Red algae pigments. Departures of algae. Cellular structure of organisms Cell structure. Devices for the study of the structure of the cell

Red - ficoErytrin Orange - carotene and " xanthofill ". Additional pigments affect the color of algae and serve as an important systematic sign. Algae are divided into several types. Typical representatives of microscopic algae are presented in the figure.

Microscopic algae.
A. Diatoms Algae B. Blue-Green Algae, V. Green Algae (chlamydonad)

Green algae

Green algae is widespread in surface reservoirs. Among them are single, multicellular and colonial forms. Pigments are concentrated in special plasma bodies of various shapes - chromatophoras. We multiply the division of the cytoplasm with the formation of child cells or sexual way. Some species multiply moving arguments. The colonies are formed as a result of an anti-fission, in which child cells remain connected with each other. Green algae cells have a variety of shape: spherical, oval, sickle, triangular, etc. Their cells contain organides characteristic of higher plants. The kernel is differentiated. The shell consists of cellulose. The cytoplasm may contain the grachmall, which is a product of photosynthesis. Most often in fresh reservoirs there are from unicellular forms of Chlorella ( Chloorella vulgaris), chlamondonada ( Chlamidomonas.), from colonial - Volvoks ( Volvox aureus.), Gonium ( Gonium pectoral), from multicellular - ulotrics. Green algae are found in reservoirs with clean and dirty water, with slow and fast flow, in various pits, puddles filled after rain, as well as on the soil.

Sine-green algae

Blue-green algae ( cianobacteria. ) They consider the oldest plants of the currently existing plants. This one or multicellular organisms are most simply organized, characterized by a special structure of the cell. It has no typical kernel and chromatophores. The protoplasm of blue-green algae is differentiated to the peripheral-colored layer - chromotoplasm , and the central part - centroplavsm . Assimilant photosensitive pigments - chlorophyll, ficotine, ficoeroidrine and carotene. Depending on the quantitative ratio of pigments, cell painting changes. In the cells lie special tales - endoplars dense or viscous consistency. In the plasma walls of the show between the endoplasts there is a "chromatin substance", painted with nuclear paints. There are no vacuoles filled with cellular juice in cells of blue-green algae. In this regard, when plasmolysis, the cell is eliminated entirely. In the cells of these organisms there are gas vacuoles, which contributes to the population of them to the surface. Cells of blue-green algae have a shell. It can be thin and barely noticeable or thickened. Cell shells are often covered with mucus, which leads to the formation of colonies due to the sticking of this mucus. The composition of the shells are mainly pectins. As a rule, the colonies do not have a certain form. The thread rows of cells are enclosed in a hollow cylindrical case covering the entire number of cells. The totality of cells with a case is called thread. Cells within one thread may be the same or different in size and form. The thread cells are covered with a common mucous membrane case. Some types of threads are able to branch. Education is often observed heterocyst located in the thread through a certain number of cells. The heterocyters are formed from vegetative cells, but in size significantly exceed them. They have a dense shell, but through the pores communicate with neighboring cells. It is assumed that heterocysts are specialized cells performing nitrogen fixation.

Many types of cyanobacteria are capable of forming disputes. One species disputes, like true bacteria, are the form most resistant to unfavorable conditions. In this case, only one dispute is formed from one cell. Other cyanobacteria disputes like mushrooms serve as a breeding method. In this case, within the maternal cell, a variety of small disputes are formed, released when the shell breaks. Sine-green algae is very common in nature: they develop in reservoirs with salty and fresh water, in soils and rocks, in the Arctic and the desert. This contributes to emergency resistance to adverse conditions and non-purity to nutrients.

Diatoms algae

Diatoms of algae ( Diatomea.). They are single-cell microscopic organisms. Some species form colonies in the form of threads, ribbons, bushes. Cells have dimensions from 4 to 1500 μm, and colonies sometimes reach several centimeters. In diatom algae cells, decorated core and chloroplasts are found. The latter, except chlorophyll, contain brown pigments, so the color of algae is yellowish or dark brown. Cells have a pectic sheath and a shell consisting of silica. The cage shell consists of two halves that do not grow and can push. The protoplasm is located in a thin layer along the walls, forming in many species in the middle of the cell protopamic bridge, the remaining space of the cell is filled with cellular juice, the kernel one. Chromatophores are diverse in shape. Assimilation products are oil, volutin, leukeosine. We multiply by simple division and with the help of a dispute. With vegetative division, each part receives a maternal flavor, and the missing grows to the development of the cell. The structure of the silicon shell is a distinctive feature of the species. Diatoms of algae groups Pennales. They are mainly among the drawing of bottom items and in the ground.

Green algae is the most extensive of all algae departments, consisting of different estimates from 4 to 13 - 20 thousand species. All of them have green layers, due to the predominance of chlorophyll in chloroplasts a. and b. Over other pigments. Cells of some representatives of green algae ( Chlammedonas, Trentepsum, Hematokokuskus) Painted in red or orange colors, which is associated with accumulation outside the chloroplast of carotenoid pigments and their derivatives.

In morphological terms they are distinguished by a large variety. Among the green algae there are unicellular, colonial, multicellular and non-cellular representatives, actively moving and fixed, attached and free-lived. Extremely large and range of their sizes - from several micrometers (which is comparable in size with bacterial cells) to 1-2 meters.

Simer or multi-core cells, with one or more chromatophores containing chlorophyll and carotenoids. Chloroplasts are covered with two membranes and usually have stigma, or eyes - a filter conductive blue and green light to the photo seventor. The eye consists of several rows of lipid globes. Tylakoids - structures where photosynthetic pigments are localized - assembled in stacks (lamella) 2-6. In the transition zone of flags there is a star education. The flavors are most often two. The main component of the cell wall - cellulose.

Chlorofit has various types of food: phototrophic, mixotrophic and heterotrophic. Spare polysaccharide of green algae - starch - is postponed inside chloroplast. Chlorophytes can also accumulate lipids, which are delayed in the form of droplets in the stroma of chloroplast and in the cytoplasm.

Multicolve layers of filamentary, tubular, plate, bushy or other structure and diverse shape. From the well-known types of Taloma organization in green algae, there is no only amoboid.

They are widespread in fresh and sea waters, in the soil and in terrestrial habitats (on the soil, rocks, tree crust, walls of houses, etc.). In the seas, about 1/10 were distributed from the total amount of species that grow usually in the upper water layers up to 20 m. Among them there are plankton, perifiton and benthosses. In other words, green algae mastered the three main habitats of living organisms: water - land - air.

Green algae possess positive (movement to the light source) and negative (movement from a bright light source) phototaxis. In addition to the intensity of lighting, the temperature is affected by the phototaxis. Positive phototaxis at a temperature of 160 ° C possess zyospore types of birth Hematokokukus, Ullva, Ulva, as well as certain types of desmond algae, in which the motion of the cells is carried out by separating the mucus through the pores in the shell.

Reproduction. For green algae, the presence of all known breeding methods is characterized: vegetative, cull and sexual .

Vegetative reproduction Unicellular forms occurs in the division of the cell in half. Colonial and multicellular shapes chlorofite multiplied with parts of the body (layers, or talloma).

Dust reproduction Green algae is widely represented. It is carried out more often by movable zobleds, less often by fixed aplane and hypostopores. The cells in which disputes are formed (sporangies) are formed, in most cases no difference from the other vegetative cells of Taloma, less often they have a different form and larger sizes. Forming zyospores can be bare or coated with a rigid cell wall. The number of Zoostpor flags varies from 2 to 120. Zosporos of a variety of shape: spherical, ellipsoid or pear, single-core, deprived of a separate shell, with 2-4 flasks on the front, more pointed end and chloroplast in the extended rear end. Usually they have pulsating vacuoles and stigma. Zospores are formed singly or, more often, among several of the internal contents of the maternal cell, outward through the circular or sliding hole forming in the shell, less often due to its overall ease. At the time of the exit of the maternal zoospore cell is sometimes surrounded by a thin mucous bubble, in a short time blurring (genus Ulotrix).

In many species, instead of Zoospore or along with them, motionless disputes are formed - Aplańska. Aplaństurian - Disputes of Mustral Reproduction, which have no flavors, but there are contractile vacuoles. Aplaństurian is considered as cells that have been suspended further development in Zospor. They also arise from the protoplast cell among one or more, but do not produce flagellas, and, having accepted a spherical shape, dress up with their own shell, in the formation of which the membrane of the mother cell does not participate. Aplaństurian is exempt due to the rupture or easering of the shells of maternal cells and germinate after a certain period of rest. Aplane carriage with very thick shells are called hypostopores. They usually take on the function of the restriccing stage. Autosports, which are reduced copies of fixed vegetative cells, no contracting vacuoles are missing. Education Autosport correlates with the conquest of ground conditions in which water cannot always be present in sufficient quantities.

Sexual reproduction It is carried out by gates arising in unchanged, slightly modified or significantly transformed cells - gaments. Movable gears of the monad structure, windmill. The sexual process in green algae is represented by various forms: Golobe, conjugation, isogonia, heterogamia, oogami. With the isochimia, the grounds are morphologically completely similar to each other and the differences between them are purely physiological. The zygote dresses a thick shell, often with sculptural growth, contains a large amount of spare substances and germinates or after some rest period. In germination, the contents of the zygota in most species are divided into four parts, which come out of the shell and germinate into new individuals. Significantly less frequently, the gametes develop into a new organism without merger, by themselves, without the formation of zygota. This reproduction is called parthenogenesis, and disputes formed from individual weights - partentosporami.

With heterogamine, both gametes differ in size and sometimes in shape. Larger gears, often less mobile, is considered female, smaller in size and more movable - male. In some cases, the differences are small, and then they say simply about heterogami, in others it is very significant.

If the female goveta is still and resembles more an egg, then the moving male becomes a sperm, and the sexual process gets the name of oogami. Gametangia, in which egg cells occur, are called oogonias From vegetative cells, they differ in both form and magnitude. Gametangy, in which spermatozoa is formed, are called alteridia. The zygote, obtained as a result of the fertilization of the egg sperm, forms a thick shell and is called corporate.

In typical oogami, the egg cells are large, fixed and develop most often on one in the oogonia, the spermatozoa small, movable, are formed in the Alteria in large quantities. Oogonia and Aniardia can develop on one individual, in this case the algae is monodomal; If they are developing on different individuals - dioval. The fertilized egg is dressed in a thick brown sheath; Often adjacent cells with it give short twigs, which turn the OPOROR, tired by its single-layer bark.

Life cycles. Most of the majority of green algae, the life cycle of haplobionate with the zyotic reduction. In such species, the diploid stage is only the zygote - a cell, resulting from the fertilization of the egg cell with sperm. Another type of life cycle is a haplodiplobionic with a disposal reduction - occurs at the vulnerable, storage equipment and some traps. For these algae, the alternation of the diploid sporophyte and the haploid gametophyte is characteristic. Haplodiplobionic life cycle with somatic reduction is known only Prazioli.. The presence of a diplobionic life cycle in Briopsidov and Dazikladyyev is questioned.

In some ulotrics, one and the same individual can give rise to both zoblers and gates. In other cases, ZOSPORS and GAMETS are formed at different individuals, i.e. The life cycle of algae includes both sexual (gametophyte) and an affordable (sporophyte) form of development. Sporefit usually diploid, i.e. It has in cells a double set of chromosomes, Gametofite haploid, i.e. It has a single set of chromosomes. This is observed in cases where Meiosis occurs during the formation of an argument (dispatible reduction) and part of the life cycle of algae from the zygota before the formation of the dispute passes in the diplophase, and part of the dispute to the formation of Gaplophase. Such a development cycle is characteristic of the species of the kind of ulva.

Within the climbing algae, the zygotic reduction is widespread, when meyosis occurs when zygota is germinated. The diploid in this case turns out only the zygota, the rest of the life cycle takes place in the haplophase. It is much less likely to make a gametic reduction when Meiosis occurs in the formation of Games. In this case, only gamets are haploid, and the rest of the diploid cycle.

Systematics

There is still no uniformly established system of green algae, especially with regard to grouping orders in various classes offered. A very long type of Taloma Differentiation was given the main importance in the selection of orders in green algae. However, in recent times, due to the accumulation of data on the ultrastructural features of flagella cells, the type of mitosis and cytokinesis, etc. the heterogeneity of many of these orders is obvious.

The department includes 5 classes: Ulvlovfe-Ulvophyceae, brizzide - Bryopsidophyceae, chloroficective - Chlorophyceae, Tremsey -Trebouxiophyceae, Prasinophyceae.

Ulvlvyfe class -Ulvophyceae.

About 1 thousand species are known. The name of the class comes from the typical kind ULVA.. Includes types with nichly and lamellar talomom. Life cycles are diverse. Views are predominantly sea, less frequently fresh and ground. Some are part of lichens. Sea representatives in cell walls can be postponed.

SolliksoyUlotrichales..

Rank Ullitrix (Fig. 54). Views Ulotris They live more often in fresh, less often in marine, saltwatened water bodies and in the soil. They are attached to underwater subjects, forming bright green bushes up to 10 cm and more. Unbranched threads Ulotrisconsisting of one row of cylindrical cells with thick cellulose shells are attached to the substrate with a colorless conical basal cell that performs the rhizoid function. The structure of the chromatofora is characteristic, which has the form of a post-walled plate forming an unclosed lounge or ring (cylinder).

Fig. 54. Ullotricc. (Softly :): 1 - nital tall, 2 - ZoPROP, 3 - Gameta, 4 - Kopulation Games

Dust reproduction Ulotris It is carried out by 2 in the following ways: the disintends of the thread into short sections, developing in a new thread, or the formation of four-pure zoospores in cells. Zoospores leave the maternal cell, throw one after another flagellas, attached sideways to the substrate, are covered with a thin cellulose sheath and germinate into a new thread. Sex process isochny. After fertilization of the zygote, it floats first, then settles on the bottom, loses the flagella, produces a dense sheath and the mucous leg, which is attached to the substrate. This is a restless sporophyte. After the rest period, the reducing of the nucleus and the zygota germinates with zoospores. So in the life cycle Ulotris There is an alternation of generations, or a change of sexual and cruel forms of development: a nital multicellular gametophyte (generation, forming gemnets) is replaced by a unicellular spore-generation, which is represented by a peculiar zygote on the leg and is capable of forming disputes.

Order Ulvoy -Ulvales.. They have a plate, bag-shaped, tubular or, rarely, the nichly layered layer of all sorts of shades of green. On the edge of the plate can be wavy or folded, to attach to the substrate are equipped with a short leg or base with a small basal disk. Sea and freshwater species. Most common in the coastal waters of the Far Eastern Seas Types of birth Ulwa, Monostrome, Nornanny and Ulwaria.

Rank Ulwa(Fig. 55). Talloma is a light green or bright green, thin two-layer, often perforated plate, or a single-layer hollow tube attached to the substrate narrowed in a short stuff.

Fig. 55. Ulwa: BUT - appearance Ulva finished, B. - cross-cut Taloma, AT - appearance Ulva Kishenias

Change of development forms in the life cycle Ulv It comes down to isomorphic, when an affordable stage (sporophyte) and genital stage (gametophyte) morphologically similar to each other, and heteromorphic when they are morphologically different. Gametophyte multicellular, plate, unice-milking sporophyte. In Gametophytes, double-puzzle games are formed, on spores - four-pure zyospores.

The species of the genus are found in the seas of all climatic zones, although prefers warm water. For example, on the shallow water of the Black and Japanese seas of Ulwa - one of the most massive clans of algae. Many species Ulv depression of water; They can often be found in the mouths of the rivers.

Brillic class–Bryopsidophyceae.

About 500 species are known. Loading non-flying. Formed by simple or interwoven siphon threads forming complex structures. Tall in the form of bubbles, bushes, spongy, dichotomically branched bushes. Segmented layer, imitating multicellular, several or many nuclear cells. Threads and bushes of all shades of green or brownish color.

Order briopsyda– Bryopsidales.

Most of the species are found in fresh and saltwatened water bodies. Some of them grow on the ground, on the stones, sand and sometimes in salt marshes.

Rank Briopsis - Fit-shaped bushes up to 6-8 cm of height, peristropine or incorrectly branched, upper twigs with tugs at the base. Siphon non-cellular layer. It grows by single bushes or small curtains in the coastal zone, lives in warm and temperate seas (Appendix, 7B).

Rank Codium- Cell-shaped dichotomically branched bushes 10-20 cm height, spongy. Soft, attached to the diskhead sole. The inner part of the layer is formed by complex twisted siphon threads. Grows on soft and solid soils in the sub-zone to a depth of 20 m single plants or small groups (Appendix, 7A, b).

Rank Kaulerp Includes about 60 types of seaweed, creeping, open on the ground parts of the layers of which have the type of branching cylinders reaching the length of several tens of centimeters. After certain intervals down, abundantly branched rhizoids, fixing the plant in the ground, and up are flat leaf-shaped vertical shoots in which chloroplasts are concentrated.

Fig. 56. Kaulerpa: a - appearance of Taloma; B - Cellulosic beams cutout

Tallom Kaulerp, despite its large sizes, does not have a cellular structure - there are no transverse partitions in it, and it is formally one gigantic cell (Fig. 56). Such a thaloma structure is called siphon. Inside Taloma Kaulerp is a central vacuole, surrounded by a layer of cytoplasm containing numerous kernels and chloroplasts. The various parts of the Taloma are growing at their tops where the cytoplasm accumulates. The central cavity in all parts of the Taloma is crossed by cylindrical skeletal chips - cellulose beams that give the body of algae mechanical strength.

Kaulerpa easily multiplies vegetatively: when the older parts of the Taloma, separate areas with vertical shoots become independent plants. The species of this kind are inhabited mainly in the tropical seas, and only a few enter subtropical latitudes, for example, common in the Mediterranean Sea Kaulerpa germinating. This algae prefers shallow water with calm water, for example, lagows protected from the action of a permanent surf by coral reefs, and settle as on various solid substrates - stones, reefs, rocks, on sandy and iri-soil.

Chlorocal class–Chlorophyceae.

About 2.5 thousand species are known. Single-cellular or cellular alinetic, free living.

The order of volvoxes -Volvocales..

Rank Chlamydomanada(Fig. 57) includes over 500 types of single-celled algae, which live in fresh, small, well-warmed and contaminated water bodies: ponds, puddles, ditch, etc. With their mass reproduction, water acquires green color. Chlamydomanada Also dwells on the soil and in the snow. Her body has an oval, pear or spherical shape. The cell is dressed with a dense shell, often lagging on the protoplast, with two identical flagellations at the front end; With their help, chlamdomanade is actively moving in water. Protoplast contains 1 core, cup-shaped chromatophore, stigma and pulsating vacuoles.

Fig. 57. Building and development of chlamdonada: a - vegetative individual; B - palmelle-shaped stage; B - reproduction (young individuals inside the maternal cell)

Chlammedonads multiply predominantly affordable. When drying the reservoir, they multiply the division of the cell in half. Cells stop, losing flagellas, the walls of their cells are eased, and in such a fixed state the cells go to the division. The walls of the resulting daughter cells are also eased, so that the system of nested mucous mischiefs are formed in each other, in which immobile cells are located groups. It is palmelevoid the state of algae. If the cells get into the water again form flagellas, leave the maternal cell in the form of zoospore and switch to a single monad state.

In favorable conditions, chlamdomanade is intensively breeding in another way - the cell stops, and its protoplast, a slightly resistant from the wall, is sequentially divided by two, four or eight parts. These subsidiaries form flagella and outward in the form of zoospore, which soon proceed to reproduction.

Sex process at chlamydomonade isochny or oogany. Gamets of smaller sizes are formed inside the maternal cell as well as zyospore, but in more (16, 32 or 64). Fertilization occurs in water. The fertilized egg is covered with a multilayer shell and sends to the bottom of the reservoir. After the time of resting the zygota is shared by Maoyotically with the formation of 4 haploid subsidiaries of chlamondamonds.

Rank Volvoks. - The most highly organized representatives of the order, form gigantic colonies consisting of hundreds and thousands of cells. Colonies have a form of mucous membranes, diameter up to 2 mm, balls, in the peripheral layer of which up to 50 thousand cells with flagellas that have contaminated with their lateral eased walls with each other and connected by plasmodesmas (Fig. 58). Interior cavity

Fig. 58. Appearance of Wolves colonies

the ball is filled with liquid mucus. In the colony there is specialization of cells: its peripheral part is vegetative cells, and larger - reproductive are scattered between them.

About a dozen of the cells of the colony are gondiy, casual reproduction cells. As a result of repeated divisions, they give rise to young, child colonies that fall inside the mother's ball and are released only after its destruction. Sex process - oogami. Oogonia and Aniardia also arise from reproductive cells. Colonies are single-dome and dioarm. Types of genus are found in ponds and styrices of rivers, where in the period of intensive reproduction causes "blooming" water.

Class Taxia -Trebouxiophyceae.

Class named according to typical Trebouxia.. Includes mainly cellular cocoid forms. There are sarcinoid and nichly representatives. Freshwater and terrestrial, less often marine forms, many form symbiosis. About 170 species.

Chlorell order -Chlororelles. Combines coccobid auto representatives.

Rank Chlorella - single-celled algae in the form of a still ball. The cage is dressed by a smooth shell; It contains one core and wild, solid, dissected or blade chromatophore with pyreneoid. The cell wall of a number of species along with cellulose contains sporuspolynine - an extremely resistant to the action of various enzymes The substance is also found in pollen beans and disputes of higher plants. Chlorella is propagated by the useless way, forming up to 64 fixed autosports. There is no sexual reproduction. Chlorella Wides in various reservoirs, it is found on crude soil, the crust of trees is part of lichens.

Order required - Trebouxiales. . Includes childbirth and species included in lichen.

Rank Tremia - Unicellular algae. Spherical cells have the only axial star chloroplastic with one pyreneoid. Miscellaneous reproduction is carried out by bare zoospores. It is found or free-lived in terrestrial habitats (on the bark of trees), or as a photobione of lichens.

Prazin class -Prasinophyceae.

The name of the class comes from Greek. prasinos. - Green. Flagella or, less often, cocoid or palmelloid unicellular organisms.

Picrammonade order - Pyramimonadales.. Cells carry 4 or more flavors, three layers of scales. Mitosis Open, with spindle, persistent in bodies, cytokinesis goes through the formation of a fission grocery.

Rank Pyrammonas - Unicellular organisms (Fig. 59). From the front end of the cell, there are 4-16 flagellas, which can be five times longer than the cell. Chloroplast is usually the only one with one pyreneoid and one or more eyes. Cells and flagellas are covered with several layers of scales. Widely distributed in fresh, brass and sea waters. They meet in plankton and benthos, can cause "flowering" water.

Fig. 59. Appearance of algae Pyrammonas

Order chloroorders– Chlorodendrales. Cells are compressed, with four flagellas, covered with trees, mitosis closed, cytokinez goes through the formation of a fission groove.

Rank Tetselimis It may occur in the form of moving four-puzzle cells or in the form of fixed cells attached by mucous feet. Cells are covered with text. When dividing cells, a new course is formed around each subsidiary inside the text of the maternal. At the front end of the cage through the hole in the tec, flashes, which are covered with hairs and scales. Chloroplast one, with basal pyrenery. Cells are usually green, but sometimes they acquire a red color, which is associated with the accumulation of carotenoids. Marine representatives can dwell in sea flat worms.

Ecology and value

Green algae is widespread worldwide. Most of them can be found in fresh reservoirs, but many saltwater and marine forms. Nichly green algae, attached or unaccounted, along with diatomaces and blizzards, are predominant benthic algae of continental reservoirs. They are found in the water bodies of various trophy (from dystrophic to eutrophic) and with different content of organic substances (from xeno- to polysalital), hydrogen ions (from alkaline to acid), at different temperatures (thermo-, meso and cryophiles).

Among the green algae there are plankton, perifiton and bentos forms. In the Sea Picoplankton Group of Prazic Algae Ostricokusit is considered the smallest eukaryotic free-lived cell. There are types of green algae, which have adapted to life in the soil and ground habitats. They can be found on the crust of trees, rocks, various buildings, on the surface of soil and in the thickness of the air. Representatives of labor are especially common in these habitats. Trentepsum and Tremia. Green algae vegetate in hot springs at a temperature of 35-52 ° C, and in some cases up to 84 ° C and higher, often with an elevated content of mineral salts or organic substances (severely contaminated hot waste water plants, factories, power plants or nuclear stations). They also prevail among the cryophilic species of algae. They can cause green, yellow, blue, red, brown, brown or black "flowering" of snow or ice. These algae are in surface layers of snow or ice and intensively multiply in melt water at a temperature of about 0 ° C. Only a few species have a rest stage, while most are deprived of any special morphological devices to low temperatures.

Unicellular moving green algae - hyperheloby, whose cells are prevalent, the cells of which are deprived of the shell and are surrounded by plasmama. These algae are distinguished by an increased sodium chloride content in protoplasm, high intracellular osmotic pressure, accumulation of carotenoid and glycerin cells, a large lability of enzyme systems and metabolic processes. In salt water bodies, they are often developing in mass quantities, causing red or green "flowering" of salted water bodies.

Microscopic unicellular, colonial and nice forms of green algae adapted to adverse conditions of existence in the air. Depending on the degree of moisturizing, they are divided into 2 groups: air algae, inhabitants in conditions of only atmospheric humidification, and, consequently, experiencing a permanent change of humidity and drying; Water algae, exposed to the action of constant irrigation by water (under the splashes of the waterfall, surf, etc.). The conditions for the existence of algae of aerofil communities are very peculiar and characterized, first of all, frequent and sharp change of two factors - humidity and temperature.

Hundreds of green algae inhabited in the soil layer. Soil as a biotop is similar to both water and air-hauling: there is air, but saturated with water vapors, which ensures breathing with atmospheric air without a threat of drying. Intensive development of algae as phototrophic organisms is possible only within the penetration of light. In virgin soils, this surface layer of soil is thick up to 1 cm, in the soil processed it is a little thicker. However, in the thickness of the soil, where the light does not penetrate, viable algae is detected at a depth of 2 m in virgin soils and up to 3 m - in arable one. This is due to the ability of some algae to move in the dark to heterotrophic nutrition. Many algae are saved in the soil in a resting state.

To maintain their livelihoods, soil algae have some morphological and physiological features. These are relatively small sizes of soil species, as well as the ability to abundant formation of mucus - mucous colonies, covers and overtakes. Due to the presence of mucus, algae quickly absorb water during moisturizes and spare it, slow down drying. A characteristic feature of soil algae is "ephemerality" of their growing vegetation - the ability to quickly move from the state of rest to active livelihoods and vice versa. They are also able to transfer different fluctuations in soil temperature. The survival range of a number of species lies in the range from -200 to +84 ° C and higher. Ground algae constitute an important part of the vegetation of Antarctica. They are painted almost black, so their body temperature turns out to be higher than the ambient temperature. Soil algae are also important components of biocenoses arid (arid) zone, where the soil in the summer is heated to 60-80 ° C. Dark mucous covers around cells are served by protection against excess insolation.

A peculiar group represents endolythophilic algae associated with a limestone substrate. First, it is drilling algae. For example, algae from kind Gomontia Drill shells of peklocks and toothless, are introduced into a limestone substrate in fresh water bodies. They make a lime substrate loose, easily deerable to various influences of chemical and physical factors. Secondly, a series of algae in fresh and marine water bodies can translate dissolved calcium salts into insoluble and deposit them on their tallons. A number of tropical green algae, in particular Galimeda, puts out calcium carbonate in Talloma. They take an active part in the construction of reefs. Giant deposits of remains GalimediaSometimes reaching 50 m in height occur in continental shelf waters associated with a large barrier reef in Australia and other regions at a depth of 12 to 100 m.

Green climbing algae, entering symbiotic relations with mushrooms, is part of lichens. About 85% of lichens contain single-cellular and nichly green algae, 10% - cyanobacteria and 4% (or more) to contain both bluenese and green algae. As an endosimbionth, they exist in the cells of the simplest, cryptophyte algae, hydr, sponges and some flat worms. Even chloroplasts of individual siphone algae, for example Codium, become symbilation for naked clamsters. These animals feed on algae, whose chloroplars remain viable in the cells of the respiratory cavity, and in the light they are very effective photosynthesis. A row of green algae develops on mammalian wool. Endosimbionts, undergoing morphological changes compared to free-lived representatives, do not lose the ability to photosynthesize and multiply inside the host cells.

Economic significance. The widespread spread of green algae determines their huge importance in the biosphere and human economic activities. Thanks to the ability to photosynthesis, they are the main producers Huge number organic substances in reservoirswhich are widely used by animals and man. Carbon dioxide absorbing carbon dioxide, green algae is saturated with its oxygen necessary for all living organisms. Their role in the biological cycle of substances is great. Fast reproduction and very high speed of assimilation (approximately 3-5 times higher than that of land plants) lead to the fact that the mass of algae increases more than 10 times. At the same time, carbohydrates are accumulated in chlorellah cells (in breeding strains, their content reaches 60%), lipids (up to 85%), vitamins B, C and K. Khlorella protein, which can accounterably up to 50% of the dry mass of the cell, contains all indispensable amino acids. The unique ability of species Chlorella Assimulate from 10 to 18% of light energy (against 1-2% of land plants) allows you to use this green algae for air regeneration in closed biological systems of human life support with long-term space flights and underwater floors.

A number of green algae species use as indicator organismsin the system of monitoring aquatic ecosystems. Along with the phototrophic power supply, many single-celled green algae (chlamondamonds) are capable of sucking through the shell dissolved organic matter, which contributes to the active cleansing of polluted water in which these species develop. Therefore, they are used for cleaning and cookingpolluted waters , as well as feedin fishery reservoirs.

Some types of green algae are used by the population of a number of countries. in food. For food purposes, for example, in Japan, specifically cultivate species Ulwa. These algae are widely used, especially in the countries of Southeast Asia, called Sea Salad. Ulvovy protein content (up to 20%) noticeably exceed other types of algae. Separate types of green algae are used in quality of producers of physiologically active substances.Green algae is a good model object for a variety of biological research. Types of hematococcus culture to obtain Astaxanthin, Botrocokus - to obtain lipids. At the same time, with the "blooming" of the water of one of the lakes in Taiwan caused by Botriococcus, the death of fish is associated.

Types of birth Chlorella and Chlamydonas - model objects To study photosynthesis in vegetable cells. ChlorellaThanks to the very high breeding rates, is an object of mass cultivation for use in various fields.

Surface films of green algae have a large anti-erosion meaning. Some unicellular species of green algae, separating abundant mucus, have a faster value. The mucous membranes of the cell membranes glue the soil particles. The development of algae affects the structuring of the fineness, giving it water resistance And preventing the removal from the surface layer. The soil moisture under the algae films is usually higher than where they are missing. In addition, the films reduce the water permeability of the soil and slow down the evaporation of water, which affects the saline mode of the soil. Decreases flushing from the soil of easily soluble salts; Their content under the macros of algae is higher than on other sites. At the same time, the receipt of salts from deep layers of soil slows down.

Soil algae influence both the growth and development of higher plants. Having physiologically active substances, they accelerate the growth of seedlings, especially their roots.

Among green algae living in contaminated water bodies, usually chlorococcal, resistant to the long-term effects of many toxic substances dominate.

Algae cells are capable of accumulating from water various chemical elements, and their accumulation coefficients are quite high. Powerful concentrators are freshwater green algae, especially the nice. In this case, the intensity of the accumulation of metals in them is much higher than in other freshwater hydrobionts. Considerable interest is the ability of algae to concentrate radioactive elements. The dead algae cells hold the accumulated elements are no less durable than living, and in some cases desorption from dead cells is less than that of alive. The ability of a number of labor ( Chlorella, Sessenmus et al.) Concentrate and firmly to hold chemical elements and radionuclides in their cells allows you to use them in specialized cleaning systems for decontivation industrial wastewater, for example, for additional purification of weakly balance sheets of nuclear power plants.

Some green algae are antagonists of influenza virus, poliovirus et alicated by algae biologically active substances play an important role in disinfection of water and suppressing the vital activity of pathogenic microflora.

In special biological ponds of algae and bacteria, use for decomposition and detoxification of herbicides. Proved the ability of a series of green algae hydrolyzing herbicide disappeared, which is rapidly destroyed by bacteria.

test questions

Name the characteristic features of the structure of the cage of green algae.

What pigments and types of food are known in green algae?

How do green algae breed? What is zyospoda, aplanery, motor athletes?

What classes are distinguished from green algae?

Name the characteristic features of green algae class ultrasound.

Name the characteristic features of the green algae of the class of briopside.

Name the characteristic features of the green algae class chlorofic.

Name the characteristic features of the green algae grade.

Name the characteristic features of the Green Algae of the Prazin class.

In which habitats are green algae? Describe their main environmental groups.

The role and importance of green algae in nature.

What is the economic value of green algae?

What is "water bloom"? Participation of green algae in biological water purification.

Green algae as non-traditional energy sources.

The originality of the intracellular structure of red algae is made up of both the characteristics of conventional cellular components and the presence of specific intracellular inclusions.

Cell shells. Two layers are well different in the cellular shells of red algae: internal consisting of cellulose, and the outer, built by pectin compounds. At forms with a coarse hard layered outside of cell walls, a thin layer of cuticle is developing. In terms of the composition and structure of the bugs, the bugs differs from the cuticle of higher plants. For example, in porphyra, it is formed as a result of thickening molecules of monosaccharide mannose. Soft mucous forms have no cuticle.

Pectin substances of red algae are calcium salts and magnesium of special pectic acids. They have the ability to dissolve in boiling water to form mucous solutions. The group of pectin substances also includes special colloidal substances that are contained in cellular shells and interclausers of many bugs. They are a complicated mixture of polysaccharides containing sulfur and are common name of fiscocolloids. Ficoccolloids are not dissolved in cold water, but they are well dissolved in boiling to form colloidal systems. Currently, ficoccolloids of red algae, as well as brown, are the most important products obtained from seaweed. Since these substances are widely used in human economic life, their chemical composition is well studied. Ficoccolloids are obtained from many species, as a result there are several of their varieties. Agar, Carragein, Nori, Agaroids are most famous. These substances differ from each other in composition and properties, but possess a common gelling ability.

The presence of colloidal substances causes the ability of cell shells to a strong swelling after dying, thanks to which they can hardly be paint during the study.

Among the red algae there are forms, the shells of which are integrated. At first, the lime is delayed in the median plate, between the outer and the inner layer of the shell, penetrating gradually into the cellulose layer and more or less strongly impregnate it. But even with a strong occasion, there is always a thin membrane, devoid of lime and separating plasma from the lime layer.

The composition of the lime compounds of unequal. Calcite is postponed from collinov, some non-Lyamy - Aragonite. In addition, calcium and magnesium carbonates are found, as well as iron.

The growth of the shells is as follows. New layers of it are laid on the top of the protoplastic of the apicial cell, while the outer layers as the cells grow gradually break. As a result, the entire shell has a layered structure and, since the new layers are deposited at a certain angle, it resembles a funnel.

The cytoplasm of red algae is characterized by a high viscosity and fits tightly to the cell walls. It is very easily subjected to plasmolysis, and therefore the red algae is very sensitive to changing the conditions of the external environment, in particular to destruct.

Nucleus. Among the red algae there is a large number of forms with single-core cells. As a rule, it is the most simply organized forms. In highly organized cells, the cells are usually multi-core, with the exception of young cellular cells - apical, cow, etc. Single-core cells of bounded growth branches under certain states become multi-core. However, it is also possible to find such algae who have old cells of the central yarns of one-core, and the more younger cells around them, on the contrary, contain several nuclei. Reproductive cells - sperm, carposport, tetrasps - always with one nucleus, but egg cells are often surrounded by multi-core cells, even in forms, all the layer of which consists of single-core cells. The kernel of red algae is fine, has a clear nuclear sheath and nucleolus.

Chloroplasts. There are one or more chloroplasts in red algae cells. In plants class Bangiyev and primitive representatives of the most lowly organized order of the Navy, there is a single stellar chloroplastic with one pyreneoid. It usually occupies an axial position in the cell and then consists of a central body and departing from it in all directions of processes (Fig. 149, 2). Pyrenoid with axial chloroplast is in its center. The processes arising from the central chloroplast can expand on the periphery and closed among themselves, forming a wired chloroplast of an incorrect or belt-shaped form. Probably auxiliated chloroplastic of most bugs comes from axial as a result of the loss of the central part.

The role of Pyrenoid in red algae is not very clear. In some cases, its presence is associated with the deposition of starch grains; In the other, Pyrenoid is found in cells that are not involved in assimilation processes. In more highly organized forms, the pyrenoid is the proceedings; This process can be traced in the order of Navy.

In red algae, devoid of pyrenoids, chloroplasts are two main types - tanning and lenzide (or discs) with numerous transitions between them (Fig. 154). Species standing at a lower level of evolution, usually have a ribbon chloroplastic; For highly organized forms, on the contrary, lenzide chloroplasts are more characteristic. The same can be said about the number of chloroplasts - the number of them with the complication of the organization increases. The form of chloroplast is not something permanent, it can change with age, with the conditions of lighting, with a change in cell size, although often large bugger groups are characterized by chloroplast of a certain form. In the ceramium in large cells of interstitial chloroplasts elongated, tanning, and in short cortic cells on nodes are short, incorrectly paddle plates. The reproduction of chloroplasts occurs by simple hauling, like the highest plants.

According to its thin structure, apparently only under an electron microscope, red algae chloroplasts almost do not differ from the chloroplasts of other algae.

Pigments. The bugs are distinguished by a complex set of pigments. In addition to the usual chlorophyll alcohol, carotene and xantophyll alcohol, chlorophers, red algae chloroplasts contain additional water-soluble biliprotein pigments. This is a ficoeroidrin and a ficotian. Green plants, both algae and ground, contain two modifications of chlorophyll - blue-green chlorophyll A and yellow-green chlorophyll b. Red algae found only chlorophyll A - a universal pigment characteristic of all plants. In addition, some bugs were found chlorophyll D, the nature of which, however, remains still not clarified. Green pigments in the bugs compared with higher plants contain a bit, and they usually mask additional biliproteins. Some regularity is noticed in changing the amount of chlorophyll, depending on the amount of light. Algae, adapted to life at low illumination in the polar seas, is usually richer with chlorophyll than the algae of the southern seas. Similarly, deep-sea algae is richer chlorophyll than the growing water.

Karotinoids of red algae are represented by α- and β-carotene and xanthofillas with lutein, zeaxantine and probably Taracantine. Biliproteins of the bugs are red ficoeroidrin and blue ficotian. They are close to pigments of blue-green algae, but are not identical to them, as they differ in chemical composition. As shown in numerous experiments, the number of pigments in the bugs increases with depth; In this case, the amount of ficoerythrin increases to a greater extent than the amount of chlorophyll. Everyone who collected these algae in nature, knows that painted in red bugs grow at a depth and that they change the color in the shallow water. With an increase in the amount of light, they become pale-red, then yellow-green, straw and finally discolored.

There is the theory of the so-called chromatic adaptation, according to which the penetration of algae onto or other depths is associated with the quality of light passing through the thickness of the water. As you know, the rays from the green and blue parts of the spectrum penetrate deeper. The red pigments of the bugs allow them to photosynthesize in blue rays, and therefore, according to this theory, they penetrate depth, inaccessible to other algae. However, in practice, this pattern is not always observed. What is the role of biliproteins in the photosynthesis of red algae? In experiments, it was found that with weak lighting, they are involved in reinforced absorption of light. Therefore, they can be considered optical sensitizers. Thus, the penetration of red algae to significant depths more correctly explain their ability to absorb small amounts of light. In general, the Bagryanka - shadowable organisms: weak light they are capable of using better than other algae. If the red color of algae with a weak light receives advantages, then with a stronger, on the contrary, the intensity of the photosynthesis of the bugs is lower than that of other algae, just due to the presence of red pigments. To protect against strong light from the bugs living on small depths, especially in the tropical and subtropical seas, serve special iriding tales. These mute-yellow irregular shapes are formed in vacuoles of surface cells of the layer and consist of small grains of protein nature. They have the ability to scatter and reflect the sun rays falling on them. With very strong illumination, the iridating calves are located under the outer wall of the cell, while chloroplast - on the inner or side, and serve as a kind of curtain for chloroplast. When a plant hit, in the conditions of diffused light, mutual movement occurs and chloroplast turns out to be at the outer wall.

Algae, with iridium calves, are usually in the falling light of a bluish-steel shine. In some species in cells, large lens-like bodies occur, which with a decrease in illumination disappear.

Spare substances. As a product of assimilation, polysaccharide is postponed in red algae, called buggy starch. In the chemical nature, it is closest to the amylopectin and glycogen and, apparently, occupies an intermediate position between the usual starch and glycogen. The buggy starch is selected in the form of small semi-solid calves of various shapes and coloring. These calves may have the shape of cones or flat oval plates with a deepening on a wide surface. Often you can see the concentric zones. The grains of the buggy starch are formed partially in the cytoplasm, partly on the surface of chloroplasts, but they are never formed inside the plastic, unlike the usual starch of green plants. At forms having a Pyrenoid, the latter to some extent participates in the synthesis of starch.

In addition to the buggy starch, the sugar of tregalosis, floridoside, sucrose, and others are postponed in red algae, and others. Some forms in abundance are multiatomic alcohols. Cholesterol, Syloserol, Fukosterol are known from fats. The content of fats varies depending on the conditions of the medium.

Breeding cells. A feature of red algae is the presence of some representatives of the Floridian special cells with colorless content, strongly refractive light (Fig. 155). In the literature, they are known as bubble, or fermented, cells. The content of these cells in different algae has different nature; They are filled with ionist, less often bromide, connections. Most often, ferrous cells are found in the order of ceramic. At the nichtail branched algae, the antyatamnion they sit on the upper side of the side branches (Fig. 155, 2). In their development, a small lens-shaped cell containing a small amount of plasma and small red chloroplasts is first stated. The kernel can be traced only at the earliest stage of development. Soon, at the bottom of this cell, a colorless light-timing bubble is formed. OP grows, and with it the entire cell increases in size. In the generated cell, most of the bubble is occupied, and only in the upper part there is a narrow layer of plasma with small chloroplasts (Fig. 155, 2-5). The role of bubble cells is not clarified, although there are many different assumptions on this score. They are considered underdeveloped spacers, storage of spare parts, "swimming bubbles", etc.

Breeding cells are characteristic of certain groups of algae and therefore serve as an important taxonomic sign.

Hair. The formation of hairs is a widespread phenomenon in the Floridian class. Real hairs of the bugs should be distinguished from the hairless branches or false hairs. At species with a single-row nichrofic layer, one can see how the final cells of the side twists are lengthened and discolored by purchasing the hair-like structure (Fig. 151, 7). This is false hairs. Real hairs of red algae are divided into two types: unicellular and multicellular. Unicellular hairs never branch. In single-row nital forms, they are formed from the tops of the branches, in the multi-row - from the surface cells of the crust. The cell of the future hairs is separated from the mother cell by the transverse partition and is strongly pulled out, reaching the length of a millimeter and more (Fig. 156). It contains the kernel and a small amount of cytoplasm. Chloroplast as the hair grows disappears, and the hair becomes colorless. Typically, the maternal cell of the hairs is no different from neighboring vegetative cells, but sometimes it is much larger and remains well noticeable after the hairs drop. In coraline, the hairs are not independent cells, but are only growing special cells from which the opi is not separated by the partition. These cells are much larger than others and are known as trico or heterocyte (Fig. 172, 2, 3). If in the class of florida unicellular hairs there are quite often, then the Banguius is missing completely.

,

Multicolor hairs are usually more or less strongly branched. They are found only in some algae from the order of ceramic. As shown in experiments, the main role of hairs is that they contribute to the absorption of nutrients from the environment.

Pores. One of the most interesting features of red algae is that cells, aligning layers, are connected to each other with the help of special formations called nonorages. Between herd cells, i.e., the cells originating from the same maternal is carried out by means of primary pores (Fig. 157, 2-3). They are formed as a result of an incomplete partition between two newly generated cells. The primary pores are located in the middle of the partition, at a point through which it is possible to carry out a line connecting the nuclei of the daughter cells, and are a thin plate. Through this plate there are heavy, which connect the cytoplasm of neighboring cells. Until recently, it was believed that primary pores are characterized only by Floridaev and are absent in the Bangiyev class - it was one of the fundamental signs, on the basis of which both of these classes distinguished. But recently the primary pores were open to representatives of the Banguiyev class.

Plant life: in 6 volumes. - M.: Enlightenment. Edited by A. L. Takhtajian, chief editor of CT. Academy of Sciences of the USSR, prof. A.A. Fedorov. 1974 . Biological encyclopedia

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All algae differ well on the set of photosynthetic pigments. Such groups in plant systematics have the status of departments.

The main pigment of all algae is the green pigment chlorophyll. Four types of chlorophyll, which differ in their structure are known: chlorophyll A. - all algae and higher plants are present; chlorophyll B. - It is found in green, kharov, eugenous algae and at higher plants: plants containing this chlorophyll always have a bright green color; chlorophyll C. - occurs in heterobonte algae; chlorophyll D. - A rare shape, occurs in red and syneselen algae. Most photosynthetic plants contain two different chlorophyll, one of which is always chlorophyll a. In some cases, instead of the second chlorophyll present biliproteins. Snenelen and red algae there are two types of biliproteins: ficotianin - Blue pigment, ficoErytrin - Red pigment.

Mandatory pigments belonging to photosynthetic membranes are yellow pigments - carotenoids. They differ from chlorophylls by the spectrum of the absorbed light and are believed to perform a protective function, the prevention of chlorophyll molecules from the destructive effects of molecular oxygen.

In addition to the listed pigments in algae there are: fukoxanthin - Golden pigment; xanthophil - Brown pigment.

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Cell cover
Cell covering ensure the stability of the internal contents of cells to external influences and give the cells a certain form. Covers are permeable for water and low-molecular dissolved in it

Flagella
Monad vegetative cells and monad stages in the life cycle (zyospore and gamets) of algae are equipped with flavored flames - long and rather thick magic of cells, outside the plasma-coated. AND

Mitochondria
Mitochondria is found in eukaryotic algae cells. The form and structure of mitochondria in algae cells are more diverse compared to the mitochondria of higher plants. They can be rounded

Platids
Pigments in eukaryotic algae cells are located in plasts, like all plants. Algae has two types of plastids: painted chromoplasts (chromatophores) and colorless leukoplasts (Ami

Core and mitotic
The core of algae has a structure typical of eukaryot. The number of cores in the cell can vary from one to several. Outside the core is covered with a shell consisting of two membranes, outer memb

Monad (flavor) Type of Taloma structure
The most characteristic feature determining this type of structure is the presence of flagellas, with the help of which monadic organisms are actively moving in an aqueous medium (Fig. 9, a). Movable J.

Rizoodial (Ameboid) Structure Type
The largest significant signs of the amoeboid type of structure are the absence of strong cell cover and the ability to the amoeboid movement using the Qi's temporarily formed on the surface

Palmello (hemimonade) structure
A characteristic of this type of structure is a combination of a fixed plant lifestyle with the presence of cellular organelle, characteristic of monad organisms: contracting vacuoles, stigma, harness

Koko-shaped structure
This type combines unicellular and colonial algae, fixed in vegetative state. Cocked-type cells are dressed as a shell and have a vegetable type protoplastic (Socrates tonoplastic

Trichial (nital) structure
A characteristic feature of the nichly type of structure is the filamental arrangement of fixed cells, which are formed in a vegetative way as a result of cell division, which is what is happening

Heterotrichal (discontended) structure
The discontinued type appeared on the basis of the nichly type. The discontinuous layer consists mostly from the horizontal, depressing on the substrate threads performing the function of attachment, and vertical,

Parenchimato (fabric) structure
One of the directions of the evolution of the disgraced layer was associated with the occurrence of parenchymal layers. The ability to unlimited growth and cell division in different directions led to

Siphonal type of structure
Siofonal (non-cell) type of structure is characterized by the absence of inside the layer, reaching relatively large, usually macroscopic sizes and a certain degree of differentiation, cells

SiphofoColdal type of structure
The main feature of the siphonoclander type of structure is the ability to form from the primary non-tossing layer of complexly arranged layers consisting of primary multi-core segments. AT

Dust reproduction
Miscellaneous reproduction of algae is carried out with the help of specialized cells - dispute. Sporing is usually accompanied by a protoplast division into parts and the release of fission products from

Simple division
This method of reproduction is found only in single-cell forms of algae. The most simply division occurs in cells having an amoeboid type of body structure. Division of amoeboid form

Fragmentation
Fragmentation is inherent in all groups of multicellular algae and manifests itself in different forms: the formation of hydrogonials, regeneration of broken parts of the layer, spontaneous disappearance of branches, relief

Reproduction of shoots, collises, brood kidneys, nodules, Akinids
In tissue forms of green, brown and red algae, vegetative reproduction acquires its finished shape, which differs little from the vegetative reproduction of higher plants. Keeping down

Sexual reproduction
Sexual reproduction in algae is associated with a sexual process, which lies in the fusion of two cells, as a result of which the zygota is formed, growing into a new individual or giving zyospore.

Change of nuclear phases
With a sexual process, as a result of the merger, the Games and their nuclei doubling the number of chromosomes in the kernel. At a certain stage of the development cycle, during meyosis, the reduction of the number of chromosomes, in the result

Endophytes / endozoites, or endosimbilation
Endosimbionths, or intracellular symbiontes - algae living in tissues or cells of other organisms (invertebrate animals or algae). They form a kind of environmental groom

Department of Ceanelen Algae (Cyanobacteria) - Cyanophyta
In the title of the department (from Greek. Cyanos - blue) reflects the characteristic feature of these algae - Taloma color, associated with a relatively high content of the blue pigment of the phycocianin. Cyanogen

Order- chroococcalas.
They meet in the form of unicellular "simple" individuals or more often form mucous colonies. When dividing cells in two planes, single-layer plate colonies occur. Division in three

Department of Red Algae- Rhodophyta
The name of the department comes from the Greek word Rhodon ("Rodon") -rone. Coloring of red algae is due to various combination of pigments. It happens from gray and purple

Order Bangian-Bangiales
The genus of porphyra has a layered in the form of a thin shiny plate with smooth or folded edges consisting of one or two layers of tightly connected cells. The base of the plate usually goes into

Order Raminous - Rhodymeniales
Genus sparlic (pondation) - flat plates up to 45 cm height, leafide and wedge-shaped, extended and palphatic laid up, from light pink or light orange

Coralinal order - Corallinales
Fog of coraline - segmental fan-shaped branched bushes up to 10 cm height, branched, lime, from pink-lilac to almost white. Multiplied with a petty and sexual way. SPO

Order Gigarontinov - Gigartinales
The genus chondrus is dense leathery shine bushes up to 20 cm height, 3-4 times branched, light yellow, light pink, purple-dark red. Grows at the bottom of the littoral and

Procedure Ceramium - Ceramiales
The genus Ceramium is gentle fluffy segic bushes up to 10 cm height, dichotomically or alternately branched, dark yellow with a pinkish color shade. Branching two or four orders

Diatoma Diatoma Department - Bacillariophyta
The department is called diatoms of algae (from Greek. Di - two, TOME - cut, dissection), or bacyllari (bacillum - wand). Includes single-celled single or colonial org

Department of heterobonte (separation) algae - Heterokontophyta
All heteroconts seem like a flavor apparatus. There are 2 flagellas, and on one of them there are very characteristic tubular three-membered pasty grows, or hairs - mastigoons. It is right

Systematics
Fossil Coccolites are known from Mesozoic sediments and were abundant throughout the Holy Part of Jurassic and in the Chalome Periods. The maximum variety of remedicifications reached in Late Chalk,

Cryptophyted algae (cryptomanone) - Cryptophyta
The department is named according to the typical kind of cryptosas (from Greek. Kryptos - hidden, monas - a person). Includes unicellular, movable, monadic organisms. Cryptophyt cells

A B C D E
Fig. 53. Appearance of cryptophyte algae (by: G.A. Belyakova et al., 2006): A - Romononas, B - Hroyomonas, B - Kryptomonas, G - Khilonas, D - Goniomonas may form

Department Green Algae - Chlorophyta
Green algae is the most extensive of all algae departments, consisting of different estimates from 4 to 13 - 20 thousand species. All of them have a green layer, which is due to the predominance of Chloro

URLOTRICHES ORDER - ULOTRICHALES
Rod of Ulotrix (Fig. 54). Types of ulotrins dwell more often in fresh, less often in marine, saltwatened water bodies and in the soil. They are attached to underwater subjects, forming bright green bushes

Order of Briopside- Bryopsidales.
Most of the species are found in fresh and saltwatened water bodies. Some of them grow on the ground, on the stones, sand and sometimes in salt marshes. Rod Bropcis - Fit-shaped bushes up to 6-8 s

VOLVOKSE ORDER - Volvocales
The genus of chlamdomanade (Fig. 57) includes over 500 types of single-cell algae, which live in fresh, small, well-warmed and contaminated water bodies: ponds, puddles, ditch, etc. Etc

Harofite Department (Harovy) - Charophyta
Harofite - line of freshwater green algae, led to higher plants. These are forms predominantly with a nice Talomom. Often tall vertical, dismembered and carries

Dinophyte Department (Dinoflagellats) - Dinophyta
1. The name of the department comes from Greek. Dineo - rotate. Combines predominantly unicellular monads, less often cocked, amoboid or palmelloid, sometimes colonial

EUGLENOZOA DEPARTMENT - EUGLEMAL
The name of the name according to the typical family - Euglena (from Greek. EU is well developed, Glene is a pupil, eye). Combines single monads or amoeboid representatives. Occasionally meet K.

Dictionary Terminos
Autoga - sexual reproduction, in which two nursing haploid nuclei merge in a common cytoplasm. AvtoPora - the structure of the most powerful reproduction

Algae, unicellular and multicellular shapes of benthic algae. There are all morphological types of layers, except for rhizo-beam single-celled and large multicellular forms with a complex structure. Many nichly green algae are attached to the substrate only in the early stages of development, then they become free-lived by forming mats or balls.

Green algae is the most extensive Department of Algae: according to approximate calculations here comes from 13,000 to 20,000 species. All of them differ primarily with a pure-green color of their layers similar from the color of higher plants and caused by the predominance of chlorophyll over other pigments.

Structure

Guridic cells of green algae are omokons - flagellas have a similar structure, although they may vary in length. Usually there are two flagellas, but they can also be four or many. Gurities of green algae do not make mastigue (unlike heterocont), but may have elegant hairs or flakes.

Life cycles

Life cycles of green algae are very diverse. There are all sorts of types.

Haplobionate with zyotic reduction ( Hydrodictyon Reticulatum., Eudorina.). Bow-mapping grounds are exempt from the parent cell in time in its shell, the merge merge is carried out using a tube. Next, the zygota turns into a resting zygospore, and after the period of physiological rest germinals with the formation of 4 zoospores (as a result of meiotic division). Each zoospore forms a polyhedron and germinates, forming small spherical meshes from the merging zoospore.

Gaplo-diplobionic with a disposal reduction ( ULVA., Ulothrix., some species Cladophora.). Twowood isholes leave the maternal cell, after which the gamets formed by different threads merge in water. A four-pitch's zygote is formed, which actively soars in water. After that, it descends on any substrate and is covered with a dense shell, turning into a duby-shaped cell (codion), then follows the stage of physiological peace. Upon the occurrence of favorable conditions, it grows in 4-16 zoosports or aplane carriages, which, after a short period of swimming, are attached to the substrate and germinate into new threads. Activate the output from the reproaching state of various factors: an increase in temperature, change in the medium, etc.

Diplobionic with gamutic reduction ( Bryopsis.). The planosigote is settled and germinates into a nichly layered layer with a large core, the kernel is divided in this way, stefano-contamined zyospores grow into vegetative tall.

Especially a lot of green algae develops in the spring, when all the stones on the littorals are covered with solid emerald raid from green algae, sharply contrasting with white snow lying on coastal stones. A darous green carpet on the stones form developing threads - Ulotriks ( Ulothrix.) and Warrow ( Urospora.). In the summer, many egagropyl is often developed ( AEGAGROPILA LINNAEI.) (SYN. Cladophora aegagropila.), Which often has the kind of green mucosa. On an open rocky coast, bright green branched bushes forms acrosimifony ( Acrosiphonia).

Role in nature and use

Some green algae (for example, ulva) are widely eaten. Chlorella is used as an indicator of the level of water pollution and contain on space ships, submarines for cleaning air from carbon dioxide.