations with Russia, the Japanese militarists led the way to war.
On the night of February 9, 1904, a Japanese squadron under the command of Admiral Togo treacherously, without declaring war, attacked the Russian fleet stationed in Port Arthur. It was not until February 10, 1904 that Japan formally declared war on Russia. Thus began the Russo-Japanese War, which was of an imperialist nature both on the part of Japan and on the part of Tsarist Russia.
By launching active operations at sea and weakening the Russian naval forces with unexpected attacks, the Japanese command secured favorable conditions for the transfer and deployment of the main ground forces on the Asian mainland. Simultaneously with the attack on Port Arthur, the Japanese command launched landing operations in Korea. The Russian cruiser "Varyag" and the gunboat "Koreets", located in the Korean port of Chemulpo, were sunk by Russian sailors after a heroic unequal struggle. On April 13, 1904, near Port Arthur, the Russian battleship "Petropavlovsk" was blown up by a mine and sank, on which was the newly appointed commander of the Pacific Fleet, an outstanding naval commander, Vice Admiral S. O. Makarov (his friend, the wonderful artist V. V. Vereshchagin). At the end of April, having concentrated large forces in the north of Korea, the Japanese army defeated Russian troops on the Yalu River and invaded Manchuria. At the same time, large Japanese forces (two armies) landed on the Liaodong Peninsula, north of Port Arthur, and besieged the fortress.
The sudden attack of Japan forced Russia to start a war in conditions when the construction of the Trans-Siberian Railway and large structures in Port Arthur had not yet been completed. The course and results of the war were affected by Russia's military and economic backwardness.
At the beginning of September 1904, the tsarist army suffered a major setback at Liao-yang. Both sides suffered significant losses. The besieged Port Arthur defended itself for a long time and stubbornly. However, on January 2, 1905, the commander of the fortress, General Stessel, surrendered Port Arthur to the Japanese.
The fall of Port Arthur received wide international response. In progressive circles around the world it was regarded as a severe defeat for Russian tsarism. V.I. Lenin wrote about the fall of Port Arthur: “It was not the Russian people, but the autocracy that came to a shameful defeat. The Russian people benefited from the defeat of the autocracy. The capitulation of Port Arthur is the prologue to the capitulation of tsarism" ( V. I. Lenin, The Fall of Port Arthur, Soch., vol. 8, p. 37.).
In March 1905, the last major land battle took place near Mukden (Shenyang). The main forces were brought into battle. The Japanese command sought to implement its plan of enveloping the Russian army from the flanks. This plan failed. However, the commander of the Russian army, General Kuropatkin, ordered the troops to retreat. The retreat was carried out in an atmosphere of disorganization and panic. The Battle of Mukden was a major setback for the tsarist army. On May 27-28, 1905, a new military disaster, difficult for Tsarist Russia, occurred: a Russian squadron under the command of Rozhdestvensky, which arrived in the Far East from the Baltic Sea, was destroyed in the Tsushima Strait.
Despite its military successes, Japan was under extreme stress; its financial and human reserves were running low. Under these conditions, as the Japanese imperialists understood, prolongation of the war became extremely undesirable and even dangerous. By the summer of 1905, the international situation had also changed. The ruling circles of England and the United States, which had themselves previously instigated the war between Japan and Russia, now wanted to end it as quickly as possible. England intended to concentrate its forces against its German rival. In addition, in view of the rise of the national movement in India, she sought to introduce new conditions into the alliance treaty with Japan, providing for Japan's participation in the protection of British colonies in East Asia. The United States of America hoped that the mutual weakening of Russia and Japan would create greater opportunities for American expansion in the Far East. In negotiations with the Japanese government, they declared themselves an unofficial participant in the Anglo-Japanese Alliance and expressed their willingness to recognize the seizure of Korea by Japan, provided that Japan guaranteed the United States the inviolability of the Philippines they had captured. In March 1905, the American government put forward a proposal to buy out the railways in Manchuria and place them under “international control,” in which American monopolies would play a major role. Later, powerful groups of American finance capital, involved in financing Japan during the war, laid claim to the right to operate the South Manchurian Railway.
On June 8, 1905, United States President Theodore Roosevelt proposed peace negotiations between Russia and Japan. The tsarist government willingly took advantage of Roosevelt's offer, as it needed peace to strengthen the fight against the unfolding revolution.
Russo-Japanese peace negotiations began in Portsmouth (USA) in August 1905. With the support of the United States and England, the Japanese delegation made enormous demands in Portsmouth. In particular, Japan expected to receive military indemnity from Russia and part of Russian territory - Sakhalin Island. The negotiators' focus was on these two basic Japanese demands. As for Manchuria and Korea, tsarism from the very beginning agreed to recognize the dominant position of Japan in the southern part of Manchuria and actually renounced all claims to Korea. Faced with opposition from the Russian Commissioner Witte on the issue of Sakhalin and indemnity, the Japanese Commissioner Komura threatened to break off the negotiations. T. Roosevelt, acting as a “mediator,” began to put pressure on Russia, trying to extract concessions from it in favor of Japan. The governments of Germany and France acted behind the scenes in the same direction. When the Tsarist government rejected Japanese demands for territorial concessions and indemnities, the Japanese government invited Komura to sign a peace treaty. However, without knowing this, the Tsar at the last moment agreed to cede the southern half of Sakhalin Island and pay the cost of keeping Russian prisoners of war in Japan.
On September 5, 1905, the Treaty of Portsmouth was signed. He transferred part of Chinese territory into the hands of Japan - the so-called Kwantung leased area with Port Arthur and the southern branch of the Chinese Eastern Railway. Japan received half of Sakhalin Island (south of the 50th parallel), as well as fishing rights in Russian territorial waters. A Japanese protectorate was actually established over Korea.
The defeat of Tsarist Russia in the war with Japan had a serious impact on the balance of power of the imperialist powers not only in the Far East, but also in Europe. At the same time, it accelerated the development of revolutionary events in Russia.
Russia and the world at the end of the 19th – beginning of the 20th centuries.
1. Completion of the division of the world and the struggle for colonies
2. Domestic politics and the Russian economy at the turn of the century.
3. Foreign policy of Russia at the end of the 19th – beginning of the 20th centuries.
Completion of the division of the world and the struggle for colonies
Political and military rivalry between Great Britain and France, on the one hand, and Germany and Austro-Hungary, on the other, led in 1914 to the First World War, which entailed millions of casualties and the redrawing of the political map of Europe. The Habsburg and Ottoman empires disappeared; in their place several new states were formed. The collapse of the Ottoman Empire led to a crisis in the Middle East. In 1917, the revolution led to the collapse of the Russian Empire; The revolution was followed by a civil war, in which the Bolsheviks won and then created the world's first communist state. US participation in the war established its status as a world power and contributed to its economic dominance in the world. US President Wilson became a central figure in the conclusion of the Treaty of Versailles.
Europe
Most European countries and their colonies took part in the First World War. The war was on a scale unprecedented in the 19th century. Years of rivalry between the leading powers - Great Britain, France and Germany - created an explosive situation, which was eventually resolved by the crisis in the Balkans. The Treaty of Versailles of 1919 irreversibly changed the balance of power in Europe and formed the basis of a system that collapsed 20 years later in a new world war.
America
By 1925, the United States had become the most powerful industrial power in the world, and its position was strengthened by the First World War. Since that time, the United States has assumed the role of the main arbiter in world conflicts. In Mexico and Central and South America, uprisings against agrarian orders led to the establishment of a new social order and launched the process of urbanization.
Western Asia
In 1918, the 400-year-old Ottoman Empire fell. In 1923, the new Turkish Republic was established. In the post-war period, most of the territory of the former Ottoman Empire, in particular Transjordan, Syria and Iraq, was under the control of Great Britain and France. The new Arab nationalism became more radical, which was reflected in numerous political unrest.
Northeast Asia
Much of the region was shaken by the collapse of the Chinese Empire in 1911 and the Russian Revolution of 1917. The victorious Bolsheviks hoped to spread the revolution to other countries. At the same time, Japanese expansion brought territorial gains in Russia, China and the Pacific Islands.
Colonial world
By the end of the First World War, managing the overseas possessions of Great Britain and France, which already included Germany's African possessions, had become costly and complex. Colonialism was criticized by the US and USSR, as well as independence movements in India and parts of Africa, along with growing nationalism in the East Indies. (modern India, Pakistan and Bangladesh (and until 1937 - Burma, Sumatra, Java)
- Domestic politics and the Russian economy at the turn of the century
Alexander III's political program consisted of satisfying the urgent economic demands of the people.
The policy of Nicholas II was to continue, by inertia, the policy of his father.
And it consisted of strengthening government control in all directions.
The rights of local government have been revised.
The power of the governors is strengthened by the zemstvo. According to the law of 1890, peasants elected candidates for zemstvo, and the governor.
To expand government control over the peasants, the Institute was created in 1889 zemstvo chiefs. Zemstvo chiefs were appointed by the governor from among the nobles, had power over the peasants in local affairs and functioned as judges over them.
Measures were taken to suppress the intelligentsia. In 1884, universities were reorganized. Censorship has become stricter.
In 1887, the police uncovered a plot to assassinate Alexander III. Many Russian provinces were declared in a state of “enhanced security.”
Some of Russia's territories also came under suspicion. The government began to pursue a policy of “Russification,” especially in Poland.
Religious life was limited. Old Believers and sects were persecuted. Jews were especially suspicious.
Jews became subjects of Russia after the partition of Poland and the annexation of southwestern Russian territories.
Since 1804, the “Pale of Settlement” was established (western, southern provinces).
Under Alexander III, even in their territories, they were forbidden to settle outside the cities.
In 1891, many Jews were expelled from Moscow. They were not allowed government service.
The government tried to secure the support of the nobles by giving them special advantages in local government and legal proceedings, and a number of financial privileges.
However, it is unfair to point only to the negative aspects at the end of the 19th century.
Many measures were aimed at improving the livelihood of the peasantry.
In 1882, the mandatory sale of land to peasants was introduced on those estates where the sale had not been completed. Payments for land were reduced, and the poll tax was abolished (1885).
The reign of Alexander III laid the foundations for labor legislation in Russia.
In 1882, government inspection was introduced at factories, and working conditions were regulated. The working day of minors and women was limited by law.
The government has undertaken financial reform.
After Nicholas I, two wars and internal reforms shook the economy so much that money again became worthless.
Sergei Witte successfully reorganized finances and introduced the gold standard in 1897.
In the early 90s. 19th century An industrial boom began in Russia and was very intense. Heavy industry developed at a particularly high rate. In terms of the volume of heavy industry products, Russia is among the first countries in the world. The rise was supported by good harvests. The revival in industry was accompanied by rapid railway construction. Roads connected the outskirts rich in raw materials with industrial centers, industrial cities and agricultural provinces with seaports. However, the imbalance of the economy became one of the reasons for the economic crisis of the early 20th century, which was then replaced by a long “depression” of 1904-1908. From 1909 to 1913, economic growth began. As a result, the process of concentration of industrial production accelerated. In the 80-90s, business associations were replaced by large monopolies; cartels, syndicates (Produgol, Prodneft). At the same time, the banking system is being strengthened (Russian-Asian, St. Petersburg International Banks). The Russian village, as if in a mirror, reflected the remnants of feudalism: large landownerships, labor - a direct relic of corvee. The peasants' lack of land and the community with its redistributions hindered the modernization of the peasant economy.
By the end of the 19th century. The system of Russian capitalism took shape. The period from the mid-80s to the mid-90s. - “golden decade” in economic development. The state actively patronized the development of domestic industry, banking, transport, and communications. There is significant foreign investment in the country. But the following factors had a negative impact:
multi-structured nature of the economy;
unevenness and disproportions in the development of individual industries;
dependence on foreign investment, Russia had a hard time surviving the crises of 1898-1904 and 1907-1910;
high rates were combined with low labor productivity (2-3 times lower than in Europe);
The Russian bourgeoisie did not have access to power and was not free to make decisions.
All this could only dampen for a short time the irritation with the policy of suppressing social discontent and political opposition. During the entire reign of Alexander III and in pp. During the reign of Nicholas II, everything was outwardly quiet, but social discontent was accumulating. The immediate cause of the explosion was the failure of Nicholas's foreign policy.
In the last third of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century, military conflicts intensified. The reason is the struggle for the most profitable foreign markets: colonies. By this time, the scale of production had increased. Industry has become crowded within one state. External markets are needed. International competition has intensified, which also had negative aspects. To reduce the negativity to a minimum, they found a form of foreign markets where entrepreneurs from other countries were not allowed. This form of steel colonies, countries that were deprived of independence in resolving issues of domestic and foreign policy. The colonies became markets for cheap raw materials, cheap labor and a market for goods from the mother country ( metropolis- this is a country that had colonies).
Economic crises (1873, 1883, 1890, 1900, 1907 and 1913) intensified the struggle for colonies. Let us consider some of the events of this struggle.
In 1881 France captured Tunisia. Then Algeria became its victim, and then a significant part of North and West Africa. In 1882 Britain occupied Egypt. In 1899-1902 she fought against the Boers (settlers from Holland) in southern Africa and won.
In 1898-1899 Because of the dominance in Cuba and the Philippines, the Spanish-American War was fought. The Spaniards lost. The Philippines and Cuba gained independence from Spain, but became dependent on the United States
In the Far East, Japan, the most developed state in Asia, tried to assert its dominance. She established a protectorate over Korea. Started a war with China. But Russia intervened, and then Great Britain, the USA and Germany. China was divided into spheres of influence of these countries.
By 1913 European countries captured almost all of Africa (except Liberia and Ethiopia) and most of the countries of Asia. Of the Asian countries, Türkiye, Saudi Arabia, Iran, China, and Siam remained independent. But they also found themselves economically dependent on the leading countries of the world. In 1913 The metropolises were Great Britain, France, Spain, Portugal, Italy, Germany, Belgium and Holland. Great Britain had the most colonies. Its largest colonies were India, Canada, Australia, South Africa. Small Belgium had a large colony in Africa (Congo). Holland took over Indonesia.
In 1913, Germany ranked 2nd in the world in terms of economic development. She considered herself deprived during the division of the colonies. She was supported in her claims by Italy and Austria-Hungary. In 1882 they created Triple Military Alliance, whose goal was to fight for the redistribution of colonies. This alliance was directed against Great Britain, France and Russia. These countries had bilateral claims against each other. The last third of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century were spent overcoming mutual claims. In 1904 Great Britain and France reached an agreement and created the military alliance "Entente Cordial" ("Concord of the Heart"). France and Russia agreed even earlier. And then, with the mediation of France, Great Britain and Russia overcame their differences. In 1907 Russia joined the Entente. In 1913 There were more than 30 states in the Entente, all of them had close ties with the founders of the union. Since the beginning of the twentieth century. and through 1914 there was a constant aggravation of contradictions between the two military-political alliances. It led to the First World War.
clause 1 questions and tasks to paragraph paragraph p. 185
Question 1. Based on the text of the paragraph, make a diagram “World population at the beginning of the 20th century.”
Question 2. What did the completion of the division of the world into colonies and spheres of influence mean?
What new stage in this regard could, in your opinion, begin in European and world politics?
A relative political balance was established on the European continent - not a single power had a military, political or economic advantage that would allow it to establish its hegemony; For a long time, Europe got rid of military conflicts. I believe that the political energy of European states should be directed beyond the continent; their efforts should concentrate on dividing up the undivided territories.
paragraph 2 questions and tasks to paragraph paragraph page 188
Question 1. What role did the British company S.D. play in the British colonization of Africa? Rhodes?
The advantages of creating companies for the metropolises were that they could carry out the predatory exploitation of occupied lands without regard to public opinion. S. Rhodes's main idea was to create a continuous strip of British possessions connected by a railway network. This promised new markets and promised big profits.
Question 2. What were the causes and results of the Anglo-Boer War?
Cause of the Anglo-Boer War: Rhodes organized an attempted armed coup in the Boer states in 1895, hoping to annex them to his possessions.
Results: the Anglo-Boer War ended with the annexation of the Boer republics to the British Empire.
paragraph 3 questions and tasks to paragraph paragraph page 190
Question. What were the results of French colonial policy at the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th centuries?
The results of France's colonial policy: it gained a foothold in Central Vietnam, expanded its possessions throughout Indochina, its power was recognized by the Sahara, the peoples of Western and Equatorial Africa, Madagascar and Morocco.
paragraph 4 questions and tasks to paragraph paragraph page 191
Question. What regions were in Germany's sphere of interest at the end of the 19th century?
Germany's sphere of interests included: East and South-West Africa, Togo, Cameroon and part of the island of New Guinea.
paragraph 5 questions and tasks to paragraph paragraph page 192
Question. What were the features of US colonial policy?
Features of US colonial policy: the creation of strongholds and bases in strategically important areas (for example, in 1898, the Hawaiian Islands were annexed, which became the main base of the navy).
Questions and assignments for paragraph page 192
Question 1. Based on the textbook and additional sources of information, prepare a report about one of the colonial empires according to a rough plan:
1) Brief description of the socio-economic and political situation of the metropolis at the turn of the 19th-20th centuries.
2) The main directions of colonial expansion in the 19th - early 20th centuries. and ways to implement it.
3) Territories, due to the possession of which the interests of the metropolis collided with other colonial powers.
4) The role of the state in completing by the beginning of the 20th century. dividing the world into colonies and spheres of influence.
In the last decades of the 19th century. England is gradually losing its position as the first industrial country in the world. Since the 70s of the last century, its industry began to lag behind the industry of younger capitalist countries - Germany and the USA. One of the main reasons for the relatively slow development of English industry was its technical backwardness. In England, where capitalist production arose much earlier than in other countries, there were many plants and factories with outdated equipment.
English capitalists invested most of their funds in banking. This also hampered the development of English industry. But none of the capitalist countries had banks at the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th centuries. with such large funds as in England.
Agriculture occupied an insignificant place in the English economy. England imported most of its food and raw materials from other countries, including from its huge colonies.
The political system of England was basically formed in the 17th-18th centuries. and in the first half of the 19th century. At the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th century. it did not undergo fundamental changes: the parliamentary monarchy continued to exist in England.
British imperialism was predominantly colonial in nature. Over the course of several centuries (starting from the 16th century), England captured them into its colonies. In this way the huge British colonial empire was created.
Question 2: Why do you think international treaties did not prevent the strongest powers from competing for colonies and spheres of influence throughout the modern era? What did the end of the struggle for the territorial division of the world mean for humanity in the 20th century?
The end of the struggle for the territorial division of the world marked the onset of a new era - wars between colonial powers for the redivision of the world they had already divided.
Question 1. What important event happened in Turkey two years before this letter?
In 1909, an attempt was made in Turkey to restore the absolute monarchy by the Ottoman Sultan Abdul Hamid II.
Question 2. Why did German politicians and industrialists at the beginning of the 20th century. Türkiye was presented as “the richest field of activity”? What types of economic expansion did Germany plan to implement in this country?
Turkey was presented as “the richest field of activity” since Germany had intentions to gradually achieve political and economic dominance over the entire Sultan’s empire as a whole.
Question 3. What was the reason for Germany’s interest in a “strong and independent Turkey”?
Germany's interest in Turkey was connected with finding a new market for the products of the magically developing German metallurgical industry and at the same time chaining the Ottoman Empire with a steel chain to Germany.
Question 4. How did German politicians strengthen their positions in Constantinople?
Strengthening the Turkish fleet, improving the Turkish army.
