Figures of the Hundred Years' War between England and France. Abstract: The era of the Hundred Years' War. What happened next

So, the two branches of the same family could not agree even in the face of foreign interference. The War of Succession of Brittany (1341-1365) is more than a simple family quarrel. It shows the clash of powerful interests. For France, which supports Charles de Blois, the point is to avoid the restoration of Plantagenet power in Brittany. The Blois party uses for this purpose the Frenchized elements of the duchy: the grandees, the clergy, the Gallo region. For England, Brittany is an excellent springboard for an invasion of France. English help, granted to the house of Montfort, supported by the main Breton-speaking elements of the duchy, the minor nobility, representatives of the cities, the western regions of the country...

Thus, Brittany again becomes, as in the 12th century, a pawn in the struggle between France and England. It is important to recall in this regard that this conflict developed against the backdrop of the Hundred Years' War, which began in 1337.

Legal issues

From a legal point of view, this matter is very ambiguous: we recall that in 1328, after the death of Charles IV, who left no direct heir, the prelates and barons of France recognized Philip of Valois as king, bypassing Edward III of England, who was the grandson of Philip IV the Fair. The nobility of the kingdom could not come to terms with the idea that an Englishman would become the king of France, and jurists tendentiously interpreted one of the points of Salic law, which states that women cannot inherit the throne (“it is not fitting for lilies to spin!”). And Edward III was the grandson of Philip IV through his mother. Thus, French law excluded women from the succession process. A precedent has been set.

But - what a passage! - Charles de Blois, who represented the interests of France in Brittany, laid claim to the ducal crown on the basis of the rights of his wife, that is, through the female line. Thus, the French king, by supporting his nephew, questioned his own legitimacy.

History is full of similar paradoxes related to succession to the throne - sometimes even more delicate and complicated situations did not lead to any serious consequences. But not in this case. All of the above took on a completely different look in the context of the Hundred Years' War.

Busy with wars in Scotland, Edward III of England puts aside his claims for a while, however, enraged by the intervention of Philip VI in Guienne, he declares himself, in October 1337, king of France and sends a challenge to King Philip: “If you value yourself, come to Valois, don't be afraid. Don't hide, show up, show your strength; like your withered lily flower, you will fade and disappear. A hare or a lynx cannot compare with a lion...” (Geoffroy le Baker, Poemes).

Begins Hundred Years' War.

Two kings, two dukes

Events follow each other very quickly. In 1341, Jean de Montfort was proclaimed Duke of Nantes, captured the main fortresses, and attracted the British to his side (June - July). Convened in Paris in August 1341, the assembly was to decide who would be the official heir to the Duchy of Brittany. Arriving in Paris, Jean de Montfort is easily convinced that there will be no fair (from his point of view) trial. Deciding that he had no reason to trust the King of France, Jean, despite the strict order of Philip VI to remain at court, fled and strengthened himself in Nantes.

On September 7, the peers of France created Charles de Blois Duke of Brittany, and French troops invaded the duchy through the Loire Valley. After a month of fighting, they captured Nantes. Jean de Montfort was escorted to Paris, and imprisoned in the tower of the Louvre, where he remained for three years.

The anti-French party was beheaded. It seemed that nothing was stopping Charles de Blois from taking up his duties as ruler of Brittany. And then Montfort’s wife, Jeanne of Flanders, becomes the leader of her husband’s supporters. Immediately, she recognizes Edward III as King of France. Having established her general headquarters outside the fortress walls of the city of Ennebon, she not only restrained all French attacks, but carried out a number of demonstrative raids against Charles de Blois, which aroused the admiration of not only her supporters, but also the Bretons who sided with Charles, as well as the French themselves. For her fearlessness and loyalty, she received the nickname Fiery Jeanne.

Throughout 1342, armed forces of many nationalities passed through Brittany; The French called for help from the Genoese crossbowmen and the Spanish fleet, led by the grandee of Castile, Louis of Spain. Supporters of the Montfort clan are known to have been supported by the British: on October 30, 1342, King Edward personally arrives in the duchy at the head of a small army, which strengthens the English troops already in Brittany and the supporters of his candidate. The Spaniards were quickly taken out of the game at Roscasgouen (Quemperle), where out of three thousand Spaniards, only one in ten escaped, and the Spanish-Genoese fleet, which unloaded this army, was completely destroyed by the British and Bretons.

At the end of the year, French and English reinforcements arrived on both sides, and in January the war took a new turn when Pope Clement VI secured, on January 19, a truce between the warring parties, signed at Malestroit.

Edward III returned to his foggy island at the end of February 1343. Joan of Flanders, exhausted by the war that had been waged throughout the previous year, went there with her two children, one of whom would later become Duke of Brittany, under the name of Jean IV. Philip VI of Valois, taking advantage of the truce, invited his main opponents among the Breton nobles to compete in a tournament in Paris. There they were captured by the king's servants and about fifteen of them (including Olivier de Clisson) were beheaded in a public place. Clisson's head was sent to Nantes, as a warning to the Bretons who did not want to submit to the king of France.

Jean de Montfort, disguised as a merchant, manages to escape from the Louvre on March 27, 1345. He goes to England to receive reinforcements and lands in Brittany, where he besieges Quimper, however, unsuccessfully. Returning to Ennebon, on September 26 of the same year, he died of an open wound and was temporarily buried in the abbey of Saint-Croix de Quimperlet, then his remains were transferred to a grave in the chapel of the Dominican monastery located in Bourjneuf de Quimperlet.

Several centuries later, during the French Revolution, the monastery chapel was demolished, the tomb was destroyed and Jean de Montfort was forgotten until 1883, when a certain person, excavating in the destroyed churches, discovered bones, which he placed in a small chapel. This man was none other than Theodore Hersart de Villemarquet.

The period from 1347 to 1362 passes mainly under the sign of mutual blunders of the contenders. Charles de Blois, captured by the English (1347), son of Jean de Montfort, too young for political activity, is in England. The only prominent fact of that time is the famous “Battle of the Thirty”, which took place in 1351, between the garrisons of the cities of Joseline and Ploermel.

Joseline supports Charles de Blois. Ploermel, under the command of the Englishman Richard Bembrugh, part of Jean de Montfort. The country, divided into two camps, is devastated by constant clashes between warring parties. Outraged by this state of affairs, Bomanois, Joseline's captain, writes to the leader of the English garrison:

“It’s time to stop torturing people in this way [...]. May God be the judge between us! Let each of us choose thirty comrades to support our cause. Let's see whose side the truth is on...”

Then they agree on the place and time of the meeting: an oak tree, halfway between Ploermel and Joseline, on Saturday March 26, 1351. Beaumanois chooses nine knights and twenty squires. In the opposite camp, everything happens differently. Bembro could not find thirty Englishmen for this task. He is forced to invite six German mercenaries and four Bretons from Montfort's party. It was decided to fight dismounted, using swords, daggers and axes. At the appointed time, the detachments gather at the appointed place and, at a signal, rush into battle. The fight continues until the fighters are completely exhausted. Wounded during the battle, the leader of the Bretons asks for a drink and one of the participants in the battle utters the now legendary phrase: “Drink your blood, Beaumanois, thirst will leave you!” The Bretons lost only three that day. On the British side, losses amounted, according to Froissart, to a dozen dead, among whom was their captain Richard Bembrough, the rest were captured.

Froissart noted this battle as an example of chivalry.

Let us also note the nine-month siege of Rennes by the British. The city is saved for the French by Bertrand du Guesclin, an outstanding Breton strategist of that era. Otherwise, the conflict is becoming protracted. Both sides were exhausted by the war, which, among other things, depleted the finances of the duchy, as well as the patrons of both claimants (for example, the landing of Edward III on the continent in 1342 cost the English treasury 30,472 pounds).

Meanwhile, the Hundred Years' War takes an extremely unfavorable turn for France. The defeat in the naval battle of Ecluse (1340) was followed by the disaster of Crecy (1346), and after an eleven-month siege Calais fell (1347). This is followed by a temporary truce, during which a plague rages in the country, destroying everyone indiscriminately, regardless of the camp. In 1356, the war resumes with the Battle of Poitiers, where the French again suffer a crushing defeat. Philip VI's son and heir, John the Good, was captured and sent to London as a prisoner.

The Treaty of Bretigny (1360), which temporarily put an end to the French-English conflict, imposed very heavy territorial sacrifices on France: the loss of Poitou, Périgord, Limousin, parts of Picardy and Calais. These regions return to the ownership of the King of England. As for Brittany, the two kings decide to divide the duchy between the claimants.

It was decided to give northern Brittany to Charles de Blois, and three southern dioceses to young Jean de Montfort. However, the interested Breton parties (in particular Jeanne de Penthièvre) do not even want to discuss the division of their country.

Events rapidly escalated from 1362, that is, from the moment the young Jean de Montfort, the future Jean IV, returned from England to Brittany. Now, the outcome of the Succession War must be decided in a decisive battle between the contenders.

September 29, 1364, Jean de Montfort leads an English army of two thousand soldiers and a thousand archers to the city of Ouray. The troops of Charles de Blois are in a bad position, however, such a wise commander as Bertrand du Guesclin is with him. Despite du Guesclin's advice, Charles decides to attack, but his four thousand horsemen come under fire from Montfort's archers. The battle was brutal: according to English sources, approximately half of Charles de Blois's army was put out of action (1,000 dead and 1,500 wounded). Du Guesclin is captured. The head of the English, giving the order to send the prisoners with a wave of his hand, tells him: “This is not your day, sir Bernard, next time, you will be more fortunate.” Charles de Blois is found dead on the battlefield. Over the body of his cousin, young Montfort could not cope with his excitement, Jean Chando, constable of Guienne and the head of his army, tried to console him: “You cannot have your cousin alive and the dukedom at the same time. Give thanks to God and your friends." In 1383, in order to perpetuate the memory of those killed in the Battle of Ouray, where representatives fought against each other best families Brittany, a chapel will be erected on the battlefield. Charles de Blois, already in our century, will be canonized.

So, there is only one contender left and the conflict ends. According to the treaty of Guerande (1365), the representative of the house of Montfort, Jean IV, comes to power.

Jean IV, is one of the most interesting figures in Breton history. During his life, he had to endure shame, expulsion, return to his homeland, expulsion again and, in the end, universal popular adoration. Having grown up and raised in England, having become the sole ruler of the duchy, he surrounded himself with the British (thus, the chief treasurer of Brittany between 1365 and 1373 was Thomas Melbourne, the British occupied a number of other prominent posts; in some cities of the duchy there were strong English garrisons), which caused discontent among not only supporters of the Blois-Pentievre clan, with whom he officially reconciled after coming to power, but also some of his comrades. But what can you expect from a person whose childhood and youth were spent in England, whose guardian was an English king, and whose wife was an English princess?

The situation inside the duchy is heating up again. The Breton nobility, unaccustomed to self-control over a quarter of a century of civil strife, is not satisfied with Montfort’s attempts to restore strong ducal power, the heavy tax of 1365 causes disappointment among the people. The situation is further aggravated by the fact that, having brought homage to the king of France in 1366, Jean de Montfort refuses to support him in 1369, when Charles V decides to reconquer from the English the lands lost under the treaty in Bretigny, although this was required by his vassal duty.

Thus, the young duke has practically no allies left on the continent; he is again forced to seek help from his allies in England. On July 12, 1372, the Duke entered into a secret treaty with Edward III. However, it was not secret for long, since already in October, the French took possession of the original agreement, although not yet signed by the Duke. The King of France sends copies to the Breton lords. In April, the landing in Saint-Malo of the Earl of Salisbury, at the head of a military contingent, convinced the last doubters that Jean IV had violated his vassal duty.

On April 28, 1373, he, abandoned by everyone, leaves Brittany. December 18, 1378, the Parliament of Paris, at the instigation of Charles V, decides to include Brittany in the royal domain.

This was King Charles's big mistake.

Of course, the Breton nobles could have different attitudes towards Jean de Montfort and his policies, but they were not going to put a Frenchman on their neck (even if his last name was Valois) instead of their duke. Patriotic leagues are formed everywhere and come into contact with Jean IV. Now he is supported by all of Brittany, even by adherents of the Penthievre family. The widow of Charles de Blois, Jeanne de Penthievre, was in the first ranks of the noblest nobles of the duchy who received the Duke in Dinard, where he arrived in triumph on August 3, 1379, amid general rejoicing. Moreover, Bertrand du Guesclin, who had made a brilliant career at the French court (by that time he had already become constable of France), did not react in any way to the categorical orders received from the king: he had no desire to start a war in his homeland. The king, who realized his mistake, will not be too strict with him.

However, Charles V is not going to meet the dukedom halfway, but his death, which followed suddenly in September 1380, allows the situation to defuse: the second treaty of Guerand, signed on January 15, 1381, regulated relations between the two states. Breton neutrality is recognized and John IV expresses, in all form, submission to Charles VI. Now it is difficult to judge how pleased the new French monarch was with this: due to his complete mental insanity, the unfortunate king was under the guardianship of States General. The diplomacy of John IV thus triumphs: English influence ends without being replaced by French. At the moment, Charles VI is nominally recognized as overlord. Until the end of his reign, Jean IV kept his word.

In 1399, the first Duke of Montfort dies. He saved and partially restored the duchy, but he leaves his son with the painful legacy of a turbulent century: long-disputed power and an unstable position between France and England. On the whole, however, Brittany emerged strengthened from this long series of "state" marriages and disputes over inheritance. The 15th century will be a reflection of this newfound power.

N.B. It is about Jean IV that is spoken of in the wonderful Breton song An Alarc'h (The Swan), which in our century has become one of the patriotic anthems of Brittany.

Brittany in the 15th century.

The 15th century is, without any doubt, the great Breton century, famous even more for the fact that it was during its course that the duchy dissolved, finally this time, into the French kingdom. In all works devoted to the history of Brittany, special attention is paid to him. The denouement came at the end of this period, a particularly stormy and difficult one.

The Hundred Years' War continues. The strengthening of the English garrison at Calais, in 1400, clearly shows the renewal of hostility. Breton diplomacy is on the eve of a particularly delicate situation. The Bretons are divided. Some great lords take a pro-French position, because too many things connect them with France. They know that if Brittany chooses England, they will lose either their Breton or French lands. Added to these motives are concerns domestic policy: strengthening the influence of the king of France in Brittany will have the consequence of weakening the ducal power. Of course, these same arguments are a temptation for the Duke to take the side of the British. The Bretons, however, proved in 1272-1273 that if they were hostile to French rule, they treated the English no better. Thus, the only possible, but very difficult to implement, solution is cautious neutrality.

The period during which the reign of Jean V (1399-1442) falls is cardinal for Brittany. The personality of this sovereign was given the most conflicting assessments, both during life and after death. For some, “the mind is mediocre and fearful, without high virtues, greedy and driven exclusively by selfish concern for one’s interests and one’s peace of mind” (A. Rebillon, Histoire de la Bretagne), for others he is a benevolent person, pious, but cheerful, able to be broad... Everyone, in any case, recognizes behind him the presence of a personal style in foreign policy, which, from this era, determines the totality of the ducal policy in general. In Jean V it is subtle and changeable, rich in unexpected turns.

The period from 1399 to 1419 is characterized by the gradual stagnation of Breton neutrality. Since 1403, the Bretons and the English have mutually ravaged each other's shores. This small war is included in a wider conflict when, in 1404, the Bretons, together with the French, send 300 ships to Devonshire. The English will respond in Guerand... the fight follows the same rhythm in 1405-1406. Brittany enters the war on the side of the French.

Very quickly, however, Jean V realizes the danger of this policy, and again takes a position of neutrality. From that moment on, he acted as a mediator between England and France, first in 1416, then in 1418.

It is precisely this decisive turn in Breton diplomacy that accounts for the conspiracy of the incorrigible Penthievre clan. Since 1410, the situation inside Brittany was quite calm. But, tension increases in 1419, due to the Dauphin's incitement of the Penthièvre family. This is a direct consequence of the Duke's transition from a pro-French policy to neutrality.

On February 13, 1420, the Duke was lured into a trap by representatives of the House of Penthièvre, and remained imprisoned in one of their castles until July 5. Jean V's only concern then was to survive. He promises everything: pensions, estates, marriages... Salvation comes thanks to the energy of his wife, Jeanne. Showing diplomatic foresight, she surrounds herself with the highest nobility of Brittany and appoints the Viscount de Rohan as governor of the duchy. She thus prevents the expansion of the rebellion.

Since the French support the Penthievre family, this provides her with the help of the British, but she, also appealing to the heir to the French throne, asks him as overlord to protect his vassal! Confused, the Dauphin takes a wait-and-see attitude. Jeanne also addresses the commercial partners of Brittany: Rochelles, Bordeaux, Spaniards, Scots... Thus, she isolates the Penthièvre family, avoiding new war Inheritance. On May 8, she begins the siege of the castle in which her husband was imprisoned. Two months later, the Duke, freed, returns to Nantes.

This incident had two consequences. This is the collapse, on the one hand, of the house of Penthievre. All their possessions were confiscated and divided mostly among the grandees, thus rewarded for their loyalty to the Duke. In relation to France, on the other hand, the realism of the sovereign of Brittany and the defeat of the British at Beaujes help him overcome his rancor. From 1422, Jean V returned to neutrality. Thus, the matter did not have significant consequences, except that it strengthened the Duke's mistrust of France.

The politics of equilibrium characterizes twenty recent years his domination... but then, on the initiative of the British, the Hundred Years' War resumes.

In the face of danger, Jean V lays down new turn. The years 1427-1435 are pro-English, but the Duke avoids a general quarrel with France. Breton nobleman Arthur de Richemont - faithful ally Joan of Arc, and the Duke allows Bretons such as Gilles de Retz, another companion of the Maid of Orleans, to serve French army. Another significant factor that pushed the Duke to leave the alliance with the British was powerful public opinion in Brittany itself. Joan of Arc symbolized the idea of ​​French unity...

The finale of the reign is the apogee of ducal politics. Jean finally reaches absolute neutrality. It is symbolic that it was in the midst of mediation between the French and the British that the Duke dies on August 28, 1442.

His merit is not only in preserving, in general, peace in Brittany. “He left his country peaceful, rich and abundant in all kinds of goods,” states Alan Bouchard. At the same time, his position of neutrality laid the foundations for the policy of independence. But it becomes more and more difficult to maintain as the power of royal power is restored in France. Jean V belonged to that category of large feudal lords, the destruction of which “as a class”, the kings of France now consider their most important task. The Middle Ages, and with it the feudal freemen, are coming to an end...

From 1442 to 1458, three dukes share this period.

First the eldest son of Jean V, Francis I (1442-1450). Very loyal to France, he is encouraged in this policy by the moderation of the claims of Charles VII, who is content with the feudal dependence of only the Duke's French lands. As a result, Brittany enters the war on the side of France, July 31, 1449.

The reign of Francis I, who died on July 18, 1450, is interesting for its divergence from the policies of his predecessor, Jean V. The balance is followed exclusively by the playing of the French card, which can be justified, of course, by the political and military situation, very favorable for the King of France. However, the policy of the next sovereign of Brittany, his brother Pierre, will return everything to its place.

Fragile, timid, prone to bouts of cruelty, Pierre II occupies a prominent place in Breton history. He removes supporters of excessive rapprochement with France from the ducal court, but continues to support the kingdom against England, albeit moderately. He allows the Bretons to fight on the side of the French. It was the Breton fleet, led by Jean Quelennec, that blockaded Bordeaux in 1453 and landed a force of 8,000 soldiers who occupied the city.

But at the same time, the Duke is trying to assert the independence, or at least the independence, of Brittany. He maintains direct relations with foreign rulers and signs commercial treaties with Castile and Portugal in 1451. When Charles VII demands fief homage from Brittany, Pierre evades...

The position of the duchy is distinguished by its then resurgent prosperity and a clear tendency to defend its independence. The very short reign of Arthur III (Arthur de Richemont, September 1457-December 1458) does not mark any changes in this regard. Remaining constable of France, loyal to the king, this stern old soldier shows, however, the same vigilance as Pierre II when it comes to defending Breton rights.

The results of this policy, pursued with great consistency (with the exception of Francis I), from 1422 to 1458, are nevertheless unsatisfactory. Brittany is now much less independent than, for example, Burgundy. It is considered part of France by many foreign rulers, and part of its own aristocracy. The rise to power in Brittany of Francis II coincides with the reign of the very energetic Louis XI, King of France from 1461.

One of the most famous conflicts of the Middle Ages was the Hundred Years' War. This conflict broke out due to the desire of the kings of England to conquer the French kingdom. In this conflict, two periods are clearly visible: the first - when the throne of France is under threat of conquest by the British, and the second - when the throne is practically conquered by the English kings.

Each of these periods has its own symbolism:

• The first period was marked by the victory of England in Cressy and Poitiers and the capture of the king of France. Here such outstanding personalities as Constable Bertrand Du Guesclin and King Charles V appear.
• The second period began with the Armagnac civil war against the Burgundians, which became the launching pad for England's victory at Acincourt. The throne of France was practically in the hands of England. During this period, awakening in him the will to win.

Beginning of the Hundred Years' War

The long struggle between France and England, known as the Hundred Years' War, was not really a war and lasted over a hundred years (116 years: from 1337 to 1453). Five kings of France and the same number of English sovereigns successively took part in this struggle. Three generations lived in a constant atmosphere of unrest and fighting. The Hundred Years' War is divided into a series of battles followed by periods of relative peace or truce.

After the end of hostilities, looting, famine and plague began, ending in the destruction of cities and settlements. Having started this war, England still suffered less than France, on whose lands the battles actually took place. As a result, the two warring parties, having undergone significant changes over a hundred-year period, emerged from such a long conflict.

Three contenders for the French throne

In 1328, the French monarch Charles IV the Fair died, and with him the senior line of the Capetian house ended. After his death there were three contenders for the throne:

1. Philip, Count of Valois, son of Charles de Valois, younger brother of Philip of the Fair. Philippe was one of the leaders of the French bourgeoisie. His father was very influential during the reign of Charles IV, and after his death Philip, Count of Valois becomes regent of the kingdom.
2. Edward III of England: Son of Edward II and Isabella of France, Edward III is the grandson of Philip of the Fair. But at that time it was quite difficult to elevate an English nobleman to the throne of France.
3. Philippe d'Evreux: Grandson of Philip III, who married his cousin Jeanne de Navarro (daughter of Louis X). Philip d'Evreux became king of Navarre, and claims the crown by right of his wife. Philippe d'Evreux became the father of Charles Ploch.

French succession conflict

The peers of France elect Philippe de Valois as King of France. His advantage was that he was not close to either the British or the Navarrese. To beat out the other two contenders, Philippa de Valois invoked the Salic law, according to this old Frankish law, the transfer of the crown by women was prohibited.

A new king was elected, but his legitimacy remained rather shaky.

If Edward III calmly accepts his loss in the fight for the crown, then the King of Navarre does not agree with this. Jeanne de Navarro's son, Charles Bud, will never accept exile and will try with all his might to harm Valois.

After his accession to the throne, Philip will begin to assert his power, he will hasten to defeat the Flemish army, which rebelled against his comite Louis de Nevers on Mount Cassel in 1328. Philip will then remind the King of England that he owes him possessions in Guyenne. Indeed, the king of England still owned part of Aquitaine and was therefore a direct vassal of the king of France. The meeting took place in Amiens Cathedral in 1329.

The real reason for the confrontation in the Hundred Years' War

The deference paid by the English ruler to the King of France showed that the conflict of succession was only a pretext for war. Edward III simply wants to maintain his possessions in Aquitaine. And when Philip wanted to take over the Duchy of Guyenne, the last stronghold of the King of England in France, Edward III started a war. At the core of the conflict, the main reason was to expand the royal domain, or, for Edward, to maintain his position.

Philip took Bordeaux in 1337 and was soon supported by the Count of Flanders. Edward III reacted immediately by placing an embargo on the export of English wool, which allowed the Flemings to enrich themselves economically (Flemish cloth was sold throughout Europe). Soon there was a new uprising in Flanders, the rebels of the Count of Ghent sided with the English king.

Then, from Westminster, Edward publicly challenges Philip. A few months later, with his Flemish allies, Edward publicly assumes the title of King of France. In 1339 the first battles took place, Edward destroys the Tierace campaign. Further, English operations were not so successful on the lands of France, but at sea the French fleet of Ekuze was crushed. In 1340, the two sovereigns signed a truce, which was extended until 1345.

War of the Succession of Brittany (1341 - 1364)

Since 1341, another conflict has broken out, pitting the French and the British. A war will break out over the succession of the Duchy of Brittany after the death of Duke John III. This war was called the "War of the Two Joans." There was a clash between two clans:

• Supporters of Charles de Blois and his wife Jeanne de Pentivières (niece of John III), who received the support of King Philip VI.
• Supporters of Jean de Montfort (brother of John III) and his wife Joan of Flanders, who, having taken possession of almost the entire duchy, went to seek an alliance with Edward III.

Events initially seemed favorable for the "protégé" of the King of France when Jean de Montfort was captured following the capture of Nantes. However, his wife, Jeanne de Flandres, organizes resistance and manages to bring back reinforcements from England. The British win at Morlaix. The conflict drags on and the local population suffers atrocities on both sides. In 1364, during the Battle of Aurai, Charles de Blois was killed. The son of Jean de Montfort can now assert his rights to the crown.

French insanity

The French and English resumed hostilities in 1346, when Edward III landed at Cotentin and invaded Normandy. The capture of Normandy happened quickly, and the troops of Edward III approached Paris. Philip VI Valois, the king of France, was shocked by such unexpected and rapid actions of the British, he tried his best to quickly gather his army.

It would seem that, despite all the favorable circumstances, the British campaign against Paris this time was unsuccessful. The forces of the English army were weakening, it was difficult to move along the roads of the enemy’s devastated country, while the forces of the French were rapidly increasing and gaining power. Edward's troops were forced to retreat to the county of Ponthieu, which was given to him as an inheritance from his mother, and there Edward hoped to rest and gather his strength.

On August 16, the English army crossed the Seine. The French, having gathered a large and prepared army, followed them. Philip ordered his subjects to destroy all bridges on the Somme behind English lines, and to capture the ford at Blanchetache, which is below Abbeville. But the British forces were still able to capture this crossing and approach Crecy to connect with their fleet. However, there was no fleet in sight, and Edward had no choice but to take the fight to the French, who by that time outnumbered him twice in strength. Edward ordered his army to reinforce themselves and dismount their horses in order to take the battle on foot. So, by order of the monarch, both knights and barons were without horses in this battle.

On August 26, the rested English army awaits the French on the heights. Edward III skillfully organized his troops so that they were ready to withstand the attack of the French cavalry: his archers were placed in such a way that each group stood in an arc. Behind them, carts containing a supply of arrows are also arranged in an arc, helping to protect the horses and riders. Anarchy reigned on the French side! The army left Abbeville early in the morning, the overconfident French think they can easily defeat the enemy, and the organization of the army leaves much to be desired. But, seeing the positions of the British, the king of France became nervous, he tried to send his troops, but in vain - it was already too late. The rearguard, trying to join the vanguard, is such a mess that even the banners cannot be distinguished from one another.

However, three groups are finally formed: the Genoese crossbowmen, the Count d'Alençon's men, and finally the king's men. A fierce storm broke out, making the land muddy and impassable. In such a situation, how to reload crossbows? The warriors were tired of the difficult journey, because weapons and ammunition weighed up to 40 kg. But they press on through a hail of arrows so dense that “it looked like snow,” Froissart says. People are running from all sides, sweeping away soldiers. The king is furious. The horsemen were given orders to kill the fleeing infantry and attack! The knights fight bravely, of course, but, alas, in vain. The king himself rushes into battle, two horses are killed under him. With the onset of darkness everything ends, the English victory becomes unexpected for the French.

Defeat of Crecy

Crécy marks a turning point in military strategy: bombardiers were introduced into battle for the first time. While not very effective due to their limited field of action, they nevertheless frightened the French troops and cavalry, thereby contributing to disorder in the French army.

In addition to the war, a terrible plague came to France and swept across Europe. Starting in the East, more precisely in the highlands of Iran, where the plague was endemic and began by being carried only by a certain type of rat, it assumed epidemic proportions akin to the forest fire of 1347. The main reason for this rapid spread was the overpopulation of major European countries, which increased the vulnerability of the population. Residents of cities and religious communities were especially affected due to their dense concentration in one area.

The plague spread to Italy, southern France, Spain, and in 1349 reached Germany, Central Europe and England. When asked who was to blame for this cataclysm, some found scapegoats: the Jews. Accused of spreading the disease, they were killed or burned in thousands; bonfires were erected in Strasbourg, Mainz, Speyer and Worms. Then the Pope began to threaten those who persecuted Jews with excommunication. Others saw the plague as God's punishment and encouraged atonement for mistakes made. The plague killed a third of the population before disappearing mid-century.

Black Death

The plague was brought to France in 1348 by merchant ships coming from the East. Since the French did not know the causes of the disease, they did not treat the sick or bury the dead, which continued and increased the scale of infection.

New defeats

After capturing Crecy, Edward begins the siege of Calais. After several months of siege, six townspeople, barefoot, wearing shirts and with ropes around their necks, went to the King of England to entrust their lives and the key to the city into his hands. Thanks to these actions, the destruction of Calais was avoided, and the lives of the townspeople were saved by the intervention of Queen Philippa of Hainault. This was a victory for England, and thus the lands remained English until 1558.

In 1350, Philip VI dies, his son John the Good takes the throne. Almost immediately, the new king is confronted with the intrigues of Charles Bad, King of Navarre, who does not hesitate to plot murders and alliances with England. John II, the Good, captured him at Rouen, but Normandy was still in the hands of the supporters of the King of Navarre. Taking advantage of this conflict, the British carried out two campaigns:

• Henry Lancaster (future king of England) advances to one part of Brittany.
• The son of King Edward, the Prince of Wales, goes to another part of Guyenne. Nicknamed the Black Prince because of the color of his armor, the prince leads bloody expeditions into French villages, plundering and destroying them.

Faced with the raids of the black prince, John the Good is unable to respond because he lacks money. He begins to unite the countries in 1356 in order to raise an army. To effectively pursue the English, he uses only horsemen.

The battle will take place south of Poitiers, in hilly terrain rugged with obstacles, so John II decides that the battle would be better fought with infantry. Believing in their victory, the French set out, and on the hilly terrain they become easy prey for the English archers. As a result, both combat corps begin to retreat randomly. The battle quickly turns in the Black Prince's favor.

Feeling defeated, John decides to send his three eldest sons to Chauvigny. Only the younger Philippe Le Hardy (the future Duke of Burgundy), 14 years old, remained to support his father, he uttered these famous words: “Father, keep to your right, father, keep to your left!”

But the king was surrounded and captured by the enemy. The defeat was disastrous; ten years after Crecy, the kingdom plunged into the worst crisis in its history. In the king's absence, the northern peers meet and decide to release Charles Bud in the hope that he will protect the country from defeat. But the traitor Navarro comes into contact with the British in order to appropriate new fiefdoms for himself.

Urban riots and Jacquerie

Urban unrest: During this time in Paris, the bourgeoisie rebels against the nobility and the Dauphin, the future Charles V. Under the leadership of Etienne Marcel, the leader of the merchants (who was like the mayor of Paris), they demand the abolition of certain privileges and control over taxes. In fact, Etienne Marcel dreams of making his city autonomous, like some Flemish or Italian cities.

One day in 1358, he burst into the Dauphin's room, killing his marshals before his eyes. Poor Dauphin, at 18 years old, is weak and unable to carry a sword. But miraculously, the Dauphin manages to escape, and soon he besieges Paris with his troops. As the Dauphin prepares to hand over the keys to the city to Charles Badou, Etienne Marcel is assassinated. So, the heir to the throne enters the capital unhindered and triumphantly. He would later build the Bastille to keep the rioting Parisians at bay.

Jacquerie: There was a revolt in the countryside due to the unpopularity of the nobility after the defeat at Poitiers and the suffering caused by war and plague. Jacques (nickname of Jacques Bonhomme) set fire to castles and threatened the lords. The repression, especially in the area of ​​Beauvais and Meaux, was terrible and thousands of peasants were killed.

French revolt

Imprisoned in the Tower of London, John the Good promised his captor, Edward III, a ransom of 4 million gold crowns in exchange for his release, as well as all the Plantagenet possessions. But Dauphin Charles, surrounded by the aura of his victory over the bourgeois Parisians, does not want to hear this.

Edward III attempted a new seizure aimed at crowning him at Reims. Exhausted by long marches, the British were forced to leave French territory. The Treaty of Bretigny was signed in 1360, the British received new possessions in France. King Jean-le-Bon was released, but after a few months he surrendered: his son Louis d'Anjou, who had been used as a hostage, escaped to join his wife.

Finally, John II died in captivity in 1364. Charles V was crowned and began the restoration of France. A cultivated collector of rare manuscripts and works of art, loving writers, artists, musicians, he restored the Louvre and founded the royal library. A hard worker, he knew how to surround himself with good ministers. Thanks to the new salt tax, he restores the kingdom's economy. Wisely analyzing the lessons of the failures of Poitiers, he reorganized the army: abolished the epic cavalcades of the feudal barons! From now on, the main element will be the formation of a militia that is fluent in guerrilla operations, rather than carrying out aggressive front-line battles with a huge number of casualties.

Birth of the Frank

Having paid part of his ransom, Jean-le-Bon is released from captivity. In 1360, he issues a new currency, the franc, to commemorate his liberation. This money complements the gold Saint Louis ecus and the silver pound. The 1360 coin shows the king on horseback; the second coin, issued in 1365, shows the king on foot (“franc on foot”).

Bertrand Du Guesclin, Constable of France

Bertrand Du Guesclin was born near Rennes in 1320. At birth he had dark skin, almost black, and he was so ugly that his father did not want to recognize him. One day a child rebelled against his brothers and overturned a long table, the nun calmed him down and predicted that he would someday become a military commander and that Lilia would bow before him. Later, in a tournament where he was banned from participating, he defeats all his opponents. He cultivates strength of character and sculpts the body of an athlete, which will later bring him a high position with the king.

Indeed, in 1370, Charles V presented Bertrand Du Guesclin with the sword of the constable of France (chief of the armies). Before this date, the proud Bretrand led a group of peasants, which he trained to fight like a "guerrilla": an ax hanging around his neck meant pursuing the tormentors of the English and conquering their lands. While Henry de Lancaster leads the mounted campaign in Brittany, Bertrand distinguishes himself during the defense of Rennes. Charles de Blois knighted him in 1357. From this point on, during the conflict of succession to the throne of Brittany, Du Guesclin would constantly be close to Jean de Montfort.

Legend or reality

The legend of the origin of the Guesclin family says that a fleet of Saracen naves, led by a king named Akkin, approached the shores of Breton and devastated the surrounding area. Charlemagne personally took part in the battle and drove the invaders back to sea. The panic was such that the Saracens left their tents and plunder on the shore; Among all this they found a child, Akkin’s own son. Charlemagne baptized him and became his godfather. He assigned mentors to him and made him a knight, giving him the castle of Gley, which became the patrimony of Sir Gley-Akkin.

Constable serving his king

In 1357, Bertrand Du Guesclin was in the service of King Charles V. He participated in all the battles between the royal troops and the English and Navarre. He won his first victory at Cocherel (near Evreux), in 1364, defeating the army of Charles Ploch. In the same year, he was defeated at the Battle of d'Aure while attempting to conquer Brittany.

Guecklen was captured, and the king immediately hastened to pay a ransom for him. Then Bertrand Du Guesclin began to fight the scourge of the time: the “Great Companies”: unemployed mercenaries gathered in Côte d'Or. These famous companies engaged in various outrages. A solution had to be found to get rid of these marauders.

Bertrand Du Guesclin was the only person with enough power to collect them. He gathered them and took them with him to fight in Spain. The future constable led the fight against Peter the Cruel, associated with the English, who disputed the kingdom of Castile with his brother Henry of Trastámara. Du Guesclin successfully participates in the conquest of Castile, but is captured by the Black Prince.

The king paid the ransom again. Freed, Bertrand Du Guesclin managed to defeat his enemy at the Battle of Montiel in 1369.

As for the Big Companies, they gradually fell into decline. From 1370 to 1380, with the help of personally developed tactics of pursuing the enemy in well-defended territories and from fortresses, Bertrand Du Guesclin was able to expel the British from almost all occupied French territory (Aquitaine, Poitou, Normandy). In 1380 he died at the headquarters of Châteauneuf-de-Randon in Auvergne. Charles V buried him, uniquely for a non-king, in the royal Basilica of Saint Denis, next to the kings of France. The king, falling ill, soon joined him.

Appointment of the Dauphin

During the reign of Jean le Bon, it was customary to crown the Dauphin. From now on, the first heir to the crown receives the lands and therefore the title of Dauphin. The first Dauphin would be Charles V, a title that would later serve to designate the heir to the throne of France (usually the king's eldest son).

Charles VI "The Beloved" or "The Fool"

Before his death, Charles V abolished the tax levied on every household, thereby starving the monarchy of resources. When he died, his son Charles VI was only twelve years old.

In fact, his uncles, the Dukes of Anjou, Berry, Burgundy and Bourbon, began to rule the kingdom. Taking advantage of the situation, they waste the kingdom's resources and decide to impose new taxes for their personal gain. In 1383, the Mayotine uprising took place: Parisians, armed with mallets, took to the streets to express their discontent.

In 1388, Charles VI took over the affairs of the kingdom, he begins to pursue his uncles and remembers his father's former advisers, whom the princes call "Marmosets" (among them the constable Olivier de Clisson). To his subjects, Charles VI becomes the "Beloved". In 1392, dramatic changes took place in the king's life. Passing through the forest of Mans, during an expedition against the Duke of Brittany, the king confuses members of his retinue with his enemies and attacks them, brandishing his sword. Six knights were killed before he was bound.

The king's madness intensifies the following year. Residents of the kingdom fear the return of Charles VI's uncles to power. But overcoming attacks of madness, the king’s consciousness periodically clears up, and he rules quite wisely. No one dares to take the king under his guardianship then.

Since 1392, Queen Isabella of Bavaria has presided over the existing regency council. After the clash between the two factions, serious Civil War:

• Party of Orléans (later called Armagnacs) of Charles VI's brother: Louis d'Orléans (grandfather of the future Louis XII).
• Burgundian party of the powerful uncle Charles VI: Philip the Bold. Duke of Burgundy, Philip inherited the inheritance entrusted by his father John the Good, he receives Flanders through his marriage. Possessing a huge inheritance, his descendants gradually separated from the kingdom of France.

Meanwhile, France is planning a rapprochement with England. King of England, Richard II marries the daughter of Charles VI. The two sovereigns meet, but do not reach a peace agreement. In 1399, Richard II was overthrown by Henry of Lancaster, which was the end of attempts at a truce between the two kingdoms. The rivalry continues to grow between Louis d'Orléans, who leads the French army, and the new Duke of Burgundy, Jean Saint-Pour. The latter killed Louis d'Orléans in 1407 in the Marais district of Paris. This murder marks the beginning of the civil war. The victim's son, Charles d'Orléans, asks for the support of his father-in-law Bernard VII, Count of Armagnac (hence the faction's name).

The Armagnacs and Burgundians compete for the lands and resources of the kingdom, and do not hesitate to turn to the British for help. Jean Sant Perparvian occupies a high position in Paris. The Duke is very popular and has the support of the University and the support of the huge meat corporation led by Simon Kaboche.

In 1413 they implement a major administrative reform: the Kabohi order. But unrest continues among the Parisian bourgeoisie, close to the Armagnacs. Count Bernard VII becomes mayor of Paris and is appointed constable by Queen Isabella of Bavaria.

The fratricidal quarrels that engulfed France did not escape the attention of the new king of England, Henry V Lancaster. The latter takes the opportunity to resume the war; he lands with his troops in Normandy. Henry V is the son of Henry IV, the usurper on whose orders Richard II, the Plantagenet heir, was killed. He wants to reconsider English claims to French lands, and, if possible, regain part of the state lost thanks to the campaigns of Bertrand Du Guesclin.

After landing in France, the British go to Calais. The French army is organized around the Armagnacs. Again, they have numerical advantage, but, despite the defeats at Crecy and Poitiers, the French knighthood did not lose its arrogance and self-confidence.

Despite the advice of the Duke of Berry, the French decide to attack the British in a narrow passage where the army will be impossible to deploy. Tired from a long night of waiting in the rain, the knights are blinded by the sun, their heavy cuirasses make it difficult to move and they are greeted by a volley of English arrows, for which the knights become easy prey. The English infantry in a very short time begins to push back the French knights, inflicting massive blows on them with swords. Prisoners are killed. Agincourt is one of the deadliest battles of the Middle Ages with 10,000 casualties on the French side.

So, many French barons were killed, Charles of Orleans, the king’s nephew and father of the future Louis XII, was captured and remained in England for 25 years. The French knighthood, which remained the kingdom's elite for two centuries, is dwindling. His undeniable virtues of courage, faith and sacrifice are swept away by military strategy. Once again, a handful of infantry defeated a horde of knights.

Civil War

The inaction of the Armagnac clan, still in power, prompted Henry V to expand the sphere of his interests. He arrives in Normandy and conquers it. In 1417, Jean Saint-Pour and Isabella of Bavaria settled in Troyes, becoming an opposition government to the rule of the Dauphin.

In Paris, Armagnac is associated only with horror. In 1418, a violent riot led to their expulsion from the city. Count Bernard VII and his men are killed in cold blood. On the night of August 20, looting and massacres continued. There are more than ten thousand dead. The Parisian Prevost comes to the Dauphin (the future Charles VII) and organizes his escape. The 15-year-old Dauphin fled to Bourges in the Duchy of Berry, which he had inherited from his great uncle. This was a triumph for Jean Saint-Pourt and his English allies.

The Duke of Burgundy manipulates King Charles VI and his queen Isabella Bavaria. Jean Saint-Pour, who entered into an alliance with the British for the sake of his own interests, is surprised by the English invasion of French territory. He wants to make one last attempt at reconciliation with the Dauphin. Both sides seem inclined to end their rivalry, which only serves English interests.

The meeting took place on the Montero Bridge in 1419, Jean Saint-Pour goes there without protection. It was then that the Dauphin's advisor, Tanguil-du-Châtel, struck him with an axe, and Jean-Saint-Pour was beaten and killed. Naturally, the murder horrifies the country and revives strife between the Armagnacs and the Burgundians.

Charles VI is convinced by the English to disinherit his son, and signs the shameful Treaty of Troyes (1420). The daughter of Charles VI is given to the King of England, who becomes the successor to the throne of France. He made a triumphal entry into Paris with Charles VI. So the English king will sit on the royal throne of France!

The reconciliation between the Armagnacs and the Burgundians was supposed to lead to the restoration of the French. But this did not happen, the murder of Jean San-Pour plunges the country into the darkest times.

The Hundred Years' War, which began in 1337 and ended in 1453, was a series of conflicts that continued between the two kingdoms of France and England. The main rivals were: the ruling house of Valois and the ruling house of Plantagenet and Lancaster. There were other participants in the Hundred Years' War: Flanders, Scotland, Portugal, Castile and other European countries.

In contact with

Reasons for the confrontation

The term itself appeared much later and denoted not only the dynastic conflict between the ruling houses of the kingdoms, but also the war of nations, which by this time had begun to take shape. There are two main reasons for the Hundred Years' War:

1. Dynastic conflict.
2. Territorial claims.

By 1337 it was stopped ruling dynasty Capetianism in France (started with Hugo Capet, Count of Paris, descendant in the direct male line).

Philip IV the Handsome, the last strong ruler of the Capetian dynasty, had three sons: Louis (X the Grumpy), Philip (V the Long), Charles (IV the Handsome). Not one of them failed to produce a male descendant, and after the death of the youngest of the heirs of Charles IV, the council of peers of the kingdom decided to crown the latter's cousin, Philip de Valois. This decision was protested by the King of England Edward III Plantagenet, who was the grandson of Philip IV, the son of his daughter Isabella of England.

Attention! The Council of Peers of France refused to consider the candidacy of Edward III because of a decision made several years earlier that it was impossible for a woman or through a woman to inherit the crown of France. The decision was made after the Nels affair: the only daughter of Louis X the Grumpy, Jeanne of Navarre, could not inherit the French crown due to the fact that her mother Margaret of Burgundy was convicted of treason, which means that the origins of Jeanne herself were called into question. The House of Burgundy disputed this decision, but retreated after Joan was made Queen of Navarre.

Edward III, whose origins were not in doubt, could not agree with the decision of the Council of Peers and even refused to take a full vassal oath to Philip of Valois (he was nominally considered a vassal of the King of France, since he had land holdings in France). The compromise homage made in 1329 satisfied neither Edward III nor Philip VI.

Attention! Philip de Valois was Edward III's cousin, but even close kinship did not keep the monarchs from direct military conflict.

Territorial disagreements between countries arose during the time of Eleanor of Aquitaine. Over time, those lands on the continent that Eleanor of Aquitaine brought to the English crown were lost. Only Guyenne and Gascony remained in the possession of the English kings. The French wanted to liberate these lands from the British, as well as maintain their influence in Flanders. Edward III married the heir to the throne of Flanders, Philippe de Arnaud.

Also, the reasons for the Hundred Years' War lay in the personal hostility of the rulers of states towards each other. This history had long roots and developed progressively, contrary to the fact that ruling houses connected by family ties.

Periodization and course

There is a conditional periodization of military operations, which in fact was a series of local military conflicts occurring with long intervals. Historians identify the following periods:

• Edwardian,
• Carolingian,
• Lancastrian,
• advance of Charles VII.

Each stage was characterized by a victory or conditional victory of one of the parties.

Essentially, the beginning of the Hundred Years' War dates back to 1333, when English troops attacked France's ally, Scotland, so the question of who started fighting, can be answered unambiguously. The British offensive was successful. Scottish King David II was forced to flee the country to France. Philip IV, who planned to annex Gascony “on the sly,” was forced to switch to the British Isles, where the landing operation in order to restore David to the throne. The operation was never carried out, as the British launched a massive offensive in Picardy. Flanders and Gascony provided support. Further events looked like this (the main battles of the Hundred Years' War at the first stage):

• military operations in the Netherlands - 1336-1340; battles at sea -1340-1341;
• War of the Breton Succession -1341-1346 (the Battle of Cressy in 1346, devastating for the French, after which Philip VI fled from the British, the capture of the port of Calais by the British in 1347, the defeat of the troops of the Scottish king by the British in 1347);
• Aquitanian company - 1356-1360 (again, the complete defeat of the French knights in the Battle of Poitiers, the siege of Reims and Paris by the British, which was not completed for a number of reasons).

Attention! During this period, France was weakened not only by the conflict with England, but also by the plague epidemic that broke out in 1346-1351. The French rulers - Philip and his son John (II, the Good) - could not cope with the situation and brought the country to complete economic exhaustion.

Due to the threat of the possible loss of Reims and Paris in 1360, the Dauphin Charles signed a humiliating peace for France with Edward III. It gave England almost one-third of all French territories.

The truce between England and France did not last long, until 1369. After John II died, Charles V began to look for ways to reconquer the lost territories. In 1369, the peace was broken under the pretext that the British did not comply with the peace terms of the 60th year.

It should be noted that the elderly Edward Plantagenet no longer wanted the French crown. His son and heir, the Black Prince, also did not see himself in the role of a French monarch.

Carolingian stage

Charles V was an experienced leader and diplomat. He managed, with the support of the Breton aristocracy, to push Castile and England into conflict. The main events of this period were:

• liberation from the British of Poitiers (1372);
• liberation of Bergerac (1377).

Attention! England during this period was experiencing a serious internal political crisis: first, Crown Prince Edward died (1376), then Edward III (1377). Scottish troops also continued to harass English borders. The situation in Wales and Northern Ireland was difficult.

Realizing the complexity of the situation, both in the country and abroad, the English king requested a truce, which was concluded in 1396.

The time of the truce, which lasted until 1415, was difficult for both France and England. A civil war broke out in France, caused by the madness of the reigning king Charles VI. In England the government tried:

• fight the uprisings that broke out in Ireland and Wales;
• repel the attacks of the Scots;
• cope with Earl Percy's rebellion;
• put an end to the pirates who were disrupting English trade.

During this period, power also changed in England: the minor Richard II was removed, and as a result, Henry IV ascended the throne.

The third Anglo-French conflict was started by Henry V, the son of Henry IV. He led a very successful campaign, as a result of which the British managed to:

become winners at Agincourt (1415); capture Caen and Rouen; take Paris (1420); win a victory at Cravan; divide French territory into two parts, which were unable to contact due to the presence of English troops; besiege the city of Orleans in 1428.

Attention! International situation became more complicated and confusing due to the fact that Henry V died in 1422. His infant son was recognized as king of both countries, but most French people supported the Dauphin Charles VII.

It was at this turning point that the legendary Joan of Arc, the future national heroine of France, appears. Largely thanks to her and her faith, the Dauphin Charles decided to take active action. Before its appearance, there was no talk of any active resistance.

The last period was marked by a peace signed between the House of Burgundy and the Armagnacs, who supported the Dauphin Charles. The reason for this unexpected alliance was the offensive of the British.

As a result of the creation of the alliance and the activities of Joan of Arc, the siege of Orleans was lifted (1429), victory was won at the Battle of Pat, Reims was liberated, where in 1430 the Dauphin was declared King Charles VII.

Joan fell into the hands of the British and the Inquisition; her death could not stop the advances of the French, who sought to completely clear the territory of their country from the British. In 1453 the British capitulated, signaling the end of the Hundred Years' War. The French king won, naturally, with the active support of the Ducal House of Burgundy. This is the entire course of the Hundred Years' War in brief.

Causes and beginning of the Hundred Years' War (Russian) History of the Middle Ages.

End of the Hundred Years' War. Unification of France. (Russian) History of the Middle Ages.

Summarizing

France managed to defend its territories. Almost all except the port of Calais, which remained English until 1558. Both countries were economically devastated. The population of France has decreased by more than half. And these are probably the most important consequences of the Hundred Years' War. The conflict had a profound impact on the development of military affairs in Europe. Most importantly, the formation has begun regular armies. England entered a protracted period of civil war, which led to the Tudor dynasty taking the throne of the country.

The history and results of the Hundred Years' War by numerous professional historians and writers. William Shakespeare, Voltaire, Schiller, Prosper Merimee, Alexandre Dumas, and A. Conan Doyle wrote about her. Mark Twain and Maurice Druon.

England and France are two great powers of medieval Europe, controlling the balance of political forces, trade routes, diplomacy and the territorial division of other states. Sometimes these countries formed alliances with each other to fight a third party, and sometimes they fought against each other. There were always plenty of reasons for confrontation and another war - from religious problems to the desire of the rulers of either England or France to take the throne of the opposing side. The results of such local conflicts were civilians who died during robberies, disobedience, and surprise attacks by the enemy. Production resources, trade routes and communications were largely destroyed, and acreage was reduced.

One such conflict erupted on the European continent in the 1330s, when England again went to war against its eternal rival France. This conflict was called the Hundred Years' War in history because it lasted from 1337 to 1453. Countries have not been at war with each other for 116 years. It was a complex of local confrontations that either subsided or resumed anew.

Reasons for the Anglo-French confrontation

The immediate factor that provoked the outbreak of the war was the claims of the English Plantagenet dynasty to the throne in France. The purpose of this desire was that England lost possession of continental Europe. The Plantagenets were related in varying degrees to the Capetian dynasty, the rulers of the French state. The royal monarchs wanted to expel the English from Guienne, which had been transferred to France under the terms of the treaty concluded in Paris in 1259.

Among the main reasons that provoked the war, it is worth noting the following factors:

• The English ruler Edward the Third was closely related to the French king Philip the Fourth (he was his grandson), and declared his rights to the throne of the neighboring country. In 1328, the last direct descendant of the Capetian family, Charles the Fourth, died. Philip VI of the Valois family became the new ruler of France. According to the set of legislative acts “Salic Truth”, Edward the Third could also lay claim to the crown;
• Territorial disputes over the region of Gascony, one of the main economic centers of France, also became a stumbling block. Formally, the region was owned by England, but in fact by France.
• Edward the Third wanted to get back the lands that his father had previously owned;
• Philip the Sixth wanted the English king to recognize him as a sovereign ruler. Edward the Third took such a step only in 1331, since his native country was constantly torn apart by internal troubles and constant internecine struggle;
• Two years later, the monarch decided to get involved in a war against Scotland, which was an ally of France. This step of the English king freed the hands of the French, and he gave the order to expel the British from Gascony, extending his power there. The English won the war, so David II, King of Scotland, fled to France. These events paved the way for England and France to begin preparing for war. The French king wanted to support the return of David II to the Scottish throne, so he ordered a landing on the British Isles.

The intensity of hostility led to the fact that in the fall of 1337 the English army began to advance in Picardy. The actions of Edward the Third were supported by the feudal lords, the cities of Flanders and the southwestern regions of the country.

The confrontation between England and France took place in Flanders - at the very beginning of the war, then the war moved to Aquitaine and Normandy.

In Aquitaine, the claims of Edward III were supported by feudal lords and cities who sent food, steel, wine, and dyes to Britain. This was a major trading region that France did not want to lose.

Stages

Historians divide the 100th war into several periods, taking the activity of military operations and territorial conquests as criteria:

• The 1st period is usually called the Edwardian War, which began in 1337 and lasted until 1360;
• The 2nd stage covers 1369-1396, and is called Carolingian;
• The third period lasted from 1415 to 1428, called the Lancastrian War;
• The fourth stage - the final one - began in 1428 and lasted until 1453.

The first and second stages: features of the course of the war

Hostilities began in 1337, when the English army invaded the territory of the French kingdom. King Edward the Third found allies in the burghers of this state and the rulers of the Low Countries. The support did not last long; due to the lack of positive results of the war and victories on the part of the British, the alliance collapsed in 1340.

The first few years of the military campaign were very successful for the French; they offered serious resistance to their enemies. This applied to battles at sea and land battles. But luck turned against France in 1340, when its fleet at Sluys was defeated. As a result, the English fleet established control in the English Channel for a long time.

1340s can be described as successful for both the British and the French. Fortune took turns turning to one side and then to the other. But there was no real advantage in anyone's favor. In 1341, another internecine struggle began for the right to own the Breton inheritance. The main confrontation took place between Jean de Montfort (England supported him) and Charles de Blois (he received the help of France). Therefore, all the battles began to take place in Brittany, the cities took turns passing from one army to another.

After the English landed on the Cotentin Peninsula in 1346, the French began to suffer constant defeats. Edward the Third managed to successfully pass through France, capturing Caen, the Low Countries. The decisive battle took place at Crecy on August 26, 1346. The French army fled, the ally of the King of France, Johann the Blind, ruler of Bohemia, died.

In 1346, the plague intervened in the course of the war, which began to massively take the lives of people on the European continent. The English army only by the mid-1350s. restored financial resources, which allowed the son of Edward the Third, the Black Prince, to invade Gascony, defeat the French at Pautiers, and capture King John the Second the Good. At this time, popular unrest and uprisings began in France, and the economic and political crisis deepened. Despite the existence of the London Agreement on England receiving Aquitaine, the English army again entered France. Successfully moving deeper into the country, Edward the Third refused to lay siege to the capital of the opposing state. It was enough for him that France showed weakness in military affairs and suffered constant defeats. Charles the Fifth, the Dauphin and son of Philip, went to sign a peace treaty, which happened in 1360.

As a result of the first period, Aquitaine, Poitiers, Calais, part of Brittany, half of the vassal lands of France, which lost 1/3 of their territories in Europe, went to the British crown. Despite such a number of acquired possessions in continental Europe, Edward III could not lay claim to the throne of France.

Until 1364, Louis of Anjou was considered the French king, who was at the English court as a hostage, fled, and his father, John the Second the Good, took his place. He died in England, after which the nobility proclaimed Charles the Fifth king. For a long time he was looking for a reason to start a war again, trying to regain the lost lands. In 1369, Charles again declared war on Edward the Third. Thus began the second period of the 100 Years' War. During the nine-year break, the French army was reorganized, and economic reforms were carried out in the country. All this laid the foundation for France to dominate battles and battles, achieving significant success. The British were gradually driven out of France.

England could not provide adequate resistance, since it was busy in other local conflicts, and Edward the Third could no longer command the army. In 1370, both countries were involved in a war on the Iberian Peninsula, where Castile and Portugal were at war. The first was supported by Charles the Fifth, and the second by Edward the Third and his eldest son, also Edward, Earl of Woodstock, nicknamed the Black Prince.

In 1380 Scotland again began to threaten England. In such difficult conditions, the second stage of the war took place for each side, which ended in 1396 with the signing of a truce. The reason for the agreement between the parties was the exhaustion of the parties physically, morally and financially.

Military operations resumed only in the 15th century. The reason for this was the conflict between Jean the Fearless, the ruler of Burgundy and Louis of Orleans, who was killed by the Armagnac party. In 1410 they seized power in the country. Opponents began to call on the British for help, trying to use them in inter-dynastic strife. But at this time, the British Isles were also very turbulent. The political and economic situation was deteriorating, the people were dissatisfied. In addition, Wales and Ireland began to emerge from disobedience, which Scotland took advantage of by starting military operations against the English monarch. Two wars broke out in the country itself, which were in the nature of civil confrontation. At that time, Richard II was already sitting on the English throne, he fought with the Scots, the nobles took advantage of his ill-conceived policy, removing him from power. Henry the Fourth ascended the throne.

Events of the third and fourth periods

Due to internal problems, the British did not dare to interfere in the internal affairs of France until 1415. It was only in 1415 that Henry the Fifth ordered his troops to land near Harfleur, capturing the city. The two countries are once again plunged into a violent confrontation.

The troops of Henry the Fifth made mistakes in the offensive, which provoked a transition to defense. And this was not at all part of the British plans. A kind of rehabilitation for the losses was the victory at Agincourt (1415), when the French lost. And again a series of military victories and achievements followed, which gave Henry the Fifth a chance to hope for a successful conclusion to the war. The main achievements in 1417-1421 there was the capture of Normandy, Caen and Rouen; An agreement was signed in the city of Troyes with the King of France, Charles the Sixth, nicknamed the Mad. Under the terms of the treaty, Henry the Fifth became the king's heir, despite the presence of direct heirs - the sons of Charles. The title of kings of France was borne by the English monarchies until 1801. The treaty was confirmed in 1421, when troops entered the capital of the French kingdom, the city of Paris.

That same year, the Scottish army came to the aid of the French. The Battle of Bogue took place, during which many outstanding military figures of that time died. In addition, the British army was left without leadership. A few months later, Henry the Fifth died in Meaux (1422), and his son, who was only one year old at that time, was chosen as monarch instead. The Armagnacs took the side of the Dauphin of France, and the confrontations continued.

The French suffered a series of defeats in 1423, but continued to resist. In subsequent years, the third period of the Hundred Years' War was characterized by the following events:

• 1428 – siege of Orleans, a battle called in historiography “The Battle of the Herrings”. It was won by the British, which significantly worsened the condition of the French army and the entire population of the country;
• Peasants, artisans, townspeople, and small knights rebelled against the invaders. Residents of the northern regions of France - Maine, Picardy, Normandy - resisted especially actively, where guerrilla warfare against the British;
• One of the most powerful outbreaks broke out on the border of Champagne and Lorraine. peasant uprisings, which was led by Joan of Arc. The myth of the Maid of Orleans, who was sent to fight against English dominance and occupation, quickly spread among French soldiers. The courage, bravery and skill of Joan of Arc showed the military leaders that it was necessary to move from defense to offense, to change the tactics of warfare.

The turning point in the Hundred Years' War came in 1428, when Joan of Arc with the army of Charles the Seventh lifted the siege of Orleans. The uprising became a powerful impetus for a radical change in the situation in the Hundred Years' War. The king reorganized the army, formed a new government, and the troops began to liberate cities and other populated areas one by one.

In 1449, Raun was recaptured, then Caen and Gascony. In 1453, the British lost at Catilion, after which there were no battles in the Hundred Years' War. A few years later, the British garrison capitulated in Bordeaux, which put an end to more than a century of confrontation between the two states. The English monarchy continued to control only the city of Calais and the district until the late 1550s.

Results and consequences of the war

France has suffered enormous human losses over such a long period, both among the civilian population and among the military. The results of the Hundred Years' War for

French state steel:

• Restoration of state sovereignty;
• Removal of the English threat and claims to the French throne, lands and possessions;
• The process of forming a centralized apparatus of power and the country continued;
• Famine and plague devastated the cities and villages of France, as in many European countries;
• Military spending drained the country's treasury;
• Constant uprisings and social riots exacerbated the crisis in society;
• Observe crisis phenomena in culture and art.

England also lost a lot during the entire period of the Hundred Years' War. Having lost its possessions on the continent, the monarchy came under public pressure and was constantly displeased by the nobles. Civil strife began in the country, and anarchy was observed. The main struggle took place between the York and Lancaster families.

There was no means or strength to return the lost lands in France, which the crown had owned since the 12th century. The treasury was completely empty, depleted by military expenses.

The Hundred Years' War ended, but the countries did not sign each other peaceful agreement. The English monarchs hoped to return the lost lands, but their aspirations were not destined to come true. The War of the Roses followed in 1455, drawing the dynasties away from France. The only attempt to regain a foothold on the continent was made in 1475 by Edward the Fourth. But his troops were defeated, and he agreed to a truce. The document was drawn up and signed in Piquigny, and it is this document that historians believe latest event in the 100 Years' War.

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The Hundred Years' War was a series of short wars. It began in 1337 and ended in 1453, so the conflict lasted 116 years. The English kings tried to dominate France, while the French tried to drive the English out of their country.

In 1328, King Charles IV of France dies without leaving an heir. The barons give up his throne cousin, Philip VI, Count of Valois, but Charles' nephew Edward III, King of England, lays claim to the throne. His rights to the French throne were fully justified, but with them would come to France the same English rule that had loomed as a dangerous shadow on the political horizon for centuries. Therefore, referring to " Salic truth" - a barbarian law book written around 500, members of the assembly of the highest French nobility rejected the claims of Edward III. And when Philip announces the confiscation of the French lands of Edward III, war begins.

The English defeated the French fleet near Sluys, invaded France and won the Battle of Crécy by land. Edward then took Calais. But soon both sides ran out of money to continue the war, and they concluded a truce, which lasted from 1347 to 1355.

In 1355, under the leadership of Edward the Black Prince, the heir of Edward III, a new invasion took place. The Black Prince won a victory at Poitiers, capturing Philip's successor, John II. The Treaty of Bretigny in 1360 gave the English part of French territories. Following the agreement came new campaign. As a result, England lost most of its French possessions.

For some time, the minors Charles VI of France and Richard II of England were on the thrones of both countries. Richard's uncle, John of Ghent, Duke of Lancaster, ruled for Richard. In 1396, Richard II married Charles VI's daughter Isabella, concluding a truce for 20 years. In France, the Dukes of Burgundy and Orleans became the rulers, who split the country into two parties. King Charles VI turned out to be mentally ill. In history he remained under the nickname Charles the Mad. Charles's wife, Isabella of Bavaria, tried to elevate the Duke of Orleans to the throne.

The English king Henry V took advantage of these events. He announced that he was seeking the French crown as the rightful heir. He was supported by the English Parliament and the entire people. In the first battle in 1415 at Agincourt, the French again suffered a crushing defeat. Under the arrows of the famous English archers, 10 thousand French knights fell on the battlefield. Henry then captured almost all of northern France.

Civil strife continued at the French court. The Duke of Burgundy, John the Undaunted, either entered into an alliance with Isabella of Bavaria, or negotiated with the Dauphin Charles VII. Dauphin in France they named the legal heir to the throne. This title was derived from the name of the French province of Dauphiné, which since the time of Charles V had traditionally belonged to the eldest son of the king. The Dauphin Charles VII summoned John for negotiations. The meeting took place on the bridge near the Montreux fortress. A knight from the Dauphin's retinue treacherously killed the duke, and his son, avenging his father, went over to the side of the English.

On May 21, 1420, in Troyes, Henry V and Charles VI the Mad signed an agreement, according to which Henry V was declared regent of France and the “beloved son and heir” of Charles VI. The only surviving son of Charles VI, the Dauphin Charles, was deprived of his inheritance rights, the legality of his origin was questioned and he was sentenced to exile from France. Charles VI and his wife Isabella retained the titles of King and Queen of France for the rest of their lives, which then passed to the house of England. Henry V married Charles VI's daughter Catherine, so that their children in the future would truly embody the fact of the unification of the crowns.

The heir to the throne, Charles VII, fled to the south of the country.

The short time allotted to Henry V on earth after the title of regent and heir to the coveted French throne was legally assigned to him ended in 1422. The still far from old king suddenly died of illness. He was followed just six weeks later by Charles VI. The game of chance, so characteristic of the history of the Anglo-French conflict, once again introduced serious changes into a situation that had previously seemed quite certain.

France actually split into three parts: lands actually conquered by the British; areas that were under the political influence of the Duke of Burgundy, an ally of the British; and territories where the authority of the Dauphin Charles was recognized. Immediately after the deaths of Henry V and Charles VI, the Dauphin Charles proclaimed himself the rightful heir to the throne and was crowned at Poitiers by his supporters.

English troops, together with the Burgundians, besieged Orleans - the last stronghold of independence. It seemed that France was lost and the British would conquer it, just as the French, led by William the Conqueror, had once conquered England.

Among the peasants, who were very religious, there was an opinion that God would not allow such humiliation of France and would miraculously save the country from foreigners. From time to time handwritten sheets appeared calling for a fight.

Just before the appearance of Joan of Arc in the royal camp, a prophecy became known according to which God would send a savior to France in the form of a virgin.