What is the rearrangement of words in a sentence called? Anaphrase: linguistic phenomenon and literary device. Types of relationships between anaphrases

§ 51. Rearrangement as a type of translation transformation is a change in the arrangement (order) of language elements in the translation text compared to the original text. Elements that can be rearranged are usually words, phrases, parts complex sentence(clauses) and independent sentences in the structure of the text.

The most common case in the translation process is a change order of words and phrases in sentence structure. It is known that word order in English and Russian is not the same; this, naturally, cannot but affect the translation process. Wed. following example:

(The numbers 1, 2, 3, 4 indicate the main members of the sentence - subject, predicate, adverbial place and adverbial time, respectively.) In this example, the order of the components of the Russian sentence is in a certain sense “directly opposite” to the order of the components of the original English sentence. This phenomenon, quite common in translation, is explained by the fact that in an English sentence the order of its members is determined by the rules of syntax - subject

The present (in sentences without inversion, which occurs in a limited number of sentences and is always structurally and functionally motivated) precedes the predicate, while adverbials are usually located at the end of the sentence, after the predicate (and complement, if any), and the adverbial place usually precedes the adverbial time ( this latter is often located at the beginning of the sentence, before the subject - Last night a suburban train was derailed near London). As for the Russian language, in it the order of words in the structure of a sentence, as is known, is determined not by the syntactic function of words (this latter is quite clearly indicated by morphological indicators), but by what is known as the “communicative division of a sentence” (see above, § 28 ). At the end of the sentence, as a rule (with non-emphatic intonation), “new” is placed, that is, words that carry for the first time what is being communicated in this proposal information (in our example, a commuter train derailed). Secondary elements - circumstances indicating the time and place of action - are usually located at the beginning of the sentence (except for those cases when they themselves turn out to be “new”, that is, when they are the semantic center of the message). Wed. other similar examples: 1

The communicative division of a sentence is by no means the only factor that determines the choice of one or another word order in a sentence during translation. Changes in word order during the translation process can also be caused by other reasons. In most cases it is accompanied

1 In English sentences, “new” is highlighted here not by word order, but by the indefinite article (see Yu. Katzer and V. Kunin, Decree, cit., p. 27).

transformations and other nature, in particular, replacements, examples of which will be given below.

Sometimes in the process of translation there is a rearrangement of a particular word from one sentence to another, as, for example, in the following case:

I put on this hat that I"d bought in New York that morning. It was this red hunting hat, with one of those very, very long peaks. (J. Salinger, The Catcher in the Rye, 3)

I... put it on red the hat I bought in New York this morning. It was a hunting hat, with a very, very long visor.

The possibility of such a transfer here is determined by the repetition of the noun hat, to to which the rearranged adjective refers red, in two adjacent sentences.

When translating, there is often also phenomenon of changing the order of parts of a complex sentence(clauses) - main and subordinate clauses. See for example:

If he ever gets married, his own wife"ll probably call him "Ackley." (J. Salinger, The Catcher in the Rye, 3).

Probably his wife will call him “Ackley” - if he ever gets married.

In the English text, the subordinate clause precedes the main clause, but in the Russian translation, on the contrary, the main clause precedes the subordinate clause. There are also opposite cases. In the following two examples in the English sentence, the main clause precedes the subordinate clause, but in the Russian translation the order of the sentences changes and at the same time the complex sentence is replaced with a complex sentence, that is, the rearrangement is accompanied by the characteristic for translation from in English into Russian by replacing the type of syntactic connection (see below in the “Replacements” section):

The silver saucer clattered when he replaced the pitcher. (H. Lee, To Kill a Mockingbird, 3)

He quickly put down the jug, even the silver stand clinked.

Didn't take another look at my hat while he was cleaning them. (J. Salinger, The Catcher in the Rye, 3)

He cleaned them, and he looked at my hat.

Finally, as was indicated, rearrangements can also be made independent sentences in the structure of the text. As an example, consider the following:

"You gain" to court this morning?" asked Jem. We had strolled over. (H. Lee, To Kill a Mockingbird, 16)

We approached her fence. 1 - Will you go to court? asked Jim.

Here the need for rearrangement is caused by the fact that the Past Perfect form in the second sentence of the English text expresses the meaning of the precedence of this action to the action designated in the first sentence. Since the Russian form came up does not express this meaning, preserving the original order of sentences in translation would lead to semantic distortion (the action denoted by the verb came up would be perceived as subsequent rather than preceding the action denoted by the verb asked), hence the need for rearrangement of sentences. (Compare another method of transmission in Russian grammatical meaning English form Past Perfect - lexical additions like before, before etc., described above in § 37.)

Rearrangements as a type of translation transformation occur quite often, however, they are usually combined with various kinds of grammatical and lexical substitutions, which will be discussed in the next section.

Substitutions

§ 52. Substitutions are the most common and diverse type of translation transformation. During the translation process, both grammatical units - forms of words, parts of speech, members of sentences, types of syntactic connections, etc. - and lexical ones can be replaced, in connection with which we can talk about grammatical and lexical replacements. In addition, not only individual units, but also entire constructions (so-called complex lexico-grammatical replacements) can be replaced, examples of which will be given below.

1 Here the transfer strolled over as approached her fence is an example of contextual specification, which will be discussed below.

a) Replacement of word forms

Examples of replacements in the process of translation of grammatical forms of a word (word forms) - numbers in nouns, tenses in verbs, etc. - were given above (see §§ 36 and 38, Chapter 3).

b) Parts of speech substitutions

This type of replacement is quite common. The simplest form it is the so-called “pronominalization”, or the replacement of a noun with a pronoun, as exemplified by the following passage:

At first it hung in my grandfather's room, but soon my grandfather banished it to our attic because starling, learned to tease grandpa...(M. Gorky, Childhood, VII)

At first the bird hung in my grandfather's room, but soon he outlawed it to our attic, because it began to imitate him...

There is also a reverse replacement of a pronoun with a noun , such as:

I took possession of his effects after his death", I explained. "They were done up in a parcel and I was directed to give them to you." (S. Maugham, A Casual Affair)

- “Everything that was left of him after his death was given to me,” I explained. - Letters and cigarette case were tied into a package. It was written on it: hand over Lady Castellan, personally, (translated by M. Litvinova)

Here, the pronouns they and you are specified based on data from a broad context; Wed a few pages above:

I took the parcel... Inside was another wrapping, and on this, in a neat, well-educated writing: ...Please deliver personally to the Viscountess Kastellan... The first thing I found was a gold and platinum cigarette case... Besides the cigarette-case there was nothing but a bundle of letters.

Thus, here we have another example of establishing semantic equivalence at the level of the entire translated text as a whole, expressed in the redistribution

research of semantic elements between individual sentences of the text in the FL and in the TL (see § 3, 4 above).

A very typical replacement when translating from English into Russian is the replacement of a verbal noun with a verb in the personal form. Here are examples of this type of replacement:

He had one of those very piercing whistles that was practically never in tune... (J. Salinger, The Catcher in the Rye, 4)

Whistled he is terribly shrill and always false

(Here, as in other subsequent examples, replacing a noun with a verb also requires replacing the adjective that defines the noun with an adverb: piercing - shrilly.)

It is our hope that the Human Rights Commission will he be able to establish a presence in Guyana. ("The Canadian Tribune", 21.III.73)

We we hope that the Human Rights Commission will be able to send representatives to Guyana.

(Here the replacement is based on the identity of the deep structure of the nominalized group our hope and the sentence we hope; see above, § 39 and the example given there of replacing the verbal noun abandonment with a personal form of the verb left it.)

When translating an English verbal noun - the name of an actor (usually with the suffix -er) it is natural and common to replace it with the Russian personal form of the verb. 1 Examples of this kind occur very often:

"Oh, I"m no dancer, but I like watching her dance." (G. Greene, The Quiet American p. I, Ch. Ill)

But I don't I'm dancing, I just love watching her dance (translated by R. Wright-Kovalyova and S. Mitina)

I"m quite a heavy smoker, for one thing... (J. Salinger, The Catcher In The Rye, I)

First of all, I I smoke like a locomotive...

I'm a very rapid packer.(ib., 7)

I'm very fast I'm packing up.

He's not a terribly good mixer.(ib., 8)

1 See M. M. Falkovich. Possible directions for comparative lexical research. " Foreign languages at school", 1973, No. 1, pp. 19-20.

He's not very converges with people.

I am a very good golfer(ib., 11)

I'm very good playing golf...

I"m a very light eater.(ib., 15)

I eat very little.

The funny part was, though, we were the worst skaters on the whole goddam rink. (ib., 17)

But the funny thing is that on this whole damn skating rink we rode worst of all.

Naturally, I never told him I thought he was a terrific whistler.(ib., 17)

Of course, I never told him that he was wonderful whistles.

Wasn't a pretty heavy drinker(ib., 24)

He... drank like a horse.

There are cases of substitutions of other parts of speech. It is quite common to replace an adjective (most often formed from geographical name) to a noun:

Australian prosperity was followed by a slump. 1

Behind economic prosperity Australia a crisis followed.

Wed. also the British Government- government England; the American decision - solution USA; the Congolese Embassy- embassy Congo etc. (The replacement is everywhere accompanied, according to the rules of Russian grammar, by rearranging the definition from preposition to postposition to the word being defined.)

English adjectives in the shape of comparative degree can, when translated into Russian, be replaced by verbal nouns with the meaning of increasing or decreasing volume, size or degree (such as increase, decrease, rise, decrease, contraction etc. 2), for example:

The stoppage, which is in support of higher pay and shorter working hours, began on Monday.

1 Example taken from T.R.’s manual. Levitskaya and A.M. Fiterman “Theory and practice of translation from English into Russian”, p. 62, where there are other examples of such replacement.

2 See Y. Katzer, A. Kuni n. Decree, op., p. 73.

A strike whose participants demand promotion wages and reductions working day, started on Monday.

When translated, adjectives can also be replaced by the group “preposition + noun”, acting in the attributive function, as for example:

You always got these very lumpy mashed potatoes... (J. Salinger, The Catcher in Ihe Rye, 5)

They were always served with mashed potatoes. with lumps.

An adjective in a predicative function (with a linking verb be or another) is often replaced by a verb: to be glad - rejoice, to be angry - be angry, to be silent - keep silent etc., for example:

I was really glad to see him. (ib., 4)

I told him I was delighted.

He was too conceited(ib., 4)

He's too much imagines.

During translation, other types of substitutions of parts of speech also occur, and often they are also accompanied by the replacement of sentence members, that is, a restructuring of the syntactic structure of the sentence.

c) Replacement of sentence members

(reorganization of the syntactic structure of the sentence) -

When replacing members of a sentence, words and groups of words in the translation text are used in different syntactic functions than their counterparts in the original text - in other words, a restructuring (“restructuring”) of the syntactic scheme of sentence construction occurs. The reasons for this kind of restructuring may be different. Most often, it is caused by the need to convey the “communicative division” of a sentence, which was discussed in the previous sections. 1 We have already noted that in a Russian sentence the order of words is determined almost exclusively by factors associated with “communicative division” - “new”, that is, a word or group of words carrying information communicated for the first time, is placed (in non-emphatic speech) at the end of the sentence, and "given" -

1 This issue was developed in detail in the above-mentioned dissertation work of L.A. Chernyakhovskaya in relation to translation from Russian into English.

a word or group of words that carry information already known (usually from a previous context) - at the beginning of a sentence. As for the English language, in it the order of words in a sentence, as has been said, is determined, first of all, by syntactic factors, that is, by the function of a particular word as a member of a sentence: the subject in the vast majority of cases precedes the predicate, and the complement follows the predicate.

On the other hand, in an English sentence, in general, the same order of arrangement of the elements of “communicative division” (given and new) prevails as in Russian, with the exception of the case when the “new” is a subject-noun with an indefinite article (examples which were given in § 51), the order “given - new” dominates in the English sentence. This is achieved mainly by bringing the syntactic scheme of an English sentence in accordance with its communicative division: the “given” in a sentence is in the vast majority of cases the subject, and the “new” is “the predicate group or any of the members of the predicate group (for example, addition). This necessitates a syntactic restructuring of the sentence when translating it into Russian - the English subject is replaced by some minor member (object or circumstance), standing (as a “given”) in the first place, and one of minor members the predicate group of an English sentence (object or, less commonly, a predicative member of a linking verb) becomes the subject of a Russian sentence. Often this also requires an appropriate replacement of the predicate verb.

The most common example of this kind of syntactic restructuring is the replacement of an English passive construction with a Russian active one, in which the English subject in a Russian sentence corresponds to an addition at the beginning of the sentence (like “given”); the subject in a Russian sentence becomes a word corresponding to the English complement with by, or the subject is absent altogether (the so-called “indefinitely personal” construction); passive form English verb is replaced by the active voice form of the Russian verb. Wed, for example:

Wasn't met by his sister.

His sister met him.

He was given money.

They gave him money.

I was offered another post.

I was offered a new position.

Visitors are requested to leave their coats in the cloakroom.

Visitors are asked to leave their outerwear in the cloakroom.

The door was opened by a middle-aged Chinese woman… (S. Maugham, A Casual Affair)

An elderly Chinese woman opened the door for us.

This kind of transformation (“passive → active”) is quite common and is described in many English grammars intended for Russians. 1 Like other transformations described in this section, they are “reversible”, that is, when translating from Russian into English, the “opposite direction” transformation “active” → “passive” is applied in appropriate cases.

Quite common (although they are not described in standard grammars) are also cases when the subject of an English sentence is replaced by an adverbial clause when translated into Russian. Often this transformation is made when there is a subject-noun or a substantive phrase with the meaning of time in an English sentence; in a Russian sentence it is replaced by a time adverbial, and the subject becomes a word or phrase that is the equivalent of the complement of an English sentence. This transformation also requires replacement transitive verb English sentence with an intransitive verb (or, less commonly, a verb in the passive voice) in a Russian sentence. Wed. the following examples:

The last week has seen an intensification of the diplomatic activity...

During the past week there has been an intensification of diplomatic activity... (or: Last week there was...)

The eight years from 1963 through 1970 saw the publication of eight relatively full treatments of the subject. ("Language", v. 48, No. 4)

1 See, for example, L.S. Barkhudarov and D.A. Stehling. English Grammar, §§ 229, 232-234.

Such a turn with the verb see (devoid of specific lexical meaning and denoting here only the very fact of the presence, existence of this or that event or phenomenon) is very typical for the language of the English press; Wed: 1973 saw... - B 1973 G....; The next week will see... - Next week...; Tonight sees... - Tonight etc. The complement function of the verb see usually uses a verbal noun such as publication, beginning, renewal, performance, etc., which in Russian translation is transformed into a predicate verb: was published, started, resumed, was performed etc.

A similar transformation takes place in other cases when the English subject (“given”), standing at the beginning of a sentence, expresses certain adverbial meanings. Thus, often in Russian translation the English subject is replaced by an adverbial adverb:

The little town of Clay Cross today witnessed a massive demonstration... ("Morning Star", 4.XII.72)

A massive demonstration took place today in the small town of Clay Cross...

The room was too damn hot. (J. Salinger, The Catcher in the Rye, 3)

The room was terribly hot...

IN last example there is also a replacement of parts of speech - the transformation of the adjective hot into a noun heat.

A similar syntactic transformation is observed when translating into Russian the example constructions typical of the English press: The communique says...- The communiqué states...; The resolution declares... - The resolution says...; The note strongly protests... - The note expresses a strong protest... etc. Wed:

The memorandum accuses the present government with violations which include the rigging of elections... ("The Canadian Tribune", 21.III.73)

The memorandum accuses the current government of a number of violations of the law, including rigging the election results.

The same type of phrases are often found in texts of the scientific genre, for example:

Chapter 8 discusses some general considerations with regard to semantic structure. (W. Chafe, Meaning and the Structure of Language)

Chapter 8 outlines some general considerations regarding semantic structure.

Fig. 50 shows diagrammatically a single-phase induction wattmeter. (M.A. Belyaeva et al., Collection of technical texts in English)

In Fig. Figure 50 shows a diagram of a single-phase induction wattmeter.

(Here there is also a replacement of parts of speech - the adverb diagrammatically with the noun scheme.)

Here are a few more examples of replacing an English subject with a Russian adverbial adverbial, typical for the translation of newspaper information texts:

The careful reconstruct ion of the last years has unearthed many historic treasures. ("Morning Star", 23.III.73)

During the last years Careful restoration has revealed numerous historical treasures.

Military operations carried out by them in some cases have involved whole divisions, (ib.)

Entire divisions sometimes participated in their military operations.

Often Russian circumstance it has the meaning of cause, as for example:

The crash killed 106 people, (from newspapers)

The plane crash killed 106 people. 1

Of course, this type of syntactic transformation is also “reversible”, that is, when translating from Russian into English, an “opposite” replacement of the adverbial by the subject occurs, accompanied by other required replacements. Let's give just one example (large

1 Specified type translation transformations described in the article by O. Meshkov “On one type of translation correspondence”, “Translator’s Notebooks”, vol. 9, 1972. p. 45-50.

a number of similar examples are given in the above dissertation by L.A. Chernyakhovskaya):

His chests contained many outlandish outfits... (M. Gorky, Childhood)

His trunks were full of many extraordinary costumes...

The restructuring of the syntactic structure of a sentence during translation may be due to other reasons, in addition to the need to convey the communicative division of the sentence. A detailed description of this translation transformation and the reasons that cause it can be found in existing translation manuals. 1

It should be borne in mind that in many cases this kind of restructuring is determined not by grammatical, but by stylistic considerations. Thus, in the following example, there is a simultaneous replacement of both sentence members and parts of speech:

After dinner they talked long and quietly. (S. Maugham, Before the Party)

After lunch they had a long, sincere conversation, (translated by E. Kalashnikova)

The grammatical norms of the Russian language fully allow for the preservation of the structure of the original sentence here: After dinner they talked long and heartily; however, stylistically the first option turns out to be much more acceptable.

d) Syntactic substitutions in a complex sentence

In the structure of a complex sentence, the following types of syntactic transformations are most often observed: 1) replacement of a simple sentence with a complex one; 2) replacing a complex sentence with a simple one; 3) replacing the main clause with a subordinate clause and vice versa; 4) replacing subordination with composition and vice versa; 5) replacement of the union type of communication with a non-union type and vice versa.

1 See, for example, the following manuals: V.N. Komissarov, Ya.I. Retsker, V.I. Tarkhov. A guide to translation from English into Russian. Part II; T.R. Levitskaya, A.M. Fiterman. A guide to translation from English into Russian. M., Higher School", 1973.

Rearrangement as a type of translation transformation is a change in the arrangement (order) of language elements in the translation text compared to the original text. Elements that can be rearranged: words, phrases, parts of a complex sentence, independent sentences.

The rearrangements are due to a number of reasons, the main one of which is the difference in the structure (word order) of sentences in English and Russian. An English sentence usually begins with a subject (or subject group), followed by a predicate (predicate group), i.e. the rheme - the center of the message (the most important thing) - comes first. Topic (secondary information) - circumstances (place and time) are most often located at the end of the sentence.

The word order of a Russian sentence is different: at the beginning of the sentence there are often secondary members (adverbs of time and place), followed by the predicate and only at the end - the subject. This should be taken into account when translating. This phenomenon is known as “communicative division of a sentence.”

The most common case of permutation is a change in the order of words and phrases in the structure of a sentence associated with communicative division:

Molasses buckets appeared from nowhere.

From nowhere the molasses buckets appeared.

During the translation process, a word may be rearranged from one sentence to another, as in the following example:

I put on this hat that I"d bought in New York that morning. It was this red hunting hat, with one of those very, very long peaks.

I... put on the red hat that I bought in New York this morning. It was a hunting hat, with a very, very long visor.

The need for such a transfer in this case is determined by the repetition of the noun “hat,” to which the rearranged adjective “red” refers, in two adjacent sentences.

Often during translation there is a change in the order of the parts of a complex sentence - the main and subordinate clause(s):

If he ever gets married, his own wife"ll probably call him "Ackley".

Probably his wife will call him “Ackley” - if he ever gets married.

The English subordinate clause precedes the main clause, but in the Russian translation, on the contrary, the main clause precedes the subordinate clause. Opposite cases are also possible.

Independent sentences in the text can also be rearranged.

“Are you going" to court this morning?” asked Jem. We had strolled over.

We approached her fence. -Are you going to court? - asked Jim.

The need for rearrangement in this case is due to the fact that the Past Perfect form in the second sentence of the English text expresses the meaning of the precedence of this action in relation to the action indicated in the first sentence. Since the Russian form “approached” does not express such a meaning, preserving the original order of sentences in translation could lead to semantic distortion (the action denoted by the verb “approached” would be perceived as subsequent to the action expressed by the verb “asked”) .

Permutations (as a type of translation transformation) occur quite often; they are often accompanied by other types of translation transformations.

Substitutions

Substitutions are the most common and diverse type of translation transformations. During the translation process, grammatical units can be replaced - word forms, parts of speech, sentence parts, types of syntactic connections, etc.

a) Replacement of word forms

Substitutions of word forms imply changes in number in nouns, tense in verbs, etc.

The Nile Valley appears to have been unfit for human habitation during the Stone Ages. (M. A. Murray)

The Nile Valley was apparently uninhabitable for human life throughout the Stone Age (all periods of the Stone Age).

In Russian the combination stone Age is a historical term and is never used in the plural.

The norms of the English language dictate the use of the present tense form in subordinate clauses time or condition, i.e. where the Russian equivalent verb will have the form of the future tense:

If you succeed free time, Please contact me.

If you have some free time, please drop me a note.

Nobody knew what he meant.

In other cases, a change in the grammatical form of a word is caused by purely stylistic reasons.

The candidate hopes the residents of New Hapmshire will cast their votes for him.

The candidate hopes New Hampshire residents will vote for him.

b) Parts of speech substitutions

This type of replacement is quite common. Its simplest form is the so-called “pronominalization,” or the replacement of a noun with a pronoun. For example:

At first it hung in my grandfather’s room, but soon my grandfather banished it to our attic, because the starling had learned to tease my grandfather... (M. Gorky, Childhood, VII)

When translating from English into Russian, the pronoun is reversely replaced with a noun.

A very typical replacement when translating from English into Russian is the replacement of a verbal noun with a verb in the personal form. Here are examples of this type of replacement:

Didn't have one of those very piercing whistles that was practically never in tune... (J. Salinger, The Catcher in the Rye, 4)

He whistled terribly shrilly and always out of tune...

(Here, as in other subsequent examples, replacing a noun with a verb also requires replacing the adjective that defines the noun with an adverb: piercing - piercing.)

When translating an English verbal noun - the name of an actor (usually with the suffix - eg) it is natural and common to replace it with the Russian personal form of the verb (20). Examples of this kind occur very often:

“Oh, I’m no dancer, but I like watching her dance.” (G. Greene, The Quiet American, p. I, Ch. Ill)

But I don’t dance, I just like to watch her dance (translated by R. Wright-Kovalyova and S. Mitina)

I am a very good golfer. (ib., 11)

I'm very good at golf...

c) Replacement of sentence members (restructuring of the syntactic structure of the sentence)

When replacing sentence members with words and groups of words in the translation text, a restructuring of the syntactic scheme of sentence construction occurs. The reasons for this kind of restructuring may be different. Most often, it is caused by the need to convey the “communicative division” of a sentence, which was discussed above.

The most common example of this kind of syntactic restructuring is the replacement of an English passive construction with a Russian active one, in which the English subject is replaced in a Russian sentence by an object at the beginning of the sentence; the English addition with the preposition by, when translated into Russian, becomes the subject or there is no subject at all (the so-called “indefinitely personal” construction); The passive voice form of the English verb is replaced by the active voice form of the Russian verb. For example:

Wasn't met by his sister. His sister met him.

He was given money. They gave him money.

He is considered to be a good student. He is considered a good student.

When translating from Russian into English, the reverse substitution “active - passive” occurs.

Quite common (although they are not described in standard grammars) are also cases when the English subject is replaced by an adverbial when translated into Russian. This transformation also requires replacing the transitive verb of the English sentence with an intransitive verb (or, less commonly, a verb in the passive voice) in the Russian sentence. For example:

The last week has seen an intensification of the diplomatic activity...

During the past week there has been an intensification of diplomatic activity... (or: Last week there was...)

Such a turn with the verb see (devoid of a specific lexical meaning and here denoting only the very fact of the presence, existence of this or that event or phenomenon) is very typical for the language of the English press; cf.: 1973 saw... - In 1973...; The next week will see... - Next week...; Tonight sees... - This evening, etc. As a complement to the verb see, a verbal noun such as publication, beginning, renewal, performance, etc. is usually used, which in Russian translation is transformed into a predicate verb: it was published, began , resumed, was executed, etc.

A similar transformation takes place in other cases when the English subject expresses different adverbial meanings. In the Russian translation, the English subject is replaced by an adverbial adverb:

The little town of Clay Cross today witnessed a massive demonstration...

A massive demonstration took place today in the small town of Clay Cross...

This type of phrase is often found in scientific texts.

Of course, when translating from Russian into English, an “opposite” replacement of the circumstance with the subject occurs, accompanied by other required replacements.

In many cases, the restructuring of the syntactic structure is determined not by grammatical, but by stylistic considerations. Thus, in the following example, there is a simultaneous replacement of both sentence members and parts of speech:

After dinner they talked long and quietly. (S. Maugham, Before the Party)

After lunch they had a long, heartfelt conversation. (translated by E. Kalashnikova)

Thus, in most cases, when translating from English into Russian Russian offer does not overlap with English, does not coincide with it in structure. Often the structure of a Russian sentence in translation is completely different from the structure of an English sentence. It has a different word order, a different sequence of parts of a sentence, and often a different order of arrangement of the sentences themselves - main, subordinate and introductory. In a number of cases, the parts of speech that express members of an English sentence are conveyed accordingly by other parts of speech. All this explains the widespread use grammatical transformations during translation.

For correct construction In sentences, the order of words and the arrangement of different parts of the sentence are essential. Any rearrangement of words in a sentence entails a change in meaning associated with emphasizing one of its members. Examples: Even this work is difficult for him (meaning that even an easy job is difficult for a weak performer). This work is even difficult for him (the unexpectedness of the difficulty is emphasized). This work is difficult even for him (that is, the work is difficult even for a strong performer).

There is a difference between direct and reverse word order. Direct order is more common. For example: The new foreman quickly adjusted the work of the team. In this sentence, the subject precedes the predicate (the foreman adjusted); the agreed definition comes before the word being defined (new foreman); an inconsistent definition follows after the word being defined (team work); the addition comes after the control word-predicate (established work); the adverbial manner of action precedes the predicate verb (quickly established).

Reverse order (inversion) is used as a strong means of expression. And the good side is Siberia! (M. Gorky). In this sentence, the subject comes after the predicate. Yes, we were very friendly (L. Tolstoy). Here the adverbial measure comes after the predicate.

Direct word order is typical for scientific and official business speech, reverse - for fiction And colloquial speech.

In any case, the reverse word order must be stylistically justified, otherwise ambiguity arises. For example: The carpenter made this bookcase out of oak with four legs (read as if it were oak with four legs, not a bookcase).

The above remarks about word order apply to a single (i.e., out of context) sentence. But in speech, a separate sentence is only a minimal unit and, as a rule, is connected with other similar units, therefore, under the influence of context, the word order may deviate from one or another model. For example: Moscow - The largest city Russia. It is now home to more than ten million people. The first sentence has a direct word order, and when constructing the second sentence, its close semantic connection with the previous sentence is taken into account. In the first place in it was the circumstance of place in it (since we are talking about a city), followed by the circumstance of time now, then the predicate lives and, finally, a group of the subject of more than ten million people. The reverse word order is acceptable if a circumstance or addition is placed at the beginning of the sentence.

When creating texts, the informational role of word order should be taken into account. Despite the fact that the Russian language has a relatively free order of words in a sentence, i.e. members of a sentence do not have a fixed place, as in some other languages, there are nevertheless certain rules for the arrangement of words.

IN oral speech the most significant word is highlighted intonationally, and in Russian writing the informational role of a word or phrase increases towards the end of the sentence. In other words, the absence of active, meaning-forming intonation in written speech is compensated by the presence of the principle of linear presentation of information. According to this principle, auxiliary information is first introduced into the sentence, and then the main one, with the main one located after the predicate, and the auxiliary information at the beginning of the sentence before the predicate. Depending on where a particular phrase is located, the meaning of the sentence changes. Let's take two sentences as an example.

Based on the customer's letter, the unfinished scope of work on the production of the prototype is transferred to the first quarter of 2006. The unfinished scope of work on the production of a prototype is transferred to the first quarter of 2006 on the basis of a letter from the customer.

In the first sentence, the purpose of the statement is to indicate the period for which the production of the prototype is postponed. The second contains a justification for the reason for postponing the order delivery date.

Two more sentences for example: In order to exchange experience, we ask you to send new drawings made in your design office. Please send us the new drawings completed in your design bureau as an exchange of experience.

In the first case, the purpose of the statement is to indicate the necessary drawings. In the second, an indication of the form of cooperation on the basis of which the writer expects to receive the drawings that interest him.

Thus, a thoughtful arrangement of words allows the author of the letter to draw the addressee’s attention to a particular thought or highlight important points of the statement. Incorrect word order makes the phrase difficult to understand and even makes it ambiguous. For example: School students helped adults during the holidays in the fields of the collective farm. With this order of words, you might think that the holidays have arrived for collective farmers working in the fields. It should be written: During the holidays, school students helped adults in the fields of the collective farm.

In Russian, word order (more precisely, the order of sentence members) is considered free. This means that in the sentence there is no strictly assigned place for one or another of its members. For example, a sentence consisting of five significant words: The editor carefully read the manuscript yesterday– allows 120 options depending on the rearrangement of sentence members.

There is a difference in the direct order of words, determined by the type and structure of the sentence, the method of syntactic expression of a given member of the sentence, its place among other words that are directly related to it, as well as the style of speech and context, and brother
order, which is a deviation from the usual order and most often performs the function
and n e r s i i , i.e., a stylistic device for highlighting individual members of a sentence by rearranging them. The direct order is typical for scientific and business speech, the reverse is widely used in journalistic and literary works; The reverse order plays a special role in colloquial speech, which has its own types of sentence construction.

The determining factor in the arrangement of words in a sentence is the purposefulness of the utterance, its communicative task. Associated with it is the so-called actual division of a statement, which involves the movement of thought from the known, familiar to the unknown, new: the first (the basis of the statement) is usually contained in the initial part of the sentence, the second (the core of the statement) is in its final part. Wed:

1) On April 12, 1961, the Yu flight took place. A. Gagarin into space, the first in human history(the starting point, the basis of the statement is an indication of the date, i.e. the combination April 12, 1961, and the core of the statement is the rest of the sentence, which is logically emphasized);

2) Flight Yu. A. Gagarin into space, the first in the history of mankind, took place on April 12, 1961(the basis of the statement is a message about the historical flight of Yu. A. Gagarin, and the core of the statement is an indication of the date, which is logically emphasized).

§ 178. Place of subject and predicate

In declarative sentences, the subject usually precedes the predicate, for example: Wires stretched from tree to tree...(Azhaev); Some people left the village to earn money...(Gladkov); The earth revolves around the sun.
The relative position of the subject and predicate may depend on whether the subject denotes a definite, known object or, conversely, an indefinite, unknown object. Wed: The train has arrived(definite). – The train has arrived(undefined, some).

The reverse order of the main members of a sentence (first the predicate, then the subject) is common in the following cases:

Placing the subject ahead of the predicate in such cases was found in old texts, for example: – Tell me, gossip, what is your passion for stealing chickens? - the peasant said to the fox when he met her(Krylov); – Do you know grandpa, mom? - the son says to the mother(Nekrasov); the rhythm of the verse is also taken into account;

3) in sentences in which the subject denotes a period of time or a natural phenomenon, and the predicate is expressed by a verb with the meaning of being, becoming, the course of an action, etc., for example: A hundred years have passed...(Pushkin); Spring came(L. Tolstoy); It was a moonlit night(Chekhov);

4) in descriptions, in a story, for example: The sea sings, the city hums, the sun sparkles brightly, creating fairy tales(Bitter);

5) as a stylistically specified device and inversion, with the aim of logically highlighting one of the main members of the sentence, for example: Bear hunting is dangerous, a wounded animal is terrible, but the soul of a hunter, accustomed to dangers since childhood, is brave.(A. Koptyaeva).

When placing adverbial words at the beginning of a sentence, the subject often comes after the predicate, for example: There was noise coming from the street...(Chekhov). However, in these conditions there is also a direct order of the main members of the sentence, for example: Uvarov and Anna arrived at the base at the hottest time of the day(A. Koptyaeva).
In interrogative sentences, the predicate often precedes the subject, for example: Won't my grandfather or aunt stand up for me?(Pushkin); So will I give you this short, dear little wish?(A. N. Ostrovsky).
In imperative sentences, subject pronouns preceding the predicate verb strengthen the categorical nature of the order, advice, motivation, and following the predicate, they soften the tone of the order. Wed: Just give me a peep(A. N. Ostrovsky). – Don't crush me, old woman(Turgenev).
In colloquial speech, the copula is often placed first, for example: I was young, ardent, sincere, intelligent...(Chekhov).
Placing the nominal part of the predicate in front of the subject serves the purpose of inversion, for example: The dark thickets of forests and the depths of the seas are mysterious and therefore beautiful; the mysterious cry of a bird and the crack of a tree bud bursting from the warmth(Paustovsky).
A means of highlighting the predicate is also the placement of the nominal part before the copula, for example: ...Both remained hungry(L. Tolstoy); Bor became deaf and gloomy(Seifullina). Same in compound verbal predicate when placing an infinitive before an auxiliary verb, for example: So, why didn’t you even think about sowing?(Sholokhov).

§ 179. Place of definition in a sentence

The concordant definition is usually placed in front of the noun being defined, for example: interesting plot, proofreading, verified quotations, third edition, our publishing house.
Placing an agreed definition after the qualified noun serves the purpose of inversion, for example: The mountains are inaccessible on all sides(Lermontov).

Postpositive definition (i.e., a definition that comes after the word being defined) was often found in the works of writers and poets of the 19th century, for example: She had a strong influence on me(Turgenev); Participation and unfeigned love were visible on Anna’s face(L. Tolstoy); A lonely sail whitens in the blue sea fog(Lermontov); There is a short initial autumn, but wonderful time… (Tyutchev).

Postpositive definitions are common, referring to the noun repeated in a given sentence, for example: This idea of a reflex is, of course, an old idea...(Academician I.P. Pavlov); Voropaev remembered his first meeting with Goreva - a meeting amazing and rare in its unique front-line beauty(Pavlenko). Wed. in journalistic and business speech: Such plans, bold and original plans, could arise only in our conditions; This decision is certainly a wrong decision and must be reversed.

In stylized speech, postpositive definitions give the story the character of a folk narrative; Wed from Neverov: The moon came out on a dark night, looking lonely from a black cloud at the deserted fields, at distant villages, at nearby villages.

Definitions expressed by possessive pronouns, being in a position after the defined noun, can give an expressive color to the statement, for example: I remember your hands from the moment I began to recognize myself in the world.

In neutral styles, postpositive definitions expressed by demonstrative pronouns are not uncommon, for example: This stop... was surrounded by a double rampart made of thick pine logs(Kazakevich).

The means of semantically highlighting the definition are:

a) its isolation, for example: People, amazed, became like stones(Bitter);

b) separation of the definition from the defined noun, for example: Rare stars swayed in the ashen dawn sky(Sholokhov).

A detached definition is usually postpositive, for example: publication of letters received by the editor; exhibition of paintings nominated for the prize. Placing such common definitions (without separating them) in front of the word being defined is perceived as a kind of inversion; compare: publication of letters received by the editor; exhibition of paintings nominated for the prize.
If there are several agreed upon definitions, the order of their arrangement depends on their morphological expression:
1) definitions expressed by pronouns are placed ahead of definitions expressed by other parts of speech, for example: on this solemn day, our future plans, all typos noted, every fourth Tuesday. Placing pronoun-qualifiers after adjective-qualifiers is an inversion, for example: At this silver-opal hour in the morning the whole house slept(Fedin); The tankman struggled with his slow and long pain(L. Sobolev);

2) attributive pronouns precede other pronouns, for example: all these amendments, every comment you make. But the pronoun most is placed after the demonstrative pronoun, for example: the same possibilities, the same case;

3) definitions expressed by qualitative adjectives are placed ahead of definitions expressed by relative adjectives, for example: new historical novel, warm woolen linen, light leather binding, late autumn;

4) if heterogeneous definitions are expressed by qualitative adjectives alone, then the one that denotes a more stable attribute is placed closer to the defined noun, for example: huge black eyes, a pleasant light breeze, an interesting new story;

5) if heterogeneous definitions are expressed by relative adjectives alone, then, as a rule, they are arranged in order of ascending semantic gradation (from a narrower concept to a broader one), for example: daily weather reports, antique bronzes, specialty bookstore.
An inconsistent definition is placed after the noun being defined, for example: expert opinion, leather-bound book, novel with a sequel. But definitions expressed by personal pronouns as possessives come before the word being defined, for example: his objections, their statements.
Placing an inconsistent definition expressed by a noun in front of the word being defined is inversion, for example: medium sized bear(Gogol); General Zhukov's yard(Chekhov).

Prepositive inconsistent definitions, i.e. those standing in front of the word being defined, have become entrenched in some stable phrases, for example: watchmaker, guard senior lieutenant, kindest soul Human.

Consistent definitions usually precede inconsistent ones, for example: high mahogany bed(L. Tolstoy); old tobacco-colored eyes(Sergeev-Tsensky). But an inconsistent definition, expressed by a personal pronoun with a possessive meaning, usually precedes an agreed definition, for example: his last performance, their increased demands.

§ 180. Place of addition in a sentence

The complement usually follows the control word, for example: proofread manuscript, correct typos, ready to type.
An object (most often direct) expressed by a pronoun (personal, indefinite) can precede the control word without creating an inversion, for example: I liked the book; This sight amazed him; The mother noticed something in her daughter's expression; I'm glad to see you.

Placing an object in front of a control word usually has the character of inversion, for example: Maybe we'll see the pharmacist(Chekhov); The soul reaches for something high(V. Panova). Wed. in lively conversational speech: Someone is asking you; They forgot all their friends; Can you fix the TV?

Preposition of an object with the meaning of person is common in impersonal sentences, for example: He needs to talk to you; My sister is not feeling well; Everyone wanted to relax.
If there are several additions related to one control word, different word orders are possible:
1) usually a direct object precedes other objects, for example: Take the manuscript from the proofreader; Discuss the issue with your employees; The newcomer extended his hand to everyone present.;

2) indirect complement of person, standing in dative case, usually precedes the direct object of the subject, for example: Tell us your address; The mother gave the child a beautiful toy; This woman saved Bekishev’s life...(V. Panova).

Similarly, the genitive case with the meaning actor(inconsistent definition) precedes another case (as a complement), for example: son’s arrival to his parents, author’s memo to the editor.
The direct object, which matches the form of the subject, is usually placed after the predicate, for example: Mother loves daughter; The oar touched the dress; Laziness breeds carelessness; Courts protect laws. When the subject and object are rearranged, the meaning of the sentence changes ( The daughter loves the mother; The dress hit the paddle) or ambiguity arises ( Carelessness breeds laziness; Laws are protected by the courts). Sometimes in such cases of inversion the necessary meaning is retained, resulting from the lexical meaning of the named members of the sentence ( The bicycle crashed into the tram; The sun was covered by a cloud), but the correct understanding of such sentences is somewhat difficult, therefore it is recommended either to maintain the direct word order, or to replace the actual phrase with the passive ( The bicycle is broken by a tram; The sun is covered by a cloud).

§ 181. Place of circumstances in a sentence

Circumstances about the activity, expressed by adverbs in -o, -e , are usually placed before the predicate verb, for example: The translation accurately reflects the content of the original; The boy looked at us defiantly; Gavryushka blushed deeply and protested violently...(Gladkov); The station was moving faster and faster...(G. Nikolaeva); The pavement was smoothly white(Antonov).
Some adverbs that combine with few verbs are placed after them, for example: walk, lie prone, walk barefoot, fall backward, walk.

Usually postpositive are the circumstances of the manner of action expressed by a noun in an adverbial meaning, for example: scatter in waves, disperse in circles.

The place of the circumstance of the course of action may depend on the presence or absence of other minor members in the sentence; compare: The climbers walked slowly. – Climbers walked slowly along a steep path.

A means of semantically highlighting the circumstances of the manner of action or measure and degree is to place them at the beginning of a sentence or to separate them from the words to which they are adjacent, for example: In vain Gregory tried to see Cossack lava on the horizon.(Sholokhov); Nikita experienced this feeling twice(Fedin); Yes, we were very friendly(L. Tolstoy).
Circumstances of measure and degree are prepositive, for example: The announcer repeated the numbers given in the text twice; The director is very busy; The manuscript is fully prepared for typesetting.
The adverbial circumstance usually precedes the predicate verb, for example: There was little conversation at dinner(Turgenev); A month later, Belikov died(Chekhov); In the evenings the doctor was alone(V. Panova).
Often, however, the adverb of time is postpositive, which contributes to its semantic emphasis, for example: My sister got up early; I arrived before dawn.
The adverbial adverbial of place is usually prepositive, and often appears at the beginning of a sentence, for example: It was restless at the factory...(Bitter); A cloud was coming from the west(Sholokhov).
If the adverbial adverbial place is at the beginning of a sentence, then it is often immediately followed by the predicate, and then the subject, for example: To the right rose the white hospital building...(Garshin); Unfamiliar smells of herbs and flowers were coming from everywhere...(Serafimovich). However, under these conditions, a direct order of the main members of the sentence is also possible, for example: Over the gray plain of the sea the wind gathers clouds(Bitter).

Setting the adverbial place after the predicate is the norm in those combinations in which the presence of the adverbial is necessary for the completeness of the statement, for example: The house is located on the outskirts of the city; His parents live permanently in the south.

If a sentence contains an adverb of time and an adverbial place, then they are usually placed at the beginning of the sentence, with the adverbial of time in the first place and the adverbial of place in the second, for example: Tomorrow in our city the weather is expected to be warm and without precipitation; By evening everything calmed down in the house. Placing two circumstances side by side emphasizes their semantic role in the sentence. Their other placement is also possible: the adverbial of time is placed first, then the subject, followed by the predicate and, finally, the adverbial of place and other members of the sentence, for example: At the beginning of April, the river opened up along its entire length; Yesterday I met my old friend on the street.
Circumstances cause and purpose and often come before the predicate, for example: Due to rough seas the ship arrived late(Chekhov); Two girls cried out of fear(V. Panova); A man with a bag on his back... pushed another with his shoulder for a laugh(Malyshkin).
Placing these circumstances after the predicate verb usually leads to their semantic isolation, for example: She woke up in fear; He does not go to work, allegedly due to illness; The train was sent to the depot for annual repairs..

§ 182. Location of introductory words, addresses, particles, prepositions

Not being members of a sentence, introductory words are freely located in it if they relate to the sentence as a whole; compare: He seemed to have fallen asleep. – He seemed to have fallen asleep. – He seemed to have fallen asleep.
At the same time, it should be noted that the semantic load of the introductory word in the given options is not the same: to a greater extent it is noted in the first of them, where at the beginning of the sentence the word it seemed the value is close to simple sentence as part of a non-union complex sentence; the last two options are equivalent.

If the introductory word is connected in meaning to a separate member of the sentence, then it is placed next to it, for example: A real bird began to appear, game, as the hunters put it(Aksakov); Our dilapidated little boat tilted, scooped up and solemnly sank to the bottom, fortunately, in a shallow place(Turgenev).

You should not put an introductory word between the preposition and the word that the preposition controls, for example: “The matter was in seemingly right hands” (instead of: The matter seemed to be in the right hands).
Addresses are also freely arranged in a sentence, however, for their semantic and intonation highlighting, the place they occupy in the sentence is not indifferent: the address at the beginning or end of the sentence is logically emphasized. Wed: Doctor, tell me what's wrong with my child. – Tell me, doctor, what's wrong with my child?. – Tell me what's wrong with my child, doctor.
In appeals, slogans, appeals, orders, oratory, official and personal letters, the appeal is usually placed at the beginning of the sentence.

The same is true in poetic speech, and the appeal is often isolated into an independent sentence, for example: A pale young man with a burning gaze! Now I give you three covenants(Bryusov); My dear mother earth, my forest side, a land suffering in captivity! I will come - I just don’t know the day, but I will come, I will bring you back(Tvardovsky). Wed. broken treatment with the main part at the end of the sentence: For blood and tears, thirsty for retribution, we see you, forty-one(Shchipachev).
Particles, as a rule, appear before the word to which they refer in meaning. Wed:
A) This book is difficult even for him(we are talking about difficulties for a qualified person);

b) This book even difficult for him(the unexpectedness of the difficulty is emphasized);

V) Even this book is difficult for him(we are talking about an unprepared reader).

Particle -yes postpositive ( quite, insisted), but to emphasize the meaning, sometimes in colloquial speech it is placed before the verb, for example: Although the State Councilor disappeared himself, he still killed his comrade(Gogol); Elena remained silent, and I finally locked her this time too.(Dostoevsky).
The separation of the preposition from the controlled noun is unsuccessful in constructions like: “I will come with a few more comrades” (instead of: I'll come with a few more friends); “The volume of exports has decreased from approximately...; increased to approximately..." (instead of: ...decreased by approximately...; increased to approximately...).
You should not put two prepositions in a row, for example: “In one of the letters I received from you...” (instead of: In one of the letters received from you...); “Pay attention to work that is outstanding in all respects” (instead of: Pay attention to work that is outstanding in all respects).

In combinations of a noun with a numeral, denoting an approximate quantity, a preposition is placed between the named parts of speech ( in ten minutes, twenty paces), and not before the whole combination (“in ten minutes”, “in twenty steps”).