Any ecosystem. Composite parts of the ecosystem. Who introduced into science the concept of "ecosystem"

Live organisms and their non-residential (abiotic) environment are inseparable connected with each other, are in constant interaction. All jointly functioning organisms (biotic community) in this area and interacting with the physical medium in such a way that the energy flow creates clearly defined structures and the circulation of substances between live and inanimate parts, is an ecological system.

The ecological system (ecosystem) is the main functional unit in ecology. This term was first proposed in 1935 by the English ecologist A. Tensley (1871-1955). The same idea of \u200b\u200bthe ecosystem has arisen much earlier.

Currently, the following ecosystem definition has been widespread. The ecosystem is any combination of organisms and inorganic components in which there can be a circulation of substances. By N.F. Reimers (1990), ecosystem is any community of living beings and its habitat, combined into a single functional integer, arising from interdependence and causal relations that exist between individual environmental components. It should be emphasized that a combination of a specific physicochemical environment (biotope) with a community of living organisms (biocenosis) and forms an ecosystem.

A. Tensley proposed the following ratio: ecosystem \u003d biotope + biocenosis

By definition V.N. Sukacheva, Biogeocenosis (from Greek.BIOS - Life, GE - Earth, Koinos - General) - This is a combination of homogeneous natural elements (atmosphere, rock, vegetation, animal world and the world of microorganisms, soil and hydrological conditions) on a certain section of the earth's surface. Biogerocenosis contour is installed along the border of the plant community (phytocenosis).

The terms "Environmental System" and "Biogeocenosis" are not synonymous. The ecosystem is any combination of organisms and their habitats, including, for example, a pot with a flower, an anthill, aquarium, a swamp, a piloted spacecraft. The listed systems lack a number of signs from the definition of V.N. Sukacheva, and first of all the element "Geo" - Earth. Biocenoses are only natural education. However, biocenosis can be fully considered as an ecosystem. Thus, the concept of "ecosystem" is wider and fully covers the concept of "biogeocenosis" or "biogeocenosis" - a private event of the ecosystem.

From a modern point of view, the ecosystem is called the combination of producers, consumers and childhood, interacting with each other and with the environment surrounding them by metabolism, energy and information in such a way that this unified system retains stability for a long time.

The ecosystem existing on Earth is diverse and they are classified:

According to the composition:

Microshosystems (for example, the trunk of the rotting tree).

Mesoecosystems (forest, pond, lake, etc.).

Macroecosystems (continent, ocean, etc.).

Global - the biosphere of the Earth.

Large ground ecosystems are called biomami.

By origin:

Natural (natural).

Artificial (anthropogenic): agricultural, urban and industrial.

However, such a separation of ecosystems is very relative, since today there are no ecosystems in the world that would not have experienced human influence.

Natural (natural):

1. Ground (biomes) - Forest (rainforest, Moderate belt forest, coniferous (taiga), tundra), steppes, meadows, desert.

Forest ecosystems- The most important biosphere: They enrich the atmosphere with oxygen and maintain the level of carbon dioxide in it. The forests play a leading role in the water cycle: the surface of the forest soil is covered with a litter and absorbs raindling and snowy water, raging the reserves of groundwater. Forest soils filter water flowing from fields and industrial sites, and purify them from many harmful impurities. Forest ecosystems evaporate in the atmosphere of moisture and have a beneficial effect on the climate, increasing air humidity.

Natural feeding (Senokos and pastures) are a steppe- Communities with a predominance of drought-resistant species (xerophytes) and luga- Communities of mesophytes, i.e. species growing in conditions of sufficient, but not excessive moisture.

Mountain ecosystems- The most important factor in climate formation, as they serve natural obstacles when moving large air masses and clouds carrying rains.

For example, the Ural Mountains, like all other mountain ecosystems, have two features: high biological diversity due to vertical explanation and low resistance to economic use regime, which is associated with the danger of soil erosion.

2. Freshwater:

Standing water:lakes, ponds, reservoirs.

Current waters:rivers, streams.

Wetlands:swamps and marches are coastal strips of water poured by raising water levels.

Swamp- These are the ecosystems of excessive moisture, in which the humus is not accumulated as a detritus, as in the soil, and peat (weakly overloading the remains of plants). Swamps play an important role as regulators

hydrological regime of territories: Mixing moisture during the melting period of snow and autumn precipitation, they feed the streams and rivers in dry periods of the year. The swamps are agricultural ecosystem sanitation. Water flowing in them can contain fertilizers, residues of pesticides, petroleum products, dung drains, and flowing from the swamp of streams completely purified from these impurities.

3. Sea (open ocean, the water of the continental shelf, bays, the mouth of rivers, the limana are shallow bay when the river falls into the sea, deep-sea reef areas of the world ocean).

By time of existence:

• 1. High-resistant - preserving their characteristic features for a long time.
• 2. Short-term (for example, the ecosystem of Spring Early Suffling Lizad).

By source of energy:

• 1. AutoTrophic: photoauthotrophic, chemoavtrophic.
• 2. Heterotrophic.

The structure of the ecosystem is distinguished by abiotic and biotic components. The abiotic component consists of inorganic substances that take part in the cyphans of substances in nature; organic compounds that bind biotic and abiotic part; Air, water, substrate medium, which includes climatic factors. The biotic component is represented by alive organisms, has a species, spatial and trophic structure. The spatial structure of the ecosystem is manifested in Lieuner: AutoTrophic processes are most actively proceeded in the upper tier - "green belt", where sunlight is available. Heterotrophic processes are most intense for the lower tier - "brown belt". Organic substances accumulate in soils and precipitation. The trophic structure of the ecosystem is represented by producers - manufacturers of organic matter, consumers - consumers of the organic matter and the Rinducents - the decompositions of the organic matter to the initial mineral elements.

Thus, in the composition of the ecosystem, the following components can be distinguished:

• W inorganic substances (carbon, nitrogen, carbon dioxide, water, etc.), which are included in the cycle;
• Ø organic compounds (proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, humus substances, etc.), binding biotic and abiotic parts;
• W Air, water and substrate medium, including climatic regime and other physical factors;
• H production, autotrophic organisms (green plants, blue-green algae, photo and chemosynthetic bacteria), producing food from simple inorganic substances;
• W Consumes - heterotrophic organisms, mainly animals that feed on other organisms or particles of organic matter;
• W Relucet and Detritophages - heterotrophic organisms, mostly bacteria and mushrooms, resulting in energy or by decomposing dead tissues, or by absorbing a dissolved organic matter that is distinguished by spontaneously or extracted by saprophytes from plants and other organisms.

Ecosystems are not scattered in disorder, they are grouped into quite regular zones as horizontally (in latitude) and vertically (height). This is confirmed by the periodic law of geographic zonality A.A. Grigoriev - M.I. Budyko: With the change of the physico-geographical belts of the Earth, similar landscape zones and their some common properties are periodically repeated (Fig. 1).

For the natural ecosystem, three features are characterized:

• 1) the ecosystem is necessarily a totality of living and non-living components;
• 2) within the ecosystem, a full cycle is carried out, starting with the creation of an organic matter and ending with its decomposition into inorganic components;
• 3) The ecosystem retains stability for some time, which is ensured by a certain structure of biotic and abiotic components.

Fig. one.

Note: 1,2,3 - radiation dry index (radiation balance ratio to the amount of heat required to evaporate the annual amount of precipitation). The diameters of the circles are proportional to the biological productivity of landscapes.

Four types of ecosystems are isolated:

Elementary ( microshosystems) - the ecosystems of the lowest rank, in size similar to small components of the medium: the trunk of the rotting tree, a small pond, a dental cavity of a person, etc.;

Local ( mesoecosystems) (forest massif, river, pond, etc.),

Zonal ( macroecosystems) or biomes - large ground ecosystems having a very large distribution (ocean, continents, continents, natural zones - tundra, taiga, rain tropical forests, savanna, etc.) .

Each biome consists of a variety of ecosystems related to each other. The relationship of all ecosystems of our planet creates a global giant ecosystem called Biosphere(Ecosphere).

3. Ecosystem classifications:

Depending on the origin of the ecosystem is divided into:

1) natural (natural) ecosystems- Biological circulation in which, proceeds without direct human participation. Divided into: ground (Forest arrays, steppes, desert) and water: Freshwater and Sea (Swamps, lakes, ponds, rivers, sea).

2) anthropogenic (artificial) ecosystems- ecosystems created by a person to extract benefits that are able to exist only with its support (agroecosystems - artificial ecosystems arising from human agricultural activities; techno-ecosystems - artificial ecosystems arising from the industrial activity of a person; urbanoecosystems (lat. urban) - ecosystems, arising from the creation of human settlements).

3) societies- Natural systems changed by man (park, reservoir).

There are also transients between natural and anthropogenic types of ecosystems (ecosystems of natural pastures used by man for grazing animals).

By source of energy, which ensures their livelihoods, the ecosystems are divided into the following types:

1) avtotrophic ecosystems - These are the ecosystems that themselves provide themselves with the energy obtained from the Sun, at the expense of their own photo or chemotrophic organisms. This type includes most natural ecosystems and some anthropogenic.

2) heterotrophic ecosystems - These are ecosystems that produce energy using ready-made organic compounds, synthesized by organisms that are not components of these ecosystems, or using the energy created by human energy plants. These can be like natural (eg, the oceanic depth ecosystems that use organic residues falling on top) and anthropogenic (eg, cities with their power lines).

4. Ecosystem structure.

Under the structure of the ecosystem understand clearly pronounced patterns in the relationships and connections of its parts. The structure of the multifaceted ecosystem.

Distinguish specimen, spatial, environmental, trophic and border Structures.

Species structure of the ecosystem- this is a variety of species, the relationship and the ratio of their number. Various communities included in the ecosystem consist of a different number of species - species diversity. This is the most important qualitative and quantitative characteristic of the stability of the ecosystem. The basis of biological diversity in wildlife. The species diversity is associated with a variety of habitat environment. In the Taiga Forest, for example, on an area of \u200b\u200b100 m 2, there are usually growing plants about 30 different species, and in the meadow along the river - twice as much.

Depending on the variety of species distinguish rich (Tropical forests, valleys of rivers, coral reefs) and poor (deserts, northern tundra, contaminated reservoirs) ecosystems. The main limiting factors are the temperature, humidity and disadvantage of food. In turn, species diversity serves as the basis environmental diversity - Diversity ecosystems. The combination of genetic, speculative and environmental diversity is biological diversity of the planet - the main condition of sustainability .

The spatial structure of the ecosystem.

The population of different types in the ecosystem is distributed in a certain way and form spatial structure.

Distinguish vertical and horizontal Ecosystem structures.

Foundation vertical structure (Lial) forms vegetation.

Upholstered together plants of the same height create a kind of floors- tiers Elements of the vertical structure of phytocenosis. Eliminate Liality overhead and underground. Example overhead - In the forest, high trees are the first (upper) tier, the second tier is formed from young individuals of the trees of the upper tier and from adult trees smaller in height (together form a tier A - ancient). The third tier consists of shrubs (tier in - undergrowth), the fourth - from high herbs (tier C - herbal). The lowest tier, where there is very little light, make up mosses and low-spirited herbs (tier D - moss-lichen). Liursery It is also observed in grassy communities (meadows, steppes, savannas).

Underground Liery is associated with a different depth of penetration into the soil of root systems of plants: some roots go deep into the soil, reach the level of groundwater, others have a surface root system, catching water and batteries from the upper soil layer. Animals are also adapted to life in one or another vegetable tier (some do not leave their tier at all). Consequently, the tier can be represented as a structural unit of biocenosis, which differs from its other parts with certain environmental conditions, a set of plants, animals, microorganisms.

Horizontal structure (mosaic, spottedness) ecosystems are formed as a result of the inhomogeneity of the microrelief, the properties of the soil, the environmental activity of plants and animals (for example: as a result of human activity - selective cutting, fireproof, etc. or animals - soil emissions with a copper hole, the subsequent earring, the formation of anthills , Pulling and bleeding honeycomb by hoofs, etc., the collens of the stand during hurricanes, etc.)

Thanks to the vertical and horizontal structure of organisms living in the ecosystem, mineral substances of the soil, moisture, light flux are more efficiently used.

Environmental structure Ecosystems are made up of various environmental groups of organisms that can have a different species composition, but to occupy similar ecological niches. Each of the environmental groups performs certain functions in the community: to produce an organic substance using sources of solar and chemical energy, consume it, converting a removable organic into inorganic substances, thereby reincarnating it into the cycle of substances.

An important feature of the structural characteristics of the ecosystem is availability of borders habitats of various communities. They are usually conditional. As a result, a rather extensive border (edge) zone arises, characterized by special conditions. Plants and animals characteristic of each of the contacting communities penetrate the adjacent territories, while creating a specific "edge", the border strip - ecoton . So arises border or regional The effect is an increase in the diversity and density of organisms on the outskirts (edges) of adjacent communities and in transitional belts between them.

5. Functional structure of ecosystems. Functional groups of organisms in the ecosystem.

Live organisms in the ecosystem perform various functions that depend on the types of food. During evolution on Earth, two main types of nutrition arose - avtotrophna and heterotrophic.

In any ecosystem, three functional groups of organisms can be distinguished: producers, consumers and renders.

The basis for the formation and functioning of ecosystems is products- Plants and micro-renovations capable of producing (forgive) organic inorganic substance using light energy - AutoTrophy (avtos -self , troph -eaten , Greek Sl .., photosynthesis) , or energy enclosed in chemical connections of compounds - hemotophopes (chemosynthesis).

AutoTrofam includes green plants (higher vascular), mosses, lichen, green and blue-green algae, which are predominant primary producers - manufacturers of organic ecosystems.

Chemotrofam includes organisms that synthesize the organic substance from the inorganic energy of ammonia oxidation, hydrogen-water, iron, and other substances in the soil or underlying rocks.

Unlike producers forming primary products of ecosystems, organisms using this product got a name gteeprepho. (heteros - different, Greek. Sl.), Used for vital activity, the finished organic matter and the energy of other organisms and their products of their livelihoods.

Heterotrophility possess consue (Consume - consume, lat.) and Recurates.

Phytofagi- Purbitivores (Fitos - Plant, Fagos - Eater, Greek. Sl.) - Considers of the 1st order. Phytophages - secondary solar batteries, originally accumulated by plants.

Zoofagi - Predators, carnivorous - consiefs of the 2nd or 3rd order - eating phytophages and smaller predators. Predators are the most important controllers of biological equilibrium: they not only regulate the number of animal phytophages, but act as sanitation, going first of all patients and weakened animals.

Sixbitophops (Symbiosis - cohabitation, gr.) - Microorganisms of bacteria and mushrooms living on the roots of plants and around them and receiving part of photosynthesis products in the form of organic substances released by roots. They are absorbed from the soil and transmit water and mineral salts to the plant, transfer air nitrogen into forms available for planting by plants. Symbiotrofam also includes microorganisms (bacteria, single-cell animals), which live in the digestive tract of animals - phytophages and help them to digest food.

Saprophages or detritophagi - animals, eating corpses and excrement (crows, daws, hyenas, eagles-vultures, beetles-navigator, flies, etc.). The dead organisms form detritus : A stock of an organic matter, which, as if turned off for some time from the brewing of the organications. Saprophages, going and processing deriters, accelerate its cycle in nature. / P\u003e

A peculiar group of organisms form omnivorouse.or euryfagi. . These are organisms with a mixed power type, i.e. Feeding on animals, plants and even a daddy. For example, bear, fox, pig, chicken, crow, cockroaches, man.

Detritis process I. roducenie (Riltser - Return back, Lat.)(Microconsumens, destructors, saprotrophs, examinations) - heterotrophic organisms, decomposing organic matter - dedrites and excrement of animals to mineral salts, which are returned through soil solutions back to roots of plants (macro and microorganisms - mushrooms, bacteria, simplest). In the course of the vital activity of these organisms, minerals are restored, which again use producers.

Many organisms - children live in the soil, the king of the soil can be called a rainworm, eating dead tissues of plants. Near them through their intestines, it turns them into excrement with a high content of organic substances. This is one of the active manufacturers of soil humus. The mass of rainworms in the soils of highly productive ecosystems may be above the mass of ground animals.

Thus, producers, consversions, reederies presented in the ecosystem by many species guarantee its long-term, stable existence.

Despite the fact that the ecosystem and biogeocenosis are used as the same concept, the ecosystems in size and complexity are distinguished by a variety. While biogeocenoses have certain clear boundaries, the ecosystem boundaries are very difficult to designate. An example of small ecosystems can serve as a drop of water with microbes, rotting stump with its microorganisms, mushrooms and small spinal animals. The composition of the ecosystem may include several biogeo-cenosis.

Thus, the ecosystem is a broader concept compared to biogeocenosis. Any biogeocenosis is an ecosystem, but not every ecosystem can be called biogeocenosis.

Biosphere

The largest ecosystem is a biosphere.

Life on Earth is not interrupted for more than 3.5 billion years due to the cycle of substances in nature. Plants create organic substances from minerals, water, carbon dioxide, using solar energy streams. Animals are used in the process of power ready-made organic substances, and mushrooms, bacteria gradually destroy them to mineral. Mineral substances are again used by plants. So arises biological cycle of substances.

In the natural community, living organisms are associated not only with each other, but also with inanimate nature. Test link between alive and non-residential components of nature and forms an ecosystem.

The cycle of substances in the eco-system can occur if there are reserves of need-duty for the life of biogenic substances and three groups of organisms forming the natural community - manufacturers (producers), consumers (consversions), destroyers (relegates) of organic substances.

There is no single species on Earth, which would not serve the food to others or himself would not eat by the organisms of other species. A number of living organisms in the ecosystem, according to which the transfer of energy enclosed in organic substances is called, called power chain.

Purbittory animals use energy, sparkling by plants in the form of organic substances. However, most of the energy of the plant is raised to the processes of vital activity. Less energy is obtained predators that feed on the vegetable nadal animals. The remains of animals and growing, containing even less energy, are gradually spent by mushrooms and bacteria. Thus, due to the constant waste of energy on the processes of life-activity circuit, they usually consist of a non-large number of links - usually from 3-5.

The total number of types in the ecosystem can be hundreds and thousands. Almost always organisms of different Viots feed on different objects. As a result, a complex nutrition network is based. Due to this, the use of individuals of any species does not affect the ecosystem. It continues to be resistant to exist for a long time.

Flows of substances and energy, pro-walking through living organs, we are very high. So, a person for his life consumes ten-ki tons of water and food, and many milli and we-liters of air pass through the lungs.

By origin

Ecosystems can be natural (forest, meadow, lake) and art-genus (Park, Field, Garden). Material from site.

To size

Ecosystems can be very large (Tund-RA, Taiga), middle sizes (reservoir, birch grove) and at all little (Creek, swamp bump).

Studying the environment as an equilibrium community of living organisms, ideally adapted to habitat in a particular environment with a certain microclimate and a number of other features, led to the appearance of an ecosystem concept.

This word began to call a system that includes the interaction of living beings (biocenosis) and habitat (biotope), their mutual exchanges of energy and substance continuing for a sufficiently long period of time. A bright example of the ecosystem is a pond in which numerous plants, microorganisms, insects, fish, birds and mammals live.

In biology, it is customary to distinguish between the following gradations of ecosystems:

- microecosystems (a drop of water in which microorganisms dwell, the fallen tree trunk with the bacteria and insects living in it);

- Mesoecosystems (separately taken pond or forest array on a certain territory);


- macroecosystems (continental, oceanic);

- Global ecosystem, including our planet.

The global ecosystem is a combination of macroecosystems, and those, in turn, are a combination of mesoecosystems of different scales, or biogeocenoses. Each separate biogeocenosis is the main element of the Global Earth Ecosystem.

Ecosystem components

Any ecosystem includes both alive and non-living components that actively affect each other. The main sign of its existence is the stability of the cycle of substances and phenomena for a sufficiently long period, which is often measured not even to thousands of years, but by millions of years.

The components of biogeocenosis (ecosystem) are mandatory:

- atmosphere (climatop), its climatic features and weather phenomena;

- soil or soil (edafotop) for providing minerals, moisture, organic elements;

- vegetable world (phytocenosis), carrying out the processing of moisture and minerals in organic compounds;


- the animal world (zoecenosis), the nutritional basis for which plants and animals are served;

- microorganisms (microbiocenosis) responsible for the processing of organic residues of dead plants and animals.

To refer to the system of these components in Western biological science, the term uses "ecosystem"Proposed in 1935 by English scientist A. Tedli. Russian scientific school prefers to use the term "Biogeocenosis" authorship of the Soviet biologist V.N. Sukachev. Both names are equivalent in meaning.

Ecosystem characteristics

Given the diversity of living and non-living components that make up any ecosystem, the characteristics that are described its properties are general.

— Sustainability - Main Ecosystem Indicator. Under stability, the ability to maintain its structure with various external influences or changes in the parameters of the medium and recover during the destruction of the part.

— Biodiversity - Quantitative and qualitative variety of species of living beings included in the ecosystem. The higher biodiversity, the more stable is the structure of the ecosystem.

— The complexity of the ecosystem - An indicator, including both the total number of species and the number of interactions between them. The greater the number of bonds is characterized by biogeocenosis, the more stable and faster is restored with any negative impacts.

— Productivity - An indicator expressed as in the form of a total mass of all living beings living on a unit of all living beings and in the form of the same mass in terms of energy or on the amount of dry organics.


In addition, a new factor has appeared in recent century, affecting the ecosystems of all continents - anthropogenic. The environmentology of the whole world is closely monitored that the anthropogenic impact does not exceed the reasonable limits and did not lead to the complete destruction of ecosystems in separate localities.

The ecosystem includes all living organisms (plants, animals, mushrooms and microorganisms), which to some extent, interact with each other and the surrounding inanimate environment (climate, soil, sunlight, air, atmosphere, water, etc. .).

The ecosystem has no definite size. It can be as big as the desert or lake, or small, like a tree or a puddle. Water, temperature, plants, animals, air, light and soil - all interact together.

The essence of the ecosystem

In the ecosystem, each organism has its own place or role.

Consider the ecosystem of a small lake. In it, you can find all kinds of living organisms, from microscopic to animals and plants. They depend on, such as water, sunlight, air, and even on the amount of nutrients in water. (Click to learn more about the five basic needs of living organisms).

Lake ecosystem scheme

Every time, the "outsider" (a living being (a) or an external factor, for example, an increase in temperature) is entered into an ecosystem, catastrophic consequences may occur. This is because the new organism (or factor) is able to distort the natural balance of interaction and carry potential harm or the destruction of the non-ecosystem.

As a rule, biotic members of the ecosystem, together with their abiotic factors depend on each other. This means the absence of one member or one abiotic factor may affect the entire environmental system.

If there is no sufficient amount of light and water, or if the soil contains few nutrients, plants may die. If plants die, animals that depend on them are also threatened. If the animals depending on the plants are dying, then other animals depending on them will also die. Ecosystem in nature works equally. All of it should function together to support balance!

Unfortunately, the ecosystems can be collapsed as a result of natural disasters, such as fires, floods, hurricanes and volcanic eruptions. Human activity also contributes to the destruction of many ecosystems and.

Main types of ecosystems

Environmental systems have indefinite sizes. They are able to exist in a small space, for example, under stone, rotting of the tree or in a small lake, as well as occupy significant territories (as the entire rainforest). From a technical point of view, our planet can be called one huge ecosystem.

Scheme of a small ecosystem of rotting stump

Types of ecosystems depending on the scale:

• Microsysthem- A small scale ecosystem, like a pond, a puddle, tree stump, etc.
• Mesoecosystem - Ecosystem, such as a forest or a large lake.
• Biome Very large ecosystem or aggregate ecosystems with similar biotic and abiotic factors, such as a whole rainforest with millions of animals and trees, and many different water bodies.

The borders of ecosystems are not indicated by clear lines. They are often separated by geographic barriers, such as deserts, mountains, oceans, lakes and rivers. Since the boundaries are not strictly installed, ecosystems, as a rule, merge with each other. That is why the lake can have many small ecosystems with their own unique characteristics. Scientists call such mixing "Ecoton".

Types of ecosystems by type of appearance:

In addition to the above types of ecosystems, there is also a division into natural and artificial environmental systems. The natural ecosystem is created by nature (forest, lake, steppe, etc.), and artificial - man (garden, household plot, park, field, etc.).

Types of ecosystems

There are two main types of ecosystems: aquatic and ground. Any other ecosystems of the world belong to one of these two categories.

Ground ecosystems

Ground ecosystems can be found anywhere in the world and are divided into:

Forest ecosystems

These are ecosystems in which there is an abundance of vegetation or a large number of organisms living in a relatively small space. Thus, in forest ecosystems, the density of living organisms is high enough. A small change in this ecosystem may affect its entire balance. Also, in such ecosystems you can find a huge number of fauna representatives. In addition, forest ecosystems are divided into:

• Tropical evergreen forests or tropical rain forests: receiving average precipitation over 2000 mm per year. They are characterized by thick vegetation, in which high trees are dominated at different heights. These territories are a shelter for various animal species.
• Tropical deciduous forests: Along with a huge variety of trees, shrubs are also found here. This type of forest is found in quite many planet corners and is home to a wide variety of representatives of flora and fauna.
• : Have a rather small number of trees. Evergreen trees are dominated here, which renew their foliage throughout the year.
• Wide forests: Located in wet moderate regions that have a sufficient precipitation. In the winter months, trees drop their foliage.
• : Located immediately before, the taiga is determined by the evergreen coniferous trees, minus temperatures for six months and acidic soils. In the warm season, you can find a large number of migratory birds, insects and.

Desert ecosystem

Desert ecosystems are located in the desert areas and produce less than 250 mm of precipitation per year. They occupy about 17% of all land sushi. Due to the extremely high air temperature, poor access to and intensive sunlight, and not so rich as in other ecosystems.

Ecosystem Luga

The meadows are located in the tropical and temperate regions of the world. The territory of the meadow mainly consists of herbs, with a small number of trees and shrubs. The meadows inhabit grazing animals, insectivorous and vegetative. Two main types of meadows ecosystems are distinguished:

• : Tropical meadows having a dry season and characterized by separately growing trees. They provide food a large number of herbivores, as well as the place of hunting many predators.
• Prairie (moderate meadows): This is an area with moderate herbal cover, completely devoid of large shrubs and trees. The prairies encounter a dispersion and high grass, and also dry climatic conditions are observed.
• Steppe meadows:The territory of dry meadows, which are located near the semi-sore deserts. The vegetation of these meadows is shorter than in savannas and prairies. Trees are rare, and as a rule, are on the shores of rivers and streams.

Mountain ecosystems

Mountainside provides a varied spectrum of habitats, where you can find a large number of animals and plants. At height, harsh climatic conditions are predomined, in which only alpine plants can survive. Animals living high in the mountains have thick coats to protect against cold weather. The lower slopes are usually covered with coniferous forests.

Water ecosystems

The aqueous ecosystem is an ecosystem located in an aquatic environment (for example, rivers, lakes, seas and oceans). It includes aquatic flora, fauna, as well as the properties of water, and is divided into two types: marine and freshwater environmental systems.

Sea ecosystems

The largest ecosystems that cover about 71% of the ground surface and contain 97% of the water of the planet. Sea water contains a large amount of dissolved minerals and salts. The marine environmental system is divided into:

• Oceanic (relatively small part of the ocean, which is located on the continental shelf);
• A profundal zone (deep-water area is not permeated with sunlight);
• Benthal area (area populated by bottom organisms);
• Tidal zone (place between low and high tides);
• Limans;
• Coral reefs;
• Solonchaki;
• Hydrothermal vigor, where chemosyntheses make up the feed base.

Many types of organisms live in marine ecosystems, namely: brown algae, corals, cephalopogo mollusks, iglozzhe, dinoflates, sharks, etc.

Freshwater ecosystems

Unlike sea ecosystems, freshwater covers only 0.8% of the surface of the Earth and contain 0.009% of the total amount of world water reserves. There are three main types of freshwater ecosystems:

• Standing: Water, where there is no current, like pools, lakes or ponds.
• Flowing: fast moving water, such as streams and rivers.
• Wetlands: places in which constantly or periodically flooded soil.

Freshwater ecosystems are reptile, amphibious and about 41% of fish species in the world. Fast moving water usually contain a higher concentration of dissolved oxygen, thereby maintaining greater biological diversity than standing water ponds or lakes.

Structure, Components and Ecosystem Factors

The ecosystem is defined as a natural functional environmental unit consisting of living organisms (biocenosis) and their inanimate environment (abiotic or physico-chemical), which interact with each other and create a stable system. Pond, lake, desert, pastures, meadows, forests, etc. are common examples of ecosystems.

Each ecosystem consists of abiotic and biotic components:

Ecosystem structure

Abiotic components

Abiotic components are not related to among themselves or physical environment, which affects the structure, distribution, behavior and interaction of living organisms.

Abiotic components are presented mainly by two types:

• Climatic factorswhich include rain, temperature, light, wind, humidity, etc.
• Theffic factors, incorporating soil acidity, relief, mineralization, etc.

The value of abiotic components

The atmosphere provides living organisms with carbon dioxide (for photosynthesis) and oxygen (breathing). The processes of evaporation, transpiration and occur between the atmosphere and the surface of the Earth.

Solar radiation heats the atmosphere and evaporates water. Light is also necessary for photosynthesis. Provides plants with energy, for growth and metabolism, as well as organic products for the nutrition of other forms of life.

Most of the lively fabric consists of a high water percentage, up to 90% and even more. Few cells are able to survive if the water content drops below 10%, and most of them die when water is less than 30-50%.

Water is a medium with which mineral foods come to plants. It is also necessary for photosynthesis. Plants and animals get water from the surface of the earth and soil. The main source of water is atmospheric precipitation.

Biotic components

Live creatures, including plants, animals and microorganisms (bacteria and mushrooms) present in the ecosystem, are biotic components.

Based on their role in the environmental system, biotic components can be divided into three main groups:

• Products produce organic substances from inorganic using solar energy;
• Consue powered by ready-made organic substances produced by producers (herbivores, predators and);
• Recurates. Bacteria and mushrooms that destroy the dead organic compounds of producers (plants) and consonutors (animals) for nutrition, and emitting media substances (inorganic and organic) into the environment (inorganic and organic) generated as by-products of their metabolism.

These simple substances are re-produced as a result of cyclic metabolism between the biotic community and the abiotic environment of the ecosystem.

Ecosystem levels

To understand the levels of the ecosystem, consider the following drawing:

Scheme of ecosystem levels

Individual

Special is any living being or organism. The individuals do not multiply with individuals from other groups. Animals, in contrast to plants, as a rule, belong to this concept, as some representatives of the flora can be cross with other species.

In the above scheme, it can be noted that the Gold Fish interacts with the environment and will multiply exclusively with representatives of its type.

Population

The population is a group of features of this species that live in a certain geographic area at the moment. (An example is the goldfish and representatives of its species). Please note that the population includes individuals of one species that can have different genetic differences, such as wool / eye color and body size.

Community

The community includes all living organisms on a certain territory, at the moment. It may present a population of living organisms of different species. In the above scheme, pay attention to how gold fish, salmon, crabs and jellyfish coexist in a specific environment. A large community, as a rule, includes biodiversity.

Ecosystem

The ecosystem includes communities of living organisms interacting with the environment. At this level, living organisms depend on other abiotic factors, such as stones, water, air and temperature.

Biome

Simple words, is a combination of ecosystems that have similar characteristics with their abiotic factors adapted to the environment.

Biosphere

When we consider various biomes, each of which goes into another, a huge community of people, animals and plants living in certain habitats are formed. It is a combination of all ecosystems presented on Earth.

Food chain and energy in the ecosystem

All living creatures should eat to get the energy necessary for growth, movement and reproduction. But how do these living organisms feed on? Plants get energy from the Sun, some animals eat plants, and others eat animals. This is the ratio of feeding in the ecosystem is called a food chain. Food chains, as a rule, represent a sequence of someone who feeds in the biological community.

Below are some living organisms that can accommodate in the food chain:

Food chain scheme

The food chain is not the same thing as. The trophic network is a combination of many food chains and is a complex structure.

Energy transmission

Energy is transmitted according to food chains from one level to another. Part of the energy is used to grow, breeding, movement and other needs, and is not available for the next level.

Shorter food chains retain more energy than long. The consumed energy is absorbed by the environment.