What is the scientific method of research. Research methods in scientific work. Theoretical research methods

4.1.Methods and methodology of scientific research.

4.2. General and general scientific methods of scientific research.

4.3. Special methods of scientific research.

4.1. Methods and methodology of scientific research

The method of scientific research is a way of understanding objective reality. The method is a certain sequence of actions, techniques, and operations.

Depending on the content of the objects being studied, a distinction is made between natural science methods and social and humanitarian research methods.

Research methods are classified according to branches of science: mathematical, biological, medical, socio-economic, legal, etc.

Depending on the level of knowledge, methods of empirical and theoretical levels are distinguished.

Methods of the empirical level include observation, description, comparison, counting, measurement, questionnaire, interview, testing, experiment, modeling.

Methods at the theoretical level include axiomatic, hypothetical (hypothetico-deductive), formalization, abstraction, general logical methods (analysis, synthesis, induction, deduction, analogy).

Depending on the scope and degree of generality, methods are distinguished:

1) universal (philosophical), operating in all sciences and at all stages of knowledge;

2) general scientific ones, which can be used in the humanities, natural and technical sciences;

3) special - for a specific science, field of scientific knowledge.

The concepts of technology, procedure and methodology of scientific research should be distinguished from the concept of method under consideration.

Research technique is understood as a set of special techniques for using a particular method, and research procedure is a certain sequence of actions, a way of organizing research.

A methodology is a set of research methods and techniques, the order of their application and the interpretation of the results obtained with their help. It depends on the nature of the object of study, methodology, purpose of the study, methods developed, and the general level of qualifications of the researcher.

Any scientific research is carried out using appropriate techniques and methods and according to certain rules. The study of the system of these techniques, methods and rules is called methodology. In the literature, this concept means a set of methods used in any field of activity (science, politics, etc.) and the doctrine of the scientific method of cognition.

Each science has its own methodology. Economic sciences also use a certain methodology. Economists interpret methodology as the application of a system of logical techniques and special methods for studying phenomena based on the principles of materialist dialectics.

It should be noted that the concept of “methodology” is somewhat narrower than the concept of “scientific knowledge”, since the latter is not limited to the study of forms and methods of knowledge, but studies questions of the essence, object and subject of knowledge, criteria for its truth, and the boundaries of cognitive activity.

Ultimately, philosophers and economists understand the methodology of scientific research as the doctrine of methods (method) of knowledge, i.e. about a system of principles, rules, methods and techniques designed to successfully solve cognitive problems. Accordingly, the methodology of economic science can be defined as the study of research methods used in this branch of science.

There are the following levels of methodology:

1) universal methodology, which is universal in relation to all sciences and its content includes philosophical and general scientific methods of cognition;

2) private methodology of scientific research for a group of related economic sciences, which is formed by general, general scientific and private methods of cognition;

3) methodology of scientific research of a specific science, the content of which includes general, general scientific, private and special methods of cognition.

4.2. General and general scientific methods of scientific research

Among the universal methods of scientific research, the most famous are dialectical and metaphysical. These methods can be associated with various philosophical systems. Thus, the dialectical method in K. Marx was combined with materialism, and in G. Hegel - with idealism.

Russian economists use the dialectical method to study the phenomena and processes of social life under study, because the laws of dialectics have universal significance - they are inherent in the development of nature, society and thinking. When studying objects and phenomena, dialectics recommends proceeding from the following principles:

1. Consider the objects under study in the light of dialectical laws:

a) unity and struggle of opposites;

b) the transition of quantitative changes to qualitative ones;

c) negation of negation.

2. Describe, explain and predict the phenomena and processes being studied, based on philosophical categories: general, special and individual; content and form; essence of the phenomenon; possibilities and reality; necessary and accidental; causes and consequences.

3. Treat the object of research as an objective reality.

4. Consider the objects and phenomena being studied:

a) comprehensively;

b) in universal connection and interdependence;

c) in continuous change and development;

d) specifically historically.

5. Test the acquired knowledge in practice.

It is advisable to divide all general scientific methods for analysis into three groups: general logical, theoretical and empirical.

General logical methods are analysis, synthesis, induction, deduction, analogy.

Analysis- this is the dismemberment, decomposition of the object of study into its component parts. It underlies the analytical research method. Types of analysis are classification and periodization. The analysis method is used both in real and in mental activity.

Synthesis- this is the connection of individual sides, parts of the object of study into a single whole. However, this is not just their connection, but also the knowledge of something new - the interaction of parts as a whole. The result of the synthesis is a completely new formation, the properties of which are not only an external combination of the properties of the components, but also the result of their internal relationship and interdependence.

Induction- this is the movement of thought (cognition) from facts, individual cases to the general situation. Inductive inferences “suggest” an idea, a general idea. With the inductive method of research, in order to obtain general knowledge about any class of objects, it is necessary to examine individual objects, find common essential features in them, which will serve as the basis for knowledge about the general feature inherent in this class of objects.

Deduction- this is the derivation of an individual, particular from some general position; the movement of thought (cognition) from general statements to statements about individual objects or phenomena. Through deductive reasoning, a certain thought is “derived” from other thoughts.

Analogy- this is a way of obtaining knowledge about objects and phenomena on the basis of the fact that they have similarities with others, reasoning in which, from the similarity of the objects being studied in some characteristics, a conclusion is made about their similarity in other characteristics. The degree of probability (reliability) of inferences by analogy depends on the number of similar features in the phenomena being compared. Analogy is most often used in similarity theory.

Methods at the theoretical level include axiomatic, hypothetical, formalization, abstraction, generalization, ascent from the abstract to the concrete, historical, method of system analysis.

Axiomatic method- a method of research, which consists in the fact that some statements (axioms, postulates) are accepted without proof and then, according to certain logical rules, the rest of the knowledge is derived from them.

Hypothetical method- a method of research using a scientific hypothesis, i.e. an assumption about the cause that causes a given effect, or about the existence of a certain phenomenon or object.

A variation of this method is hypothetico-deductive a method of research, the essence of which is to create a system of deductively interconnected hypotheses from which statements about empirical facts are derived.

The structure of the hypothetico-deductive method includes:

1) making conjectures (assumptions) about the causes and patterns of the phenomena and objects being studied;

2) selection from a set of guesses the most probable, plausible;

3) deducing a consequence (conclusion) from a selected assumption (premise) using deduction;

4) experimental verification of the consequences derived from the hypothesis.

The hypothetical method is used in constructing legal norms. For example, when establishing a tax rate of 13% on personal income instead of a progressive taxation scale, it was assumed that this measure would make it possible to bring taxable objects out of the shadows and increase budget revenues. According to tax authorities, this hypothesis was fully confirmed.

Formalization- displaying a phenomenon or object in the symbolic form of any artificial language (for example, logic, mathematics, chemistry) and studying this phenomenon or object through operations with the corresponding signs. The use of artificial formalized language in scientific research allows us to eliminate such shortcomings of natural language as ambiguity, inaccuracy, and uncertainty. When formalizing, instead of reasoning about the objects of research, they operate with signs (formulas). By operations with formulas of artificial languages, one can obtain new formulas and prove the truth of any proposition.

Formalization is the basis for algorithmization and programming, without which computerization of knowledge and the research process cannot do.

Abstraction- mental distraction from some properties and relationships of the subject being studied and highlighting the properties and relationships that interest the researcher. Usually, when abstracting, the secondary properties and connections of the object under study are separated from the essential properties and connections.

Types of abstraction: identification, i.e. highlighting the common properties and relationships of the objects being studied, establishing what is identical in them, abstracting from the differences between them, combining objects into a special class, isolating, i.e. highlighting some properties and relationships that are considered as independent subjects of research. The theory also distinguishes other types of abstraction: potential feasibility, actual infinity.

Generalization- establishment of general properties and relationships of objects and phenomena, definition of a general concept that reflects the essential, basic characteristics of objects or phenomena of a given class. At the same time, generalization can be expressed in highlighting non-essential, but any signs of an object or phenomenon. This method of scientific research is based on the philosophical categories of the general, the particular and the individual.

Historical method consists in identifying historical facts and, on this basis, in such a mental reconstruction of the historical process in which the logic of its movement is revealed. It involves studying the emergence and development of research objects in chronological order.

Examples of using this method are: studying the development of consumer cooperation over a long period of time in order to detect its trends; consideration of the history of the development of consumer cooperation in the pre-revolutionary period and during the NEP (1921-1927).

Ascent from the abstract to the concrete as a method of scientific knowledge consists in the fact that the researcher first finds the main connection of the subject (phenomenon) being studied, then traces how it changes under different conditions, discovers new connections and in this way reflects its essence in its entirety. The use of this method, for example, to study economic phenomena presupposes that the researcher has theoretical knowledge about their general properties and reveals the characteristic features and patterns of development inherent in them.

System method consists in the study of a system (i.e. a certain set of material or ideal objects), connections, its components and their connections with the external environment. It turns out that these relationships and interactions lead to the emergence of new properties of the system that are absent in its constituent objects.

When analyzing phenomena and processes in complex systems, a large number of factors (signs) are considered, among which it is important to be able to highlight the main ones and exclude the secondary ones.

Empirical level methods include observation, description, calculation, measurement, comparison, experiment and modeling.

Observation- this is a way of cognition based on the direct perception of the properties of objects and phenomena using the senses. As a result of observation, the researcher gains knowledge about the external properties and relationships of objects and phenomena.

Depending on the position of the researcher in relation to the object of study, simple and participant observation are distinguished. The first is observation from the outside, when the researcher is an outsider in relation to the object who is not a participant in the activities of the observed. The second is characterized by the fact that the researcher openly or incognito is included in the group and its activities as a participant. For example, in the first case, he observes from the side that pedestrians comply with traffic rules when crossing the street, and in the second case, he himself is included in the number of traffic participants, provoking them to violate them.

If the observation was carried out in a natural setting, then it is called field, and if the environmental conditions and the situation were specially created by the researcher, then it will be considered laboratory. The results of observation can be recorded in protocols, diaries, cards, on film and in other ways.

Description- this is the recording of signs of the object under study, which are established, for example, by observation or measurement. Description happens:

1) direct, when the researcher directly perceives and indicates the characteristics of the object;

2) indirect, when the researcher notes the characteristics of the object that were perceived by other persons (for example, the characteristics of a UFO).

Check- this is the determination of quantitative relationships between objects of study or parameters characterizing their properties. The method is widely used in statistics to determine the degree and type of variability of a phenomenon, process, the reliability of the obtained average values and theoretical conclusions. Thus, economic statistics studies the quantitative side of mass and other significant phenomena and processes, i.e. their size, degree of prevalence, ratio of individual components, changes in time and space.

Measurement is the determination of the numerical value of a certain quantity by comparing it with a standard. Measurement is the procedure for determining the numerical value of a certain quantity using a unit of measurement. The value of this procedure is that it provides accurate, quantitative information about the surrounding reality.

The most important indicator of the quality of a measurement and its scientific value is accuracy, which depends on the diligence of the researcher, mainly on the available measuring instruments.

Comparison- this is a comparison of features inherent in two or more objects, establishing differences between them or finding something common in them, carried out both by the senses and with the help of special devices.

Experiment- this is an artificial reproduction of a phenomenon, a process under given conditions, during which the put forward hypothesis is tested.

Experiments can be classified on various grounds:

By branches of scientific research - physical, biological, chemical, social, etc.;

According to the nature of the interaction of the research means with the object - conventional (experimental means directly interact with the object under study) and model (the model replaces the object of research). The latter are divided into mental (mental, imaginary) and material (real).

Experimental study of objects compared to observation has a number of advantages:

1) during the experiment, it becomes possible to study this or that phenomenon in its “pure form”;

2) the experiment allows you to study the properties of objects of reality under extreme conditions.

Modeling- a method of scientific knowledge, the essence of which is to replace the subject or phenomenon being studied with a special similar model (object) containing the essential features of the original. Thus, instead of the original (the object of interest to us), the experiment is carried out on a model (another object), and the results of the study are extended to the original.

Models can be physical or mathematical. In accordance with this, a distinction is made between physical and mathematical modeling. If the model and the original are of the same physical nature, then physical modeling is used.

Mathematical model is a mathematical abstraction that characterizes a physical, biological, economic or some other process. Mathematical models with different physical natures are based on the identity of the mathematical description of the processes occurring in them and in the original.

Mathematical modeling- a method for studying complex processes based on a broad physical analogy, when the model and its original are described by identical equations. Thus, due to the similarity of the mathematical equations of electric and magnetic fields, it is possible to study electrical phenomena using magnetic ones, and vice versa. A characteristic feature and advantage of this method is the ability to apply it to individual sections of a complex system, as well as to quantitatively study phenomena that are difficult to study using physical models.

Modeling- this is one of the main methods of scientific research, with which you can speed up existing technological processes and reduce the time required to develop new ones. This method is used in the study of various technologies, operating modes of devices, machines, units, industrial complexes and farms, as well as in enterprise management, distribution of material resources, etc.

Another aspect of the modeling method is important. If a regular experiment is characterized by direct interaction with the object of study, then in modeling there is no such interaction, since it is not the object itself that is studied, but its substitute. An example is an analog computer, the operation of which is based on the analogy of differential equations that describe the properties of both the object under study and the electronic model.

4.3. Special methods of scientific research

In socio-economic sciences, in addition to general scientific methods, special methods are used to study phenomena and patterns of their development. Special research methods are used only in one branch of scientific knowledge or their use is limited to several narrow areas of knowledge. For example, special methods include specifically sociological methods.

Concrete sociological methods are based on the application of methods of concrete sociology to study social phenomena. Concrete sociological research is the scientific study, analysis and systematization of social facts, phenomena and processes related to various spheres of social life.

Methods of concrete sociological research used in socio-economic sciences include the study of documents (documentary method), surveys in the form of questionnaires and interviews, the method of expert assessments, etc.

Not only methods for obtaining information about social phenomena are important, but also methods for collecting, processing and evaluating them. In this regard, sociology distinguishes the following methods:

1) registration of single events (observation, survey, study of documents, etc.);

2) data collection (continuous, sample or monographic survey);

3) data processing and analysis (description and classification, typology, system analysis, statistical analysis, etc.).

Let us consider the most common methods of concrete sociological research into state and legal phenomena.

Studying documents(documentary method). A document is an object of research containing information on any material medium (paper, magnetic tape, floppy disk, etc.) using any sign system.

There are various classifications of documents.

Based on their general significance, documents can be divided into official and unofficial. Official documents are of an “official” nature, since they are compiled by state and municipal bodies and institutions, commercial and non-profit organizations. Unofficial documents mainly include personal documents relating to the life and activities of a person or group of people (letters, autobiographies, memoirs, speeches, diaries, etc.).

Based on the nature of the symbolic means of recording information, documents are divided into text and non-text. In text documents, information is fixed using written characters (letters), and in non-text documents - using non-speech signs. The latter include film, video, photo and sound documents, paintings, drawings, maps, drawings, notes, etc.

Documents, no matter how reliable they may seem at first glance, require a critical attitude, since the information they contain may be incorrect and incomplete. Therefore, the document should be analyzed by answering the following questions:

a) what is it like in appearance and shape?

b) what is the authenticity of the text?

d) time, place and circumstances of the document’s origin?

d) what is the reliability of the information contained in it?

f) how complete is the information contained in the document?

g) what are the purposes of creating the document?

When studying documents, a quantitative method called content analysis. Its essence lies in identifying certain features (units of analysis) in the document being studied, counting their number and determining the frequency of use of such features in the total amount of available information or in the total number of documents studied. Indicators, i.e. Specific indicators of the presence of units of analysis in a document may be:

1) concepts, events, names, proper names, stable phrases used in the text;

2) proposals (statements, questions, assessments, etc.);

3) a set of statements on a specific topic.

For quantitative analysis, a questionnaire is drawn up containing a set of questions on a specific topic, the answers to which can be obtained from documents.

Of great importance in collecting primary information from the words of the interviewee is survey method. The survey method can be carried out in absentia by distributing, collecting and processing questionnaires (questionnaires) or in person, in the form of a conversation with the person being interviewed. These methods are widely used, for example, when studying the position of the commodity market according to the following parameters: quantity and quality of goods, competitiveness of goods, product range at a trading enterprise.

The first survey method requires the development of a questionnaire. Typically it consists of the following parts:

1) a preamble (introductory part), which indicates who is conducting the survey, for what purpose, provides instructions for filling out the questionnaire and returning it, guarantees anonymity and expresses gratitude for the answers;

2) a passport sheet (demographic part) containing questions on the socio-demographic characteristics of respondents. Sometimes these questions are placed at the end of the questionnaire;

3) contact questions that allow you to interest the respondent and introduce him to the problem being studied;

4) the main questions with the help of which the information for which the research is carried out is collected;

5) final questions that provide the interviewee with the opportunity to speak freely on the research topic.

In addition to those listed, the questionnaire may include control questions and filter questions. The former are used to verify the veracity of answers, as well as to clarify and supplement information obtained from answers to basic questions. The second ones are intended to check whether the respondent belongs to the group of people to be surveyed and whether he is competent.

The order of the questions matters. They must be arranged in a logical sequence. Sociologists recommend asking simple questions at the beginning of the questionnaire, and complex, difficult, and delicate ones in the middle. Then the difficulty of the questions decreases. The questionnaire should not contain unnecessary or leading questions.

You should consider the content, form and order of not only the questions, but also the answers to them. Depending on the form of answers, questions are divided into closed, open and semi-closed. Closed questions are:

a) with alternative answers like “yes - no” (sometimes with the addition of “I don’t know”);

b) with scale answers, for example, to assess the intensity of a phenomenon in points;

c) with menu answers, from a list of which you can select one or more answers.

Open-ended questions do not contain any answers, and the respondent can give any answer they wish.

Semi-closed questions have an incomplete list of answers, and the respondent can answer them in the “other (other)” line.

To check the correctness of the questionnaire, a pilot survey is conducted. It consists in the fact that the questionnaire is reproduced in small quantities and distributed among specially selected, typical respondents. If it turns out that, for example, many refused to answer the survey questions, or among the respondents there was a large percentage of respondents who answered “I don’t know (difficult to answer)” or there were no answers to the questions at all, then the wording of these questions and answers will have to be revised or deleted.

After the pilot, you can begin a mass survey. Questionnaires can be mailed (return rate is about 30%) or distributed directly to respondents (return rate is about 90%).

The survey can be continuous or selective. The sampling method is used when the population being surveyed exceeds 500 people. Its essence lies in the fact that instead of the entire mass of people, called the general population, only a part of it, selected according to certain rules, which makes up the sample population, is examined. The results obtained are extended to the general population.

Sampling can be either probability or purposive.

At probability sampling Each element in the population must have an equal probability of being included in the sample. Such sampling can be simple random, mechanical, serial, cluster, etc. Examples of simple random sampling are drawing lots and the lottery method. Mechanical sampling consists of bringing all elements of the population into a single list, from which the required number of respondents is selected at regular intervals. With serial sampling, the population is divided into homogeneous parts (series) according to a certain characteristic. From each series, a number of elements is selected in proportion to the total number of elements in it. The peculiarity of cluster sampling is that groups of respondents are selected and followed by a complete survey.

At purposive sampling the rules of probability theory do not apply. There are the following types: spontaneous (for example, a postal survey), main array (60-70% of the general population are surveyed), quota (quotas can be data on the characteristics of elements of the general population, for example, education, age).

The sample must be representative, i.e. the sample population must reproduce the characteristics of the general population and fairly accurately reflect the content and patterns of the phenomenon being studied. The difference between the population and sample data is called sampling error. According to sociologists, increased reliability of the study allows for a sampling error of up to 3%, ordinary - from 3 to 10%, approximate - from 10 to 20%, approximate - from 20 to 40%.

Interview- this is a conversation between the researcher and the respondent according to a specific plan. The interview can be conducted by the researcher himself or his assistants. The researcher, using a questionnaire, plan, form or card, asks questions, directs the conversation, and records the respondents’ answers.

The interview can be standardized or free-form.

Standardized interview is carried out on closed questions, and the researcher can only mark the answer with an underline, a cross, or write it down in a point system (1, 2, 3, etc.).

Free interview- this is a conversation with the respondent on a certain range of issues on which he is given freedom of answer.

According to the interview procedure, interviews are distinguished:

Panel, i.e. repeated with the same persons on the same issues at certain intervals;

Clinical, i.e. long, deep;

Focused, i.e. short-term on a specific issue.

Expert assessment method consists of studying the opinions of specialists with deep knowledge and practical experience in a certain field. Both scientific and practical workers are selected as experts (no more than 20-30 people). The following methods are used to determine their competence:

1) heuristic (intuitive assessments given by the experts themselves to each other);

2) statistical (estimates obtained by analyzing expert judgments on the issue under study);

3) test (assessments obtained through expert tests);

4) documentary (assessments obtained by studying materials characterizing experts);

5) combined (estimates obtained using several of the listed methods).

The survey of experts can be individual or group, face-to-face or remote. An individual survey is carried out through a questionnaire or interview. A group survey is possible in the form of a round table, during which opinions are exchanged between specialists.

In economic sciences, this method is used in the development and implementation of forecasts for the activity of an enterprise, assessing the internal state of the enterprise, its strengths and weaknesses, identifying trends that make it possible to make the most of existing opportunities, avoid negative situations, and possible threats in the future.

When conducting specific sociological studies of state-legal phenomena, other methods are used: sociometry, tests, biographical, psychological and logical-mathematical.

The empirical material collected using the considered methods needs to be summarized and analyzed. For this purpose, methods of summary, grouping and statistical analysis are used.

Statistical summary consists in the fact that the information contained in questionnaires, cards and other materials is systematized, compiled into statistical aggregates and indicated by general indicators (absolute numbers, percentages, etc.).

Grouping consists in dividing statistical indicators into qualitatively homogeneous groups according to essential characteristics. Depending on the goals, the following groups are distinguished:

1) typological (for example, the division of industrial enterprises according to their organizational and legal form, the nature and degree of their social significance);

2) structural (for example, dynamic grouping of the share of profitable industrial enterprises over 5 years);

3) analytical (for example, grouping of data showing the dependence of the level of profitability of production on many factors, including the volume and structure of products sold, their selling price and cost, etc.).

To measure statistical links Correlation analysis is used between the characteristics of the phenomenon being studied.

A correlation connection is a form of causation in which the cause does not give rise to the effect unambiguously, but only with a certain degree of probability.

There are correlation connections: simple and multiple (by the number of connection signs), positive and negative (by direction), rectilinear and curvilinear (by analytical expression).

A simple correlation shows the relationship between two things (for example, student attendance and academic performance). With multiple correlation, an economic phenomenon is considered as a combination of the influence of many factors (product cost and factors that determine it).

A positive correlation reflects a change in characteristics in direct proportion. For example, as labor productivity increases, production volume increases. When an increase (decrease) in one characteristic is accompanied by a decrease (increase) in another characteristic, the correlation is called negative. For example, the less time spent on producing a unit of product, the higher labor productivity.

A linear relationship is a relationship that can be expressed by the equation of a straight line. The curvilinear type of relationship, expressed by the equation of a curved line, is characterized by the fact that with an increase in one characteristic, the second first increases, and then, after reaching a certain level of development, decreases.

An in-depth study of phenomena and processes requires the use of correlation analysis techniques, which makes it possible to express the close relationship between quantitative and qualitative indicators, and use them to build theoretical models of the dependence of indicators on various factors.

Test questions and assignments

1. Define the terms “method” and “methodology”.

2. What is the methodology of scientific research.

3. List the general scientific methods of scientific research and give a general description of each of them.

4. Name special methods of scientific research, determine their significance and necessity.

5. What is a statistical summary? Formulate its tasks.

6. Name the types of groups depending on their goals.

7. Define the term "correlation".

8. What correlations are there in social production and what role do they play in studying the relationship between economic phenomena and processes?

Topic 3. Methods of scientific research.

The concept of method, methodology and methodology of scientific research. Classification of research methods. General, general scientific and special methods research. Theoretical and empirical research methods.

Scientific research method - this is a way of knowing objective reality, which represents a certainsequence of actions, techniques, operations.

Methodology - this is a set of research methods and techniques, the order of their application and the interpretation of the results obtained with their help. It depends on the nature of the object of study, methodology, purpose of the study, methods developed, and the general level of qualifications of the researcher.

Any scientific research is carried out using appropriate techniques and methods, and according to certain rules.

Methodology called the doctrine of methods (method) of cognition, i.e., a system of principles, rules, methods and techniques intended for the successful solution of cognitive problems. Each science has its own methodology.

There are different levels of methodology:

1) universal methodology, which is universal in relation to all sciences and its content includes philosophical and general scientific methods of cognition;

2) private methodology of scientific research for a group of related economic sciences, which is formed by general, general scientific and private methods of cognition;

3) methodology of scientific research of a specific science, the content of which includes general, general scientific, private and special methods of cognition.

Depending on the content of the objects being studied, methods are distinguished.natural sciences and methods of social and humanitarian research.

Research methods are classified according to branches of science: mathematical, biological, medical, socio-economic, legal, etc.

Dependingfrom the level of knowledge allocatemethods of empirical and theoretical levels.

To methodsempirical level include observation, description, comparison, counting, measurement, questionnaire, interview, testing, experiment, modeling.

To methodstheoretical level include axiomatic, hypothetical (hypothetico-deductive), formalization, abstraction, general logical methods (analysis, synthesis, induction, deduction, analogy).

Depending on the scope and degree of generality, methods are distinguished:

1) universal (philosophical), operating in all sciences and at all stages of knowledge;

2) general scientific, which can be used in the humanities, natural and technical sciences;

3) special - for a specific science, field of scientific knowledge.

General and general scientific methods

scientific research

Among the universal methods of scientific research, the most famous are dialectical and metaphysical.

Dialectics (Greek - “conversing, reasoning”).The concept of “dialectics” arose in Ancient Greece and originally meant the ability to conduct an argument in the form of questions and answers.

Dialectics – the doctrine of the most general laws of development of being and knowledge, as well as the method of creative cognitive thinking based on this doctrine.

Dialectics appears in the unity of two sides - subjective and objective.

Subjective dialectics – unfolds in the consciousness of the subject as a reflection of the connections and development of objective existence existing independently of man and humanity –objective dialectics . Subjective dialectics is a theory of the development of thinking, knowledge, the struggle of ideas in science, philosophy, unfolding in the human mind.

Objective dialectics – a theory of the development of objective being that exists independently of man.

Dialectics allows us to reflect extremely complex, contradictory processes of the material and spiritual world.

In the doctrine of contradictions, it reveals the driving force and source of all development.

Dialectics is not a simple statement of what is happening in reality, but a tool of scientific knowledge and transformation of the world. (This is where the unity of dialectics manifests itself as a theory (dialectical materialism) and a method (materialist dialectics).

Dialectical the concept sees the source of development in the unity and struggle of opposites, considers development as the unity of quantitative and qualitative changes, as the unity of gradualism and leaps, as development in a spiral.

Principles of dialectics:

1. The principle of universal mutual connection.

2. The principle of development through contradictions.

Basic laws of dialectics:

1. The law of transition of quantitative changes into qualitative ones.

2. The law of unity and struggle of opposites.

3. The law of negation of negation.

Metaphysics – a method of cognition opposite to dialectics,

considering phenomena usually outside of their mutual connections, contradictions and

development.

Features – one-sidedness, abstractness, absolutization of one or another moment as part of the whole. Objects are considered without their complex connection with other processes, phenomena and bodies. This is natural for human thinking, because... a person is incapable of knowing without dividing the whole into its component parts. Metaphysics is characterized by static thinking.

Metaphysical concept development :

– Considers development as only a decrease or increase (i.e. as only quantitative changes) or as only qualitative changes without any quantitative changes, i.e.separates opposites from each other .

– Source of development seesonly in external influence on the thing.

– Development is being considered or howmoving in a circle , or just howmovement on ascending or descendingdirect etc.

General scientific methods

It is advisable to divide all general scientific methods for analysis into three groups:general logical, theoretical and empirical.

General logical methods are analysis, synthesis, induction, deduction, analogy.

Analysis - this is the dismemberment, decomposition of the object of study into its component parts. It underlies the analytical research method. Types of analysis are classification and periodization. The analysis method is used both in real and in mental activity.

Synthesis - this is the connection of individual sides, parts of the object of study into a single whole. However, this is not just their connection, but also the knowledge of something new - the interaction of parts as a whole. The result of the synthesis is a completely new formation, the properties of which are not only an external combination of the properties of the components, but also the result of their internal relationship and interdependence.

Induction - this is the movement of thought (cognition) from facts, individual cases to the general situation. Inductive inferences “suggest” an idea, a general idea. With the inductive method of research, in order to obtain general knowledge about any class of objects, it is necessary to examine individual objects, find common essential features in them, which will serve as the basis for knowledge about the general feature inherent in this class of objects.

Deduction - this is the derivation of an individual, particular from some general position; the movement of thought (cognition) from general statements to statements about individual objects or phenomena. Through deductive reasoning, a certain thought is “derived” from other thoughts.

Analogy - this is a way of obtaining knowledge about objects and phenomena on the basis of the fact that they have similarities with others, reasoning in which, from the similarity of the objects being studied in some characteristics, a conclusion is made about their similarity in other characteristics. The degree of probability (reliability) of inferences by analogy depends on the number of similar features in the compared phenomena. The analogy is most often used in

similarity theory.

To methodstheoretical level are consideredaxiomatic, hypothetical, formalization, abstraction, generalization, ascent from the abstract to the concrete, historical, method of system analysis.

Axiomatic method - a method of research that

consists in the fact that some statements (axioms, postulates) are accepted without proof and then, according to certain logical rules, the rest of the knowledge is derived from them.

Hypothetical method - a method of research using a scientific hypothesis, i.e. an assumption about the cause that causes a given effect, or about the existence of a certain phenomenon or object.

A variation of this method ishypothetico-deductive a method of research, the essence of which is to create a system of deductively interconnected hypotheses, from from which statements about empirical facts are derived.

The structure of the hypothetico-deductive method includes:

1) making conjectures (assumptions) about the causes and patterns of the phenomena and objects being studied;

2) selection from a set of guesses the most probable, plausible;

3) deducing a consequence (conclusion) from a selected assumption (premise) using deduction;

4) experimental verification of the consequences derived from the hypothesis.

The hypothetical method is used in constructing legal norms. For example, when establishing a tax rate of 13 percent on personal income instead of a progressive taxation scale, it was assumed that this measure would make it possible to bring taxable objects out of the shadows and increase budget revenues. According to tax authorities, this hypothesis was fully confirmed.

When formalizing, instead of reasoning about the objects of research, they operate with signs (formulas). By operations with formulas of artificial languages, one can obtain new formulas and prove the truth of any proposition.

Formalization is the basis for algorithmization and programming, without which computerization of knowledge and the research process cannot do.

Abstraction - mental distraction from some properties and relationships of the subject being studied and highlighting the properties and relationships that interest the researcher. Usually, when abstracting, the secondary properties and connections of the object under study are separated from the essential properties and connections.

Types of abstraction: identification, i.e., highlighting the common properties and relationships of the objects being studied, establishing what is identical in them, abstracting from the differences between them, combining objects into a special class, isolation, i.e., highlighting some properties and relationships that are considered independent subjects of research.

The theory also distinguishes other types of abstraction: potential feasibility, actual infinity.

Generalization - establishment of general properties and relationships of objects and phenomena, definition of a general concept in which

the essential, basic characteristics of objects or phenomena of this class are reflected. At the same time, generalization can be expressed in highlighting non-essential, but any signs of an object or phenomenon. This method of scientific research is based on the philosophical categories of the general, the particular and the individual.

Ascent from the abstract to the concrete as a method of scientific knowledge lies in the fact that the researcher first finds the main connection of the subject (phenomenon) being studied, then traces how it changes under different conditions, opens new connections and in this way reflects the the fullness of his essence. The use of this method, for example, to study economic phenomena presupposes that the researcher has theoretical knowledge about their general properties and reveals the characteristic features and patterns of development inherent in them.

System method consists in the study of a system (i.e., a certain set of material or ideal objects), connections, its components and their connections with the external environment.

It turns out that these relationships and interactions lead to the emergence of new properties of the system that are absent in its constituent objects.

Empirical level methods include observation, description, calculation, measurement, comparison, experiment and modeling.

Observation - this is a way of cognition based on the direct perception of the properties of objects and phenomena using the senses.

Description - this is the recording of signs of the object under study, which are established, for example, by observation or measurement. Description happens:

1) direct, when the researcher directly perceives and indicates the characteristics of the object;

2) indirect, when the researcher notes the characteristics of the object that were perceived by other persons (for example, the characteristics of a UFO).

Measurement is the determination of the numerical value of a certain quantity by comparing it with a standard. The value of this procedure is that it provides accurate, quantitative information about the surrounding reality.

Comparison - this is a comparison of features inherent in two or more objects, establishing differences between them or finding something common in them, carried out both by the senses and with the help of special devices.

Experiment - this is an artificial reproduction of a phenomenon, a process under given conditions, during which the put forward hypothesis is tested.

Experiments are classified on various grounds:

- by branches of scientific research - physical, biological, chemical, social, etc.;

- by the nature of the interaction of the research tool with the object -ordinary (experimental means directly interact with the object under study) andmodel (the model replaces the object of study). The latter are divided into mental (mental, imaginary) and material (real).

Modeling - a method of scientific knowledge, the essence of which is to replace the subject or phenomenon being studied with a special similar model (object) containing the essential features of the original. Thus, instead of the original (the object of interest to us), the experiment is carried out on a model (another object), and the results of the study are extended to the original.

Mathematical modeling - a method for studying complex processes based on a broad physical analogy, when the model and its original are described by identical equations. Thus, due to the similarity of the mathematical equations of electric and magnetic fields, it is possible to study electrical phenomena using magnetic ones, and vice versa. A characteristic feature and advantage of this method is the ability to apply it to individual sections of a complex system, as well as to quantitatively study phenomena that are difficult to study using physical models.

Special and private research methods

Private methods are special methods that operate either only within a particular industry or outside the industry where they originated. Thus, the methods of physics led to the creation of astrophysics, crystal physics, geophysics, chemical physics and physical chemistry, biophysics. The spread of chemical methods led to the creation of crystal chemistry, geochemistry, biochemistry and biogeochemistry. Often a set of interrelated partial methods is used to study one subject, for example, molecular biology simultaneously uses the methods of physics, mathematics, chemistry, cybernetics in their interrelation.

Special research methods are used only in one branch of scientific knowledge, or their use is limited to several narrow fields of knowledge.

In the social sciences and humanities, special methods are used:

document analysis - qualitative and quantitative (content analysis);

surveys, interviews, testing;

biographical and autobiographical methods;

sociometry method - application of mathematical means to the study of social phenomena. Most often used in the study of “small groups” and interpersonal relationships in them;

gaming methods - used in developing management decisions - simulation (business) games and open-ended games (especially when analyzing non-standard situations);

expert assessment method consists of studying the opinions of specialists with deep knowledge and practical experience in a certain field.

Test questions and assignments

1. Define the terms “method” and “methodology”.

2. What is the methodology of scientific research.

3. Expand the dialectical and metaphysical concepts of development.

4. List the general scientific methods of scientific research.

5. What methods are considered methods theoretical level?

6. What methods are considered empirical methods?

7. What methods are called private?

8. What methods are called special?

Method(from Greek methodos - study) is a research tool that determines the approach to the phenomena being studied, a systematic path of scientific knowledge and establishment of truth.

At its core, the method is intended to solve the main task of science - the knowledge of the objective laws of reality in order to use them in the practical activities of people. The method determines the purpose and scope of application of scientific techniques and methods of research, experimental verification of its results. Similar to the division of objective laws into general and specific, related to the development of certain individual branches of knowledge, the methodology of science can also be general and specific (Fig. 2.1).

Rice. 2.1.

General methodology sciences are the principles of dialectics, as well as the theory of knowledge, which studies the laws of the development of scientific knowledge in general. Private methodology is based on the laws of individual sciences, on the peculiarities of cognition of specific processes.

Each science uses one or more private research methods, for example, the method of absolute, relative and average values, variation series in statistics.

In the methodology of scientific research there are two levels of knowledge:

empirical- observation and experiment, as well as grouping, classification and description of the results of the experiment;
theoretical- construction and development of scientific hypotheses and theories, formulation of laws and derivation of logical consequences from them, comparison of various hypotheses and theories.

In both theoretical and empirical research, general scientific methods are used, which include analysis and synthesis, induction and deduction, analogy and modeling, abstraction and concretization, system analysis, formalization, hypothetical and axiomatic methods, theory creation, observation and experiment.

Analysis is a research method that involves studying an object using mental or actual division into its component elements (parts of the object, its characteristics, properties, relationships). Each of the selected parts is analyzed separately within a single whole. A striking example is the finite element method, which is becoming increasingly widespread in the study of building structures.

Synthesis(from Greek synthesis - compound, combination, composition) is a method of studying an object as a whole, in the unity and interconnection of its parts. In the process of scientific research, synthesis is associated with analysis, making it possible to connect parts of a whole dissected in the process of analysis, establish their connection and understand the object as a single totality (for example, the structural elements of a construction project).

Induction(from Latin inductio - guidance, motivation)- a research method in which a general conclusion about the characteristics of a set of elements is made based on the study of these characteristics in some of the elements of one set.

Thus, factors that negatively affect labor productivity for each individual enterprise are studied, and then generalized as a whole for the association, which includes these enterprises as production units.

Deduction(from lat. deductio - excretion)- a method of logical conclusions from the general to the particular, when the state of the object as a whole is first examined, and then its constituent elements.

Analogy- a method of scientific inference, through which knowledge of some objects and phenomena is achieved on the basis of their similarity with others. It is based on the proximity, the similarity of certain aspects of various objects and phenomena, for example, production can be studied not for each production team, but only for those selected as an analogue from among those performing the same work under comparable conditions. Moreover, the results obtained apply to all similar production teams.

Modeling- a method of scientific knowledge based on replacing the subject or phenomenon being studied with its analogue, a model containing the essential features of the original.

Abstraction(from lat. abstrahere - distract)- a method that allows, discarding particulars and details, to move from specific objects to general concepts and laws of development. It is used, for example, in economic research for long-term planning, when, based on a study of the work of enterprises over the past period, the development of an industry or region is predicted for the future.

Specification(from lat. concretus - thick, hard) - a method of studying objects in all their real qualitative diversity, in contrast to the abstract, abstract study of objects. At the same time, the state of objects is examined in connection with certain conditions of their existence and historical development.

System analysis represents the study of the object of study as a set of elements that form a system. In scientific research, it involves assessing an object as a system, taking into account the influence of all factors affecting its functioning. This method is widely used in organizational and technological research in a comprehensive study of the work of production departments and the organization as a whole, in establishing ways of its development, etc.

Functional cost analysis(FSA) is a method of studying an object (product, process, structure) according to its function and cost, used in studying the efficiency of use of material and labor resources.

Formalization(from lat. formula - form, a certain rule)- a method of studying an object based on the representation of its elements by special relationships, for example, formulas connecting individual cost items and the factors influencing them.

Hypothetical method(from the Greek hipothetesis - hypothesis, basis, assumption) based on a scientific hypothesis put forward to explain a phenomenon and requiring experimental verification and theoretical justification before being recognized as a reliable scientific theory. It is used in the study, for example, of new phenomena that have no analogues (studying the efficiency of new machines and equipment, the cost of new types of products, etc.).

Axiomatic method(from Greek aksioma - indisputable truth that does not require proof) provides for the use of provisions that are proven scientific knowledge, which are used in scientific research as a starting point to substantiate a new theory.

The creation of a theory involves generalizing the research results, identifying general patterns in the behavior of the objects being studied, and disseminating the research results to other objects and phenomena, which helps to increase the reliability of the experimental research.

In empirical research, along with general scientific methods, specific methods are also used to form empirical knowledge of an applied nature.

Observation- a method of studying a subject in the course of its quantitative measurement and qualitative characteristics. Observation is used, for example, when studying the complexity of manufacturing products, performing labor and/or machine operations; it is carried out using timing observations, monitoring the consumption of raw materials and materials, etc.

Experiment(from lat. experimentura - trial, experience) is a scientifically staged experiment to test the results of theoretical research, carried out under precisely fixed conditions, allowing one to monitor the progress of the phenomenon and recreate them again under given conditions.

The scientific method is a system of rules and regulations that guide human activity (industrial, political, cultural, scientific, educational, etc.) towards achieving a set goal.

If methodology is a strategy for scientific research that ensures the achievement of the goal formulated in the hypothesis of the expected scientific results (the general path of knowledge), then the method is a tactic that shows how best to follow this path.

Method (gr. methodos) is a way of cognition, research of natural phenomena and social life; technique, method and course of action.

A method is a path of research, a way to achieve a goal, or solve specific problems. This is a set of approaches, techniques, operations for the practical or theoretical development of reality.

From the definition of the method it follows that there are two large groups of methods: knowledge (research) and practical action (transformative methods.

1) Research methods- techniques, procedures and operations of empirical and theoretical knowledge and study of the phenomena of reality. Using this group of methods, reliable information is obtained that is used to build scientific theories and develop practical recommendations. The system of research methods is determined by the initial concept of the researcher: his ideas about the essence and structure of what is being studied, the general methodological orientation, the goals and objectives of a particular study.

2) The methods are divided into the following:

Universal, or philosophical, general scientific and methods of special sciences;
ascertaining and transformative;
empirical and theoretical;
qualitative and quantitative;
substantive and formal;
methods of collecting empirical data, testing and refuting hypotheses and theories;
description, explanation and forecast;
processing research results.

The universal or philosophical method is the universal method of materialist dialectics.

General scientific methods include:

Observation is a way of knowing the objective world, based on the direct perception of objects and phenomena using the senses without intervention in the process by the researcher.
Comparison is the establishment of differences between objects of the material world or finding commonality in them; carried out both with the help of sensory organs and with the help of special devices.
Counting is finding a number that determines the quantitative relationship between objects of the same type or their parameters that characterize certain properties. Measurement is the physical process of determining the numerical value of a certain quantity by comparing it with a standard.
An experiment is one of the areas of human practice in which the truth of put forward hypotheses is tested or the patterns of the objective world are revealed.
Generalization is a definition of a general concept that reflects the main, fundamental, characterizing objects of a given class.
Abstraction is a mental distraction from unimportant properties, connections, relationships of objects and the selection of several aspects that interest the researcher.
Formalization is the display of an object or phenomenon in the symbolic form of any artificial language (mathematics, chemistry, etc.).
The axiomatic method is a method of constructing a scientific theory in which some statements are accepted without evidence.
Analysis is a method of cognition through the dissection or decomposition of research objects into their component parts.
Synthesis is the combination of individual aspects of an object into a single whole.
Induction is an inference from facts to some hypothesis (general statement).
Deduction is an inference in which a conclusion about a certain element of a set is made based on knowledge of the general properties of the entire set.
Analogy is a method by which knowledge about objects and phenomena is achieved based on the fact that they are similar to others.
The hypothetical method of cognition involves the development of a scientific hypothesis based on the study of the physical, chemical, etc., essence of the phenomenon under study, the formulation of a hypothesis, the drawing up of a calculation diagram of an algorithm (model), its study, analysis, and the development of theoretical principles.
The historical method of cognition involves the study of the emergence, formation and development of objects in chronological order.
Idealization is the mental construction of objects that are practically impossible to realize.
System methods: operations research, queuing theory, control theory, set theory, etc.

Methods of special sciences are specific ways of knowing and transforming certain areas of the real world, inherent in a particular system of knowledge (sociology - sociometry; psychology - psychodiagnostics).

3) Methods as a technique, method and course of action (methods of practical activity) include methods of influence, a set of techniques, operations and procedures for preparing and making a decision, organizing its implementation.

To select methods at each stage, it is necessary to know the general and specific capabilities of each method, its place in the system of research procedures. The researcher’s task is to determine the optimal set of methods for each stage of the study.

Various methods of scientific knowledge are conventionally divided into a number of levels: empirical, experimental-theoretical, theoretical and metatheoretical.

Empirical level methods: observation, comparison, counting, measurement, questionnaire, interview, tests, trial and error, etc.

Methods of the experimental-theoretical level: experiment, analysis and synthesis, induction and deduction, modeling, hypothetical, historical and logical methods.

Methods at the theoretical level: abstraction, idealization, formalization, analysis and synthesis, induction and deduction, axiomatics, generalization, etc.

Metatheoretical level methods include dialectical and system analysis methods

In accordance with the two levels of scientific knowledge, empirical and theoretical methods are distinguished. The first includes observation, comparison, measurement and experiment, the second - idealization, formalization, the ascent of the abstract to the concrete, etc. It should, however, be noted that this division is relative. For example, comparison is widely used not only in empirical, but also in theoretical research; experiment is used mainly at the empirical level, but experimentation is also possible with so-called mental models. The modeling method is difficult to unconditionally attribute to one of the two levels of cognition.

Some authors consider abstraction, analysis and synthesis, induction and deduction, modeling, historical and logical methods as techniques that are used at the empirical and theoretical levels of research. The methods and techniques described in formal logic - abstraction and generalization, analysis, synthesis, etc. are sometimes called universal, considering them as methods inherent in human cognition as a whole; both scientific and non-scientific cognition are built on their basis.

Let's consider the methods of empirical and theoretical knowledge.

Empirical methods.

Observation is a purposeful systematic perception of an object, providing primary material for scientific research.

Purposefulness is the most important characteristic of observation. By concentrating attention on an object, the observer relies on some knowledge he has about it, without which it is impossible to determine the purpose of the observation. Observation is also characterized by systematicity, which is expressed in the perception of an object many times and under different conditions, systematicity, eliminating gaps in observation, and the activity of the observer, his ability to select the necessary information, determined by the purpose of the study.

In scientific observation, the interaction between subject and object is mediated by means of observation: devices and tools with which the observation is carried out. Microscope and telescope, photographic and television equipment, radar and ultrasound generator, many other devices significantly expand the capabilities of the observer, transform phenomena that are inaccessible to the naked human senses - viruses, microbes, elementary particles, etc. - into empirical objects.

As a method of scientific knowledge, observation provides initial information about an object necessary for its further research.

Comparison and measurement play an important role in cognition. Comparison is a method of comparing objects in order to identify similarities or differences between them. If objects are compared with an object that acts as a standard, then such a comparison is called measurement. In addition to the subject (measurer) and object, measurement includes a unit of measurement (standard, or reference object), a measuring device, and a measurement method. So, when comparing two objects by weight, it can be established that one of them is heavier than the other. In this case, the standard, measuring device, and measurement method are not used. When measuring these objects to establish that one object weighs 3 kg, another 4, these measurement elements are necessary. With the help of measurement, the numerical characteristics of objects are established, and this is important for many areas of scientific knowledge where precise quantitative characteristics of the objects being studied are necessary, primarily in the natural and technical sciences. As for comparison, sciences such as comparative anatomy, comparative embryology, comparative historical linguistics and some others are based on this method.

General scientific

Specific scientific

Analysis

Synthesis –

induction

deduction

Currently in Russia there is a revision of the principles of organization and content of training. The activities of educational institutions are being standardized and the ideas of the need to manage the quality of education are being increasingly advocated. The emerging trends in Russia towards convergence with global economic practice impose different requirements on specialists responsible for the correctness of accounting, reporting and analytical procedures. In the context of economic reforms, the training of senior economists is of particular importance. Radical changes in the economy inevitably affect the principles and improvement of analytical training of future accountants, auditors, and financiers. One of the main sections of the curriculum included in the training program is the block of analytical disciplines.

The modern unified course of economic analysis consists of the following interrelated sections (disciplines): “Theory of Economic Analysis”, “Analysis of Financial Statements”, “Comprehensive Economic Analysis of Economic Activity”. In accordance with the State Educational Standard, students of the specialty “Accounting, Analysis and Audit” study the special discipline “Theory of Economic Analysis”, which provides for lectures and practical classes, test work, as well as independent study of specialized literature.

The ultimate goal of teaching the discipline is to reveal the essence and content of economic analysis, its subject and objectives, information base, relationships and interdependencies of indicators, research methodology, the need and possibility of using a variety of methods and techniques of analysis.

“The Theory of Economic Analysis” is one of the core courses in the system of professional training of specialists in accounting, analysis and audit, therefore the knowledge gained is the basis for an in-depth study of other related core disciplines and can be used in practice. To study this subject, you need previously acquired knowledge in such disciplines as: Economic Theory, Philosophy, Accounting Theory, Economic and Mathematical Methods and Applied Models, Statistics, Finance.

TOPIC 1 Theoretical and methodological foundations of economic analysis

The following methods of cognition are distinguished: general scientific and specific scientific.

General scientific– characteristic of all sciences, associated with observation, comparison, formalization, modeling, analysis and synthesis.

Specific scientific– are characteristic of individual sciences, are the detailing and concretization of general scientific methods of cognition.

Analysis- this is a way of cognition based on the decomposition of the object under study into its component parts and the study of their interrelation and interdependence.

Synthesis – This is a way of cognition based on combining the elements of the object under study into a single whole and studying the relationships and interdependencies between them.

Analysis is in contradictory unity with the concept of synthesis. The “analysis-synthesis” tandem is synonymous with any scientific research. Analysis without synthesis is impossible, since a whole consisting of parts ceases to be a whole when it is divided. They have acquired particular importance in economics, since economic analysis is associated with identifying the influence of factors (parts, causes) on the result (outcome, consequence). In the research process, that is, during analysis and synthesis, the following techniques are used:

induction- judgment from the particular to the general (whole);

deduction– judgment from the general (whole) to the particular.

2.1. General scientific methods 5

2.2. Methods of empirical and theoretical knowledge. 7

References. 12

1. The concept of methodology and method.

Any scientific research is carried out using certain techniques and methods, according to certain rules. The study of the system of these techniques, methods and rules is called methodology. However, the concept of “methodology” in the literature is used in two meanings:

1) a set of methods used in any field of activity (science, politics, etc.);

2) the doctrine of the scientific method of knowledge.

Methodology (from “method” and “logy”) is the study of structure, logical organization, methods and means of activity.

A method is a set of techniques or operations of practical or theoretical activity. The method can also be characterized as a form of theoretical and practical mastery of reality, based on the patterns of behavior of the object being studied.

Methods of scientific knowledge include the so-called universal methods, i.e. universal methods of thinking, general scientific methods and methods of specific sciences. Methods can be classified according to the relationship between empirical knowledge (i.e. knowledge obtained as a result of experience, experimental knowledge) and theoretical knowledge, the essence of which is knowledge of the essence of phenomena and their internal connections. The classification of methods of scientific knowledge is presented in Fig. 1.2.

Each industry applies its own specific scientific, special methods, determined by the essence of the object of study. However, often methods characteristic of a particular science are used in other sciences. This happens because the objects of study of these sciences are also subject to the laws of this science. For example, physical and chemical research methods are used in biology on the basis that objects of biological research include, in one form or another, physical and chemical forms of motion of matter and, therefore, are subject to physical and chemical laws.

There are two universal methods in the history of knowledge: dialectical and metaphysical. These are general philosophical methods.

The dialectical method is a method of understanding reality in its inconsistency, integrity and development.

The metaphysical method is a method opposite to the dialectical one, considering phenomena outside of their mutual connection and development.

Since the mid-19th century, the metaphysical method has been increasingly displaced from natural science by the dialectical method.

2. Methods of scientific knowledge

2.1. General scientific methods

The relationship between general scientific methods can also be presented in the form of a diagram (Fig. 2).

Brief description of these methods.

Analysis is the mental or real decomposition of an object into its constituent parts.

Synthesis is the combination of elements learned as a result of analysis into a single whole.

Generalization is the process of mental transition from the individual to the general, from the less general to the more general, for example: the transition from the judgment “this metal conducts electricity” to the judgment “all metals conduct electricity”, from the judgment: “the mechanical form of energy turns into thermal” to the judgment “every form of energy is converted into heat.”

Abstraction (idealization) is the mental introduction of certain changes to the object being studied in accordance with the goals of the study. As a result of idealization, some properties and attributes of objects that are not essential for this study can be excluded from consideration. An example of such idealization in mechanics is a material point, i.e. a point with mass but without any dimensions. The same abstract (ideal) object is an absolutely rigid body.

Induction is the process of deriving a general position from the observation of a number of particular individual facts, i.e. knowledge from the particular to the general. In practice, incomplete induction is most often used, which involves making a conclusion about all objects of a set based on knowledge of only a part of the objects. Incomplete induction, based on experimental research and including theoretical justification, is called scientific induction. The conclusions of such induction are often probabilistic in nature. This is a risky but creative method. With a strict setup of the experiment, logical consistency and rigor of conclusions, it is able to give a reliable conclusion. According to the famous French physicist Louis de Broglie, scientific induction is the true source of truly scientific progress.

Deduction is the process of analytical reasoning from the general to the particular or less general. It is closely related to generalization. If the initial general provisions are an established scientific truth, then the method of deduction will always produce a true conclusion. The deductive method is especially important in mathematics. Mathematicians operate with mathematical abstractions and base their reasoning on general principles. These general provisions apply to solving private, specific problems.

Analogy is a probable, plausible conclusion about the similarity of two objects or phenomena in some characteristic, based on their established similarity in other characteristics. An analogy with the simple allows us to understand the more complex. Thus, by analogy with the artificial selection of the best breeds of domestic animals, Charles Darwin discovered the law of natural selection in the animal and plant world.

Modeling is the reproduction of the properties of an object of cognition on a specially designed analogue of it - a model. Models can be real (material), for example, airplane models, building models, photographs, prosthetics, dolls, etc. and ideal (abstract) created by means of language (both natural human language and special languages, for example, the language of mathematics. In this case, we have a mathematical model. Usually this is a system of equations that describes the relationships in the system being studied.

The historical method involves reproducing the history of the object under study in all its versatility, taking into account all the details and accidents. The logical method is, in essence, a logical reproduction of the history of the object being studied. At the same time, this history is freed from everything accidental and unimportant, i.e. it is, as it were, the same historical method, but freed from its historical form.

Classification is the distribution of certain objects into classes (departments, categories) depending on their general characteristics, fixing the natural connections between classes of objects in a unified system of a specific branch of knowledge. The formation of each science is associated with the creation of classifications of the objects and phenomena being studied.

2. 2 Methods of empirical and theoretical knowledge.

Methods of empirical and theoretical knowledge are schematically presented in Fig. 3.

Observation.

Observation is a sensory reflection of objects and phenomena of the external world. This is the initial method of empirical cognition, which allows us to obtain some primary information about the objects of the surrounding reality.

Scientific observation is characterized by a number of features:

· purposefulness (observation should be carried out to solve the research problem);

· systematic (observation must be carried out strictly according to a plan drawn up based on the research objective);

· activity (the researcher must actively search and highlight the moments he needs in the observed phenomenon).

Scientific observations are always accompanied by a description of the object of knowledge. The latter is necessary to record the technical properties and aspects of the object being studied, which constitute the subject of the study. Descriptions of observational results form the empirical basis of science, based on which researchers create empirical generalizations, compare the objects under study according to certain parameters, classify them according to some properties, characteristics, and find out the sequence of stages of their formation and development.

According to the method of conducting observations, they can be direct or indirect.

During direct observation, certain properties and aspects of an object are reflected and perceived by human senses. Currently, direct visual observation is widely used in space research as an important method of scientific knowledge. Visual observations from a manned orbital station are the simplest and most effective method for studying the parameters of the atmosphere, land surface and ocean from space in the visible range. From the orbit of an artificial Earth satellite, the human eye can confidently determine the boundaries of cloud cover, types of clouds, boundaries of the removal of turbid river waters into the sea, etc.

However, most often observation is indirect, that is, carried out using certain technical means. If, for example, until the beginning of the 17th century, astronomers observed celestial bodies with the naked eye, then Galileo’s invention of the optical telescope in 1608 raised astronomical observations to a new, much higher level.

Observations can often play an important heuristic role in scientific knowledge. In the process of observations, completely new phenomena can be discovered, allowing one or another scientific hypothesis to be substantiated. From all of the above, it follows that observations are a very important method of empirical knowledge, ensuring the collection of extensive information about the world around us.