What is astronomy? Modern methods of astronomical research Astronomy as a subject

Astronomy is one of the oldest sciences, the origins of which refer to the Stone Age (VI-III Millennium BC. Er). Astronomy is studying the movement, structure, origin and development of the celestial bodies and their systems. A person has always been interested in the question of how the world around us is arranged and what place he takes it in it. Most peoples still at the dawn of civilization were complicated by special - cosmological myths telling about how space (order) gradually arises from the initial chaos, everything that the person surrounds: the sky and the earth, the mountains, the sea and rivers, plants and animals appear, as well as man himself.

Through the Millennium, there was a gradual accumulation of information about the phenomena that occurred in the sky. It turned out that periodic changes in the earthly nature are accompanied by changes in the species of the starry sky and the visible movement of the sun. To calculate the offensive of a certain time of the year was necessary in order to carry out certain agricultural work on time: sowing, watering, harvesting.

But this could be done only when using a calendar, compiled by many years of observations of the situation and the movement of the Sun and the Moon. So the need for regular observations behind the celestial luminais was due to the practical needs of the time account. Strict periodicity peculiar to the movement of heavenly luminaries is based on the basic units of the time account that are still used - day, month, year. Simple contemplation of occurring phenomena and their naive interpretation was gradually replaced by attempts to scientific explanation of the causes of the observed phenomena. When in ancient Greece (VI century BC er) began the rapid development of philosophy as science of nature, astronomical knowledge became an integral part of human culture.

Astronomy is the only science that has received her patroness Muse - Urania. Since the most ancient times, the development of astronomy and mathematics was closely connected with each other. You know that translated from the Greek title of one of the sections of mathematics - geometry - means "land survey". The first measurements of the radius of the globe were held in the III century. BC e. Based on astronomical observations over the height of the sun at noon. Unusual, but who became the usual division of a circle at 360 ° has an astronomical origin: it arose when it was believed that the duration of the year is equal to 360 days, and the sun in its movement around the Earth every day takes one step - degrees.

Astronomical observations have long allowed people to navigate in an unfamiliar area and the sea. Development of astronomical methods for determining the coordinates in the XV-XVII centuries. A large extent was due to the development of navigation and the search for new trade routes. The compilation of geographical maps, clarification of the shape and size of the Earth for a long time it became one of the main tasks that solved practical astronomy. The art of laying the way to observations of heavenly luminais, called navigation, is now used not only in navigable business and aviation, but also in astronautics. Astronomical observations of the movement of heavenly bodies and the need to calculate their location played an important role in the development of not only mathematics, but also very important for the practical activities of a person's section of physics - mechanics. Growing out of the united science of nature - philosophy - astronomy, mathematics and physics never lost a close connection among themselves.

The relationship of these sciences was directly reflected in the activities of many scientists. It is not by chance that, for example, Galileo Galilee and Isaac Newton are known for their works and in physics, and astronomy. In addition, Newton is one of the creators of differential and integral calculus. The same formulated in the late XVII century. The law of world community discovered the possibility of using these mathematical methods to study the movement of the planets and other bodies of the solar system. Continuous improvement of calculation methods throughout the XVIII century. Brought this part of astronomy - the heavenly mechanics - to the first plan among other sciences of that era. The question of the situation of the Earth in the Universe, about whether it is fixed or moves around the Sun, in the XVI-XVII centuries. Bought important both for astronomy and for the world.

The heliocentric teaching of Nikolai Copernicus was not only an important step in solving this scientific problem, but also contributed to changing the style of scientific thinking, opening a new path to understanding the occurrence of phenomena. Many times in the history of the development of science, individual thinkers tried to limit the possibility of knowledge of the universe. Perhaps the last one attempt happened shortly before the opening of spectral analysis. "Verdict" was harsh: "We imagine the possibility of determining their (celestial bodies) forms, distances, sizes and movements, but never, in any way we will be able to study their chemical composition ..." (O. Cont). The opening of spectral analysis and its use in astronomy marked the beginning of the widespread use of physics in the study of the nature of heavenly bodies and led to the emergence of a new section of the science of the Universe - astrophysics.

In turn, the unusualness with the "earthly" point of view of the conditions existing in the sun, stars and in outer space, contributed to the development of physical theories describing the state of the substance in such conditions that are difficult to create on Earth. Moreover, in the XX century, especially in his second half, the achievements of astronomy again, as in the time of Copernicus, led to serious changes in the scientific picture of the world, to the establishment of ideas about the evolution of the Universe. It turned out that the universe in which we live today, several billion years ago were completely different - there were no galaxies or planets in it.

In order to explain the processes that took place at the initial stage of its development, it took the entire arsenal of modern theoretical physics, including the theory of relativity, nuclear physics, quantum physics and physics of elementary particles. The development of rocket technology allowed humanity to go into outer space. On the one hand, it significantly expanded the possibility of the study of all objects outside the land, and led to a new rise in the development of heavenly mechanics, which successfully calculates the orbits of automatic and manned spacecraft for various purposes.

On the other hand, remote research methods that came from astrophysics are now widely used in the study of our planet with artificial satellites and orbital stations. The results of research of the bodies of the solar system make it possible to better understand global, including evolutionary processes occurring on Earth. Having entered into the space era of its existence and preparing for flights to other planets, humanity is not entitled to forget about the Earth and must fully realize the need to preserve its unique nature.

Etymology

Astronomy structure as a scientific discipline

Overgalactic astronomy: gravitational lenzing. Several blue loop-like objects are seen, which are multiple images of one galaxy, propagated due to the effect of the gravitational lens from the accumulation of yellow galaxies near the center of the photo. The lens is created by a gravitational field of cluster, which twists the light rays, which leads to an increase and distortion of the image of a more distant object.

Modern astronomy is divided into a number of sections that are closely related to each other, so the separation of astronomy is somewhat conditional. The main sections of astronomy are:

Astromometry - studies visible positions and movements shone. Previously, the role of astrometry was also in the high-precision definition of geographic coordinates and time by learning the movement of heavenly shining (now for this other methods are used). Modern astrometry consists of:
- fundamental astrometry, the tasks of which are to determine the coordinates of celestial bodies from observations, drawing up directories of star positions and determining the numerical values \u200b\u200bof astronomical parameters, - values \u200b\u200bthat allow us to consider the natural changes in the coordinate coordinates;
- spherical astronomy developing mathematical methods for determining visible provisions and movements of celestial bodies using various coordinate systems, as well as the theory of natural changes in the coordinate coordinates with time;
Theoretical astronomy gives methods to determine the orbits of celestial bodies according to their visible provisions and methods for calculating the ephemeride (visible provisions) of the celestial bodies according to the known elements of their orbits (feedback).
Heavenly Mechanics is studying the laws of movements of heavenly bodies under the action of the world's strength, determines the masses and shape of the celestial bodies and the stability of their systems.

These three sections are mainly solving the first task of astronomy (the study of the movement of the celestial bodies), and they are often called classical Astronomy.

Astrophysics studies the structure, physical properties and the chemical composition of the celestial objects. It is divided into: a) practical (observational) astrophysics, in which practical methods of astrophysical studies and appropriate tools and instruments are developed and applied; b) theoretical astrophysics, in which, on the basis of the laws of physics, are given an explanation by observed physical phenomena.

A number of sections of astrophysics are allocated by specific research methods.

Star Astronomy studies the patterns of spatial distribution and movement of stars, star systems and interstellar matter, taking into account their physical characteristics.

In these two sections, the issues of the second task of astronomy are mainly solved (the structure of the celestial bodies).

Cosmogonia considers the issues of origin and evolution of heavenly bodies, including our Earth.
Cosmology studies the general laws of the structure and development of the universe.

Based on all the knowledge gained on the heavenly bodies, the last two sections of astronomy solve its third task (the origin and evolution of the heavenly bodies).

The course of general astronomy contains a systematic statement of information about basic methods and the main results obtained by various sections of astronomy.

One of the new ones formed only in the second half of the 20th century, the directions are archetoastronomy, which studies the astronomical knowledge of the ancient people and helps to date the ancient structures, based on the phenomenon of the precession of the Earth.

Star Astronomy

Planetary Nebula Ant - MZ3. The gas release from the dying central star shows a symmetric model, in contrast to the chaotic images of ordinary explosions.

Almost all elements, heavier than hydrogen and helium, are formed in the stars.

Astronomy objects

Evolution of Galaktik

Tasks of astronomy

The main tasks astronomy are:

The study of visible, and then the actual positions and movements of the celestial bodies in space, the definition of their size and form.
Studying the structure of celestial bodies, the study of chemical composition and physical properties (density, temperature, etc.) of substances in them.
Solving the problems of origin and the development of individual celestial bodies and systems formed by them.
Studying the most common properties of the universe, building the theory of the observed part of the Universe - Metagalaxy.

The solution of these tasks requires the creation of effective research methods - both theoretical and practical. The first task is solved by the long observations initiated in ancient times, as well as on the basis of the laws of mechanics known for about 300 years. Therefore, in this area of \u200b\u200bastronomy, we have the richest information, especially for the celestial bodies relatively close to Earth: the moon, the sun, planets, asteroids, etc.

The solution of the second challenge was made possible due to the advent of spectral analysis and photography. The study of the physical properties of heavenly bodies began in the second half of the XIX century, and the main problems - only in recent years.

The third task requires the accumulation of the observed material. Currently, such data is not enough to accurately describe the process of origin and the development of celestial bodies and their systems. Therefore, knowledge in this area is limited to common considerations and a number of more or less plausible hypotheses.

The fourth task is the most large-scale and most difficult. Practice shows that it has no existing physical theories to solve it. It is necessary to create a more general physical theory capable of describing the state of the substance and physical processes at limit values \u200b\u200bof density, temperature, pressure. To solve this problem, observational data is required in the areas of the universe located at distances of several billion light years. Modern technical capabilities do not allow in detail these areas. Nevertheless, this task is now the most relevant and successfully solved by astronomers of a number of countries, including Russia.

History of astronomy

Even in ancient times, people noticed the relationship of the movement of heavenly shining in the sky and periodic weather changes. Astronomy was then thoroughly mixed with astrology. The final allocation of scientific astronomy occurred in the Renaissance era and took a long time.

Astronomy is one of the oldest sciences that originated from the practical needs of humanity. By the location of the stars and constellations, primitive farmers determined the occurrence of the time of the year. Nomadic tribes focused on the sun and stars. The need for the summer led to the creation of a calendar. There is evidence that still prehistoric people knew about the main phenomena associated with the sunrise and sunset, the moon and some stars. The periodic repeatability of the eclipses of the Sun and the Moon was known for a very long time. Among the ancient written sources there are descriptions of astronomical phenomena, as well as primitive design schemes for predicting the time of the sunrise and the import of bright celestial bodies and the methods of reference time and calendar. Astronomy successfully developed in ancient Babylon, Egypt, China and India. The Chinese chronicles describe the eclipse of the Sun, which took place in the 3rd millennium BC. E. Theories that, on the basis of developed arithmetic and geometry, were explained and predicted the movement of the Sun, Moon and Bright Planets, were created in the countries of the Mediterranean in the last centuries of the Doharistian era and together with simple, but effective devices, served practical purposes to the Renaissance.

Especially large development reached astronomy in ancient Greece. Pythagorar first came to the conclusion that the Earth has a spherical shape, and Aristarkh Samossky suggested that the Earth rotates around the Sun. Hipparch in 2 V. BC e. Compiled one of the first star catalogs. In the work of the Almagest Ptolemy, written in 2 tbsp. n. e., outlined. The geocentric system of the world, which was generally accepted for almost one and a half thousand years. In the Middle Ages, astronomy has achieved significant development in the countries of the East. At 15 in. Ulugbek built a observatory with accurate tools near Samarkand. Here was the first after Hippark the catalog of the stars. From the 16th century The development of astronomy in Europe begins. New demands were put forward in connection with the development of trade and navigation and the emergence of industry, contributed to the liberation of science from the influence of religion and led to a number of major discoveries.

The birth of modern astronomy is associated with the refusal of the Geocentric system of the world of Ptolemy (II century) and the replacement of its heliocentric system of Nikolai Copernicus (mid-XVI century), with the beginning of research of celestial bodies using a telescope (Galile, the beginning of the XVII century) and the discovery of the world of attraction (Isaac Newton, end of the XVII century). The XVIII-XIX century were for astronomy a period of accumulation of information and knowledge about the solar system, our galaxy and the physical nature of the stars, the sun, planets and other cosmic bodies. The emergence of large telescopes and the implementation of systematic observations led to the discovery that the Sun is part of a huge disk-shaped system consisting of many billion stars - galaxies. At the beginning of the 20th century, astronomers found that this system is one of the millions of such galaxies. The opening of other galaxies has become an impetus for the development of extragalactic astronomy. The study of the galaxies spectra allowed Edwin Hubble in 1929 to identify the phenomenon of "Galaktik's runoff", which subsequently received explanations based on the overall expansion of the Universe.

In the XX century, astronomy was divided into two main branches: observational and theoretical. Observation astronomy focuses on observations of celestial bodies, which are then analyzed with the help of basic laws of physics. Theoretical Astronomy is focused on developing models (analytical or computer) to describe astronomical objects and phenomena. These two branches complement each other: theoretical astronomy is looking for explanations by the results of observations, and observational astronomy is used to confirm theoretical conclusions and hypotheses.

The Scientific and Technical Revolution of the 20th century had an extremely large influence on the development of astronomy as a whole and especially astrophysics. The creation of high-resolution optical and radio telescopes, the use of missiles and artificial satellites of Earth for nonathmapper astronomical observations led to the discovery of new types of space bodies: radio-belaxes, quasars, pulsars, x-ray sources, etc. The foundations of the theory of the evolution of stars and cosmogony were developed. Systems. The achievement of astrophysics of the XX century was the relativistic cosmology - the theory of the evolution of the Universe as a whole.

2009 was announced by the UN International Year of Astronomy (IYA2009). The main emphasis is placed on increasing public interest and an understanding of astronomy. This is one of the few sciences where non-professionals can still play an active role. Amateur astronomy contributed to a number of important astronomical discoveries.

Astronomical observations

In astronomy, information is mainly obtained from identifying and analyzing visible light and other electromagnetic radiation spectra in space. Astronomical observations can be separated in accordance with the area of \u200b\u200bthe electromagnetic spectrum in which measurements are carried out. Some parts of the spectrum can be observed from the ground (that is, its surfaces), and other observations are carried out only at large altitudes or in space (in spacecraft in the Earth orbit). Detailed information about these studies are given below.

Optical astronomy

Historically, optical astronomy (which is also called the astronomy of visible light) is the most ancient form of the study of space - astronomy. The optical image was first painted by hand. At the end of the XIX century and most of the twentieth century, studies were carried out on the basis of images that were obtained using photos made in photographic equipment. Modern images are obtained using digital detectors, in particular detectors based on charges with charge link (CCD). Although the visible light covers the range from about 4000 ǻ up to 7000 ǻ (400-700 nanometers), the equipment used in this range can also be applied to study the ultraviolet and infrared dases close to it.

Infrared Astronomy

Infrared astronomy concerns research, identifying and analyzing infrared radiation in space. Although the wavelength is close to the wavelength of visible light, infrared radiation is strongly absorbed by the atmosphere, in addition, the atmosphere of the Earth has significant infrared radiation. Therefore, observatory for studying infrared radiation should be located at high and dry places or in space. The infrared spectrum is useful for studying objects that are too cold to radiate the visible light of such objects such as planets and around stellar discs. Infrared rays can pass through the clouds of dust, absorbing visible light, which allows you to observe young stars in molecular clouds and galaxies nuclei. Some molecules are powerfully emitted in the infrared range, and this can be used to study chemical processes in space (for example, to identify water in comets).

Ultraviolet astronomy

Ultraviolet astronomy is mainly used for detailed observation in ultraviolet wavelengths from about 100 to 3200 ǻ (from 10 to 320 nanometers). The light on these wavelengths is absorbed by the atmosphere of the Earth, so the study of this range is performed from the upper layers of the atmosphere or from space. Ultraviolet astronomy is better suitable for studying hot stars (of the star), since the bulk of the radiation is necessary for this range. This includes studies of blue stars in other galaxies and planetary nebulae, supernova residues, active galactic nuclei. However, ultraviolet radiation is easily absorbed by interstellar dust, so during the measurement should be corrected for the presence of the latter in the space environment.

Radio astronomy

Super-hand array of radio telescope (eng. Very Large Array) in Sirocco, New Mexico, USA

Radio astronomy is a study of radiation with a wavelength, greater than one millimeter (approximately). Radio astronomy differs from most other types of astronomical observations by the fact that the radio waves under study can be considered as waves, and not as separate photons. So, you can measure both amplitude and radio wave phases, and it is not so easy to do on the ranges of short waves.

Although some radio waves are emitted by astronomical objects in the form of heat radiation, most radio emission observed from the Earth is a synchrotron radiation by origin, which occurs when electrons move in a magnetic field. In addition, some spectral lines are formed by interstellar gas, in particular, a spectral line of neutral hydrogen with a length of 21 cm.

In the radio view there is a wide variety of space objects, in particular supernovae, interstellar gas, pulsars and active kernels of galaxies.

X-ray astronomy

X-ray astronomy studies astronomical objects in the X-ray range. Usually objects emit X-rays due to:

Since X-ray radiation is absorbed by the atmosphere of the Earth, X-ray observations are mainly carried out from orbital stations, missiles or spacecraft. The known X-ray sources in space include: X-ray double stars, pulsars, supernova residues, elliptical galaxies, accumulations of galaxies, as well as active galaxies kernels.

Gamma Astronomy

Astronomical gamma rays appear in the studies of astronomical objects with a short wavelength of the electromagnetic spectrum. Gamma rays can be observed directly with satellites such as the Compton telescope or specialized telescopes, which are called Cerenkova's atmospheric telescopes. These telescopes actually do not measure the gamma rays directly, and fix the outbreaks of the visible light, which are formed by absorbing the gamma rays of the Earth's atmosphere, as a result of various physical processes occurring with charged particles, which occur when absorbing, like the effect of componton or Cherenkov radiation.

Most of the sources of gamma radiation are actually sources of gamma bursts, which radiate only gamma rays over a short period of time from several milliseconds to a thousand seconds before being dispelled in space space. Only 10% of the sources of gamma radiation is not transitional sources. Stationary gamma sources include pulsars, neutron stars and candidates for black holes in active galactic nuclei.

Astronomy fields that are not based on an electromagnetic spectrum

Earth, based on very large distances, not only electromagnetic radiation, but also other types of elementary particles.

A new direction in the variety of methods of astronomy can be a gravitational-wave astronomy, which seeks to use gravitational wave detectors to collect observational data on compact objects. Several observatories have already been built, for example, a laser interferometer of the LIGO gravitational observatory, but the gravitational waves are very difficult to detect, and they still remain unalligible.

Planetary Astronomy also uses direct study using spacecraft and research missions of type "on samples and back" (SAMPLE RETURN). These include mission flights using sensors; Drop vehicles that can conduct experiments on the surface of objects, as well as allow remote sensing of materials or objects and the delivery mission to the land of samples for direct laboratory studies.

Astrometry and Heavenly Mechanics

One of the oldest subsections of astronomy, is measured by the position of the heavenly objects. This branch of astronomy is called astrometry. Historically, accurate knowledge of the location of the Sun, Moon, Planets and Stars play an extremely important role in navigation. Careful measurements of the location of the planets led to a deep understanding of gravitational perturbations, which made it possible to determine their location in the past with high accuracy and provide for the future. This branch is known as heavenly mechanics. Now the tracking of near-earth objects allows prediction of rapprochement with them, as well as possible collisions of various objects with Earth.

Measurements of star parallaxes of the nearest stars is a foundation for determining distances in the far space, which is used to measure the scale of the universe. These measurements provided the basis for determining the properties of remote stars; Properties can be compared with neighboring stars. Measurement of radial speeds and their own movements of heavenly bodies allows you to explore the kinematics of these systems in our galaxy. Astrometric results can be used to measure the distribution of dark matter in the galaxy.

In the 1990s, astrometric methods of measuring stellar oscillations were applied to detect large extraction planets (planets in adjacent stars orbits).

Outpatimospheric astronomy

Studies with cosmic technology occupy a special place among the methods of studying the heavenly bodies and the space environment. The beginning was launched in the USSR in 1957 the world's first artificial satellite. Spacecraft allowed research in all ranges of electromagnetic radiation wavelengths. Therefore, modern astronomy is often called Mozvolnova. Outatimopher observations allow you to take in space of radiation that absorbs or changes the earth's atmosphere: radio emission of some wavelengths does not reach the Earth, as well as the corpuscular radiation of the Sun and other bodies. The study of these, previously inaccessible types of radiation of stars and nebulae, interplanetary and interstellar medium has greatly enriched our knowledge of the physical processes of the Universe. In particular, unknown earlier sources of X-ray radiation were opened - X-ray pulsars. Much information about the nature of the bodies remote from us and their systems also analyzed due to the studies made using the installed spectrographs on various spacecraft.

Theoretical Astronomy

Main article: Theoretical Astronomy

Astronomers of theorists use a wide range of tools that include analytical models (for example, polytropags waiting for approximate stars' behavior) and calculations of numerical simulation. Each of the methods has its advantages. An analytical model of the process, as a rule, better makes it clear the essence of why this (something) occurs. Numerical models may indicate the presence of phenomena and effects, which, probably, would not be seen otherwise.

Astronomy theorists are striving to create theoretical models and find out in studies of the consequences of these modeling. This allows observers to search for data that may refute the model or helps in choosing between several alternative or contradictory models. Theorists also experiment in creating or modifying the model with new data. In case of inconsistencies, the general trend is an attempt to make minimal changes to the model and correct the result. In some cases, a large amount of contradictory data with time can lead to a complete abandonment of the model.

Threads that study theoretical astronomers: star dynamics and evolution of galaxies; large-scale structure of the universe; The origin of cosmic rays, the overall theory of relativity and physical cosmology, in particular the cosmology of stars and astrophysics. Astrophysical relativity serve as a tool for assessing the properties of large-scale structures for which gravity plays a significant role in physical phenomena and the basis for studies of black holes, astrophysics and the study of gravitational waves. Some are widely accepted and studied theories and models in astronomy, now included in the LAMBDA-CDM model, a large explosion, expansion of space, dark matter and fundamental physics theories.

Amateur astronomy

Astronomy is one of the sciences in which the contribution of lovers can be significant. In general, all amateur astronomers are watching various celestial objects and phenomena in greater volume than scientists, although their technical resource is much less than the possibility of state institutions, sometimes the equipment they build themselves on their own (as it was 2 more centuries ago). Finally, most scientists came out of this environment. Main objects of observation of amateur astronomers: moon, planets, stars, comets, meteor and various objects of deep sky, namely: star clusters, galaxies and nebulae. One of the branches of amateur astronomy, amateur astrophotography, provides for photographing sites of the night sky. Many lovers would like to specialize in the observation of individual objects, types of objects, or types of events that interest them.

Amateur astronomers and continue to contribute to astronomy. Indeed, it is one of the few disciplines where the contribution of amateurs can be significant. Quite often, they spend point dimensions that are used to clarify the orbits of small planets, in part, they also show comets, perform regular observations of stars variable. And achievements in the field of digital technologies allowed fans to achieve impressive progress in the field of astrophotography.

Codes in knowledge classification systems

State reform of scientific and technical information (Unthty) (as of 2001): 41 Astronomy

Notes

, from. five
Marker L.S. Space physics. - 1986.
Electromagnetic spectrum. NASA. Archived from the original source on September 5, 2006. Checked on September 8, 2006.
Moore, P. Philip "S Atlas of the Universe. - Great Britain: George Philis Limited, 1997. - ISBN 0-540-07465-9
Staff.. Why Infrared Astronomy Is A Hot Topic ESA. (11 september 2003). Archived from the original source July 30, 2012. Tested August 11, 2008.
Infrared Spectroscopy - An Overview NASA / IPAC. Archived from the primary source on August 5, 2012. Tested August 11, 2008.
Allen "S Astrophysical Quantities / Cox, A. N .. - New York: Springer-Verlag, 2000. - P. 124. - ISBN 0-387-98746-0
Penston, Margaret J. The Electromagnetic Spectrum. Particle Physics and Astronomy Research Council (14 August 2002). Archived from the original source September 8, 2012. Checked on August 17, 2006.
Gaisser Thomas K. COSMIC RAYS AND PARTICLE PHYSICS. - Cambridge University Press, 1990. - P. 1-2. - ISBN 0-521-33931-6
Tammann, G. a.; Thielemann, F. K.; Trautmann, D. Opening New Windows In Observing The Universe. Europhysics News (2003). Archived from the original source September 6, 2012. Checked February 3, 2010.
Calvert, James B. Celestial Mechanics. UNIVERSITY OF DENVER (28 MARCH 2003). Archived from the original source on September 7, 2006. Checked on August 21, 2006.
Hall of Precision Astrometry. University of Virginia Department of Astronomy. Archived from the primary source August 26, 2006. Tested August 10, 2006.
Wolszczan, a.; Frail, D. A. (1992). "A Planetary System Around The Millisecond Pulsar PSR1257 + 12". Nature. 355 (6356): 145-147. DOI: 10.1038 / 355145A0. Bibcode: 1992Natur.355..145w.
Roth, H. (1932). "A Slowly Contracting or Expanding Fluid Sphere and Its Stability." Physical Review 39 (3): 525-529. DOI: 10.1103 / PHYSREV.39.525. BIBCode: 1932phrv ... 39..525r.
Eddington A.S. INTERNAL CONSTITUTION OF THE STARS. - Cambridge University Press, 1926. - ISBN 978-0-521-33708-3
MIMS III, Forrest M. (1999). "AMATEUR SCIENCE-STRONG TRADITION, BRIGHT FUTURE". Science. 284 (5411): 55-56. DOI: 10.1126 / Science.284.5411.55. BIBCODE: 1999sci ... 284 ... 55m. "Astronomy Has Traditionally Been Among The Most Fertile Fields for Serious Amateurs [...]
The American Meteor Society. Archived from the primary source 22 August 2006. Checked on August 24, 2006.
LODRIGUSS, JERRY. Catching the Light: Astrophotography. Archived from the original source on September 1, 2006. Checked on August 24, 2006.
Ghigo, F. Karl Jansky and The Discovery of Cosmic Radio Waves. National Radio Astronomy Observatory (7 February 2006). Archived from the original source on August 31, 2006. Checked on August 24, 2006.
Cambridge Amateur Radio Astronomers. Archived from the original on May 24, 2012. Checked on August 24, 2006.
THE INTERNATIONAL OCCULTATION TIMING ASSOCIATION. Archived from the primary source August 21, 2006. Checked on August 24, 2006.
Edgar Wilson Award. Iau Central Bureau for Astronomical Telegrams. Archived from the original source October 24, 2010. Checked October 24, 2010.

Astronomy

Astronomy (formed from the ancient Greek words "Aster, Astron" - "Star", and "Nomos" - "Custom, Establishment, Law") is a science that studies the location, movement, structure, origin and development of celestial bodies. In other words, astronomy is science about.

Even in ancient times, people drew attention to the sky, followed the heavenly bodies, drew attention to the relationship of the movement of heavenly luminaries and periodic weather changes. By location and people determined the onset of the new seasons, and nomadic tribes were focused on them in their travels. As a result of permanent summer, ancient people were forced to create a calendar. There is evidence that still prehistoric people knew about the main phenomena associated with the sunrise and sunset, the moon and some stars. The periodic repeatability of the eclipses of the Sun and the Moon was known for a very long time. Among the ancient written sources there are descriptions of astronomical phenomena, as well as primitive design schemes for predicting the time of sunrise and the import of bright celestial bodies. Astronomy received successful development in such civilizations as Chinese, Greeks, Maya, Babylonians and Indians. Of particular success reached the astronomy of ancient Greece. Pythagoras was the first one who suggested that the Earth had a spherical shape. Aristarkh Samossky suggested that the Earth rotates around the Sun. Hipparch in 2 V. BC e. Compiled by one of the first star catalogs. In the work of Ptolemy "Almagest", the theories about the Geocentric system of the world, which was generally accepted for almost one and a half thousand years.

In the Middle Ages, astronomy has reached its development in the countries of the East. At 15 in. Ulugbek built near Samarkand (city in modern Uzbekistan) Observatory with accurate tools at that time. Here was the first after Hippark the catalog of the stars. From the 16th century The development of astronomy in Europe begins.

The birth of modern astronomy is associated with the refusal of the geocentric system of the Ptolemy world and the replacement of its heliocentric system of Nikolai Copernicus, created in the 16th century, as well as from the moment of the invention of the world's first galeneev telescope. The 18-19th centuries were for astronomy a period of accumulation of information and knowledge about, our and physical nature of stars, the sun, planets and other space bodies. The emergence of large telescopes and the implementation of systematic observations led to the discovery that the Sun is part of a huge disk-shaped system consisting of many billion stars - galaxies. At the beginning of the 20th century, astronomers found that this system is one of the millions of such galaxies. The opening of other galaxies has become an impetus for the development of extragalactic astronomy.

In the 20th century, astronomy was divided into two main branches: observational astronomy and theoretical. Observation Astronomy is obtaining observational data on celestial bodies, which are then analyzed. Theoretical astronomy is focused on the development of computer, mathematical or analytical models to describe astronomical objects and phenomena. Focus on the observations of celestial bodies, which are then analyzed with the help of basic laws of physics. These branches are interconnected with each other: the theory suggests, observation proves. The Scientific and Technical Revolution of the 20th century had an extremely large impact on the development of astronomy as a whole and especially astrophysics. The creation of high-resolution optical and radio telescopes, the use of missiles and artificial satellites of Earth for nonathmapper astronomical observations led to the discovery of new types of space bodies: radio-belaxes, quasars, pulsars, x-ray sources, etc. The basics of the theory of the evolution of stars and space Systems. The achievement of astrophysics of the 20th century was the relativistic cosmology - the theory of the evolution of the universe as a whole.

Information about cosmos objects is obtained as a result of detecting and analyzing visible light, as well as other electromagnetic study spectra in space. Accordingly, astronomical observations can be divided in accordance with the areas of the electromagnetic spectrum in which measurements are carried out. Some objects we can observe from the ground, but there is something that is not visible because of our atmosphere. Therefore, in order to look much further, in space, in the orbit of our planet, special space telescopes work.

And so, the types of astronomical observations are as follows:

Optical astronomy.

It is historically first. Telescopes capable of taking visible light are tools of this type of astronomy. Studies studied objects are based on the study of sketches of these objects (in ancient times) or using photos.

Infrared astronomy.

Examines cosmos objects that can emit infrared radiation. Infrared radiation implies electromagnetic waves with a wavelength from 0.74 to 2000 microns. Despite the fact that the wavelength of infrared radiation is close to the wavelength of visible light, infrared radiation is very absorbed by the atmosphere, in addition, the atmosphere of the Earth has significant infrared radiation. Therefore, observatory for studying infrared radiation should be located at high and dry places or in space. The infrared spectrum is useful for studying objects that are too cold to radiate the visible light of such objects such as planets and around stellar discs. Infrared rays can pass through the clouds of dust, absorbing visible light, which allows you to observe young stars in molecular clouds and galaxies nuclei. Some molecules are powerfully emitted in the infrared range, and this can be used to study chemical processes in space.

Ultraviolet astronomy.

It is used for detailed observation in ultraviolet wavelengths from 10 to 320 nanometers . The light on these wavelengths is absorbed by the atmosphere of the Earth, so the study of this range is performed from the upper layers of the atmosphere or from space. Ultraviolet astronomy is better suitable for studying hot stars (of the star), since the bulk of the radiation is necessary for this range. This includes studies of blue stars in other galaxies and planetary nebulae, supernova residues, active galactic nuclei. However, ultraviolet radiation is easily absorbed by interstellar dust, so during the measurement should be corrected for the presence of dust in the space environment.

Radio astronomy.
Radio astronomy is a study of radiation with a wavelength greater than one millimeter. Radio astronomy differs from most other types of astronomical observations by the fact that the radio waves under study can be considered as waves, and not as separate photons. So, you can measure both amplitude and radio wave phases, and it is not so easy to do on the ranges of short waves. Although some radio waves are emitted by astronomical objects in the form of heat radiation, most radio emission observed from the Earth is a synchrotron radiation by origin, which occurs when electrons move in a magnetic field. In the radio view, there may be a wide variety of space objects, in particular supernovae stars, interstellar gas, pulsars and active galaxies kernels.

X-ray astronomy.

X-ray astronomy studies astronomical objects in the X-ray range. Usually objects emit X-rays due to:
1. synchrotron mechanism;
2. Thermal radiation of thin layers of gas heated above 10 7 K (Kelvinov);
3. Thermal radiation of massive gas bodies heated over 10 7 K.

X-ray observations are mainly carried out from orbital stations, missiles or spacecraft. The known X-ray sources in space include: X-ray double stars, pulsars, supernova residues, elliptical galaxies, accumulations of galaxies, as well as active galaxies kernels.

Gamma astronomy.

Astronomical gamma rays appear in the studies of astronomical objects with a short wavelength of the electromagnetic spectrum. Most of the sources of gamma radiation are actually sources of gamma bursts, which radiate only gamma rays over a short period of time from several milliseconds to a thousand seconds before being dispelled in space space. Only 10% of the sources of gamma radiation is not transitional sources. Stationary gamma sources include pulsars, neutron stars and candidates for black holes in active galactic nuclei.

Astrometry. Heavenly mechanics.

One of the oldest subsections of astronomy, is measured by the position of heavenly objects. This branch of astronomy is called astrometry. Historically, accurate knowledge of the location of the Sun, Moon, Planets and Stars play an extremely important role in navigation. Careful measurements of the location of the planets led to a deep understanding of gravitational perturbations, which made it possible to determine their location in the past with high accuracy and provide for the future. This branch is known as heavenly mechanics. Now the tracking of near-earth objects allows prediction of rapprochement with them, as well as possible collisions of various objects with Earth.

Also, there is such a thing as amateur astronomy.

This astronomy refers to such in which the contribution of amateurs can be significant. In general, all amateur astronomers are watching various celestial objects and phenomena in greater volume than scientists, although their technical resource is much less than the possibility of state institutions, sometimes the equipment they build themselves. Finally, most scientists came out of this environment. Main objects of observation of amateur astronomers: moon, planets, stars, comets, meteor and various objects of deep sky, namely: star clusters, galaxies and nebulae.

One of the branches of amateur astronomy, amateur astrophotography, provides for photographing sites of the night sky. Many lovers would like to specialize in the observation of individual objects, types of objects, or types of events that interest them. Most lovers working in a visible spectrum, but a small part is experimenting with a wavelength outside the visible spectrum. This includes the use of infrared filters on conventional telescopes, as well as the use of radio telescope. The pioneer of amateur radio astronomy is Karl Yansky, who observed the sky in the 1930 radio band. Some amateur astronomers use both home telescopes and radio telescopes that were originally built for astronomical institutions, but are now available for lovers.

Astronomy - Science, learning movement, structure, origin and development of celestial bodies and their systems. The knowledge gained is applied to the practical needs of humanity.

Astronomy is one of the most ancient sciences, it originated on the basis of human practical needs and developed with them. Elementary astronomical information has already been known for thousands of years ago in Babylon, Egypt, China and were used by the peoples of these countries to measure time and orientation on the sides of the horizon.

And in our time, astronomy is used to determine the exact time and geographic coordinates (in navigation, aviation, cosmonautics, geodesy, cartography). Astronomy helps the study and development of outer space, the development of cosmonautics and the study of our planet from space. But this is far from being exhausted by the task.

Our land is part of the Universe. The moon and the sun cause tides and flow. Solar radiation and changes affect the processes in the earth's atmosphere and the vital activity of organisms. Mechanisms of influence of various cosmic bodies on Earth also studies astronomy.

Modern astronomy is closely related to mathematics and physics, with biology and chemistry, with geography, geology and with astronautics. Using the achievements of other sciences, it in turn enriches them, stimulates their development, putting out all new, tasks before them. Astronomy studies in space a substance in such states and scales, which are not feasible in laboratories, and this expands the physical picture of the world, our ideas about matter. All this is important for the development of a dialectic and materialistic idea of \u200b\u200bnature. Helloing to make sure the occurrence of the eclipses of the Sun and the Moon, the appearance of comets, astronomy marked the fight against religious prejudices. Showing the possibility of a natural science explanation and changes in the earth and other celestial bodies, astronomy contributes to the development of Marxist philosophy.

The Astronomy Course completes the physico-mathematical and natural science education received by you at school.

Studying astronomy, it is necessary to pay attention to what information are reliable facts, and which are scientific assumptions that can change over time. It is important that there is no limit to human knowledge. Here is one of the examples of how life shows.

In the last century, one philosopher idealist decided to argue that the possibilities of human knowledge were limited, he said that, although people measured the distances to some of the luminaries, the chemical composition of the stars would never be able to determine. However, spectral analysis was opened soon, and astronomers not only established the chemical composition of the atmosphere of stars, but also determined their temperature. Many other attempts to indicate the boundaries of human knowledge were insolvent. Thus, scientists first theoretically estimated the temperature on the moon, then measured it from the ground using thermoelement and radiometers, then these data were confirmed from the instruments of automatic stations made and sent by people to the moon.

→ What is astronomy?

Raising her eyes to the starry sky in a warm flight night, each of us thinks - and what is there, how is it all arranged and who are we in this universe? Thoughts about the strugnure of the earthly existence and the immensity of the cosmic, thoughts about great and small, that the sky is black velvet, and the stars are milk drops, and in the afternoon there will be clouds ... All this is a lyrics, and scientists peer in the starry sky at all With another approach. And the results of their research are striking every time more and more. So what does the science of astronomy do? And why is it needed?

What does the science of astronomy study?

Astronomy - This is a science that is engaged in the study of the structure. It is studying the location, movement, physical nature, the origin and evolution of the heavenly bodies and systems. The fundamental properties of the universe surrounding us are also the subject of studying astronomy. If more specifically, astronomy studies the sun and other stars, planets and their satellites, black holes, galaxies and nebulae, quasars, asteroids and much more. Astronomy is such a science that is designed to explain the incomprehensible phenomena taking place in the Universe and explaining our lives.

When did astronomy appear?

It can be said that astronomy appeared at the moment when a person began to ask himself about the device of our world. The first ideas about the universe were very primitive, they proceeded from religion. Already from 6-4 century. BC. People began to study the stars and their movement. With the development of mathematical knowledge and physical research, the representations of a person about the universe were improved. The first astronomical revolution occurred in 1500 BC. - It was then that spherical astronomy arose, an accurate calendar appeared, which means astrometry. The priests of the Babylon, which constituted astronomical tables, calendars of the Mayan tribes, the information preserved since the time of the ancient China and Ancient Egypt - all this stood at the origins of astronomy. For the first time, the ancient Greek scientists, in particular Pythagoras, suggested that the earth has the shape of a ball, Aristarh Samos - that the Earth revolves around. The main achievement of this period is the emergence of the geocentric theory of the world. A significant contribution to the development of astronomy was made by Galilee.

Astronomy as hobby

Astronomy and cosmonautics have always been interested in and attracted millions of people. Astronomers of lovers in the world do not read, often thanks to it there are many astronomical discoveries. For example, in 2009, Australian Anthony Wesley, watching Jupiter, discovered traces of the fall of the cosmic body on the planet, presumably it could be a comet.

With the help of astronomy, we will know the laws of nature and see the gradual evolution of our world. Astronomy largely determines the worldview of people. At the beginning of the XXI century, space topics about and aliens became popular, unfortunately, very often very incompetent. The interest of journalists not disassembled in matters of space, opinions based on unconfirmed facts make many people believe in pseudo-discovered discoveries.

Today, a huge amount of high-quality scientific videos about space, various stars, planets and galaxies is created and created: superbly performed graphics and real shooting from space will not leave you indifferent and will help you better understand this interesting science - astronomy. Some of these films you can see below.