What prevents the exchange of genetic information between populations. Three lessons on microevolution. II. Learning new material

Question 1. Name the main factors of evolution.
According to the synthetic theory of evolution, the elementary evolutionary phenomenon from which speciation begins is a change in the genetic composition (genetic constitution, or gene pool) of a population. Events and processes that help overcome the genetic inertia of populations and lead to changes in their gene pools are called elementary euloluconic factors. The main factors (forces) of evolution are:
1) Factors causing changes in the gene pool of the population. These include hereditary variability, which supplies new genetic material to the population, and population waves, isolation, which form differences between the gene pools of different populations
2) A factor that allows a population to develop independently relative to other populations or divides the original population into two or more new ones. This factor is isolation.
3) A factor that directs the evolutionary process and ensures that certain adaptations and changes in organisms are consolidated in the population. Natural selection serves as such a factor.

Question 2. What factor ensures the emergence of new genetic material in a population?
The factor that ensures the emergence of fundamentally new genetic material is mutational variability.
Under favorable conditions of existence, small differences between individuals of the same species are not very noticeable and do not play a significant role. However, under unfavorable conditions, even small hereditary changes can be decisive and determine which individuals of the population will die and which will survive. Hereditary variability provides material for the evolutionary process.
Mutations occur with a certain frequency in all organisms inhabiting our planet. The location of the mutation (gene and chromosome) is random, so mutations can affect any characteristics and properties of an individual, including those affecting viability, reproduction, and behavior. Over the course of generations, the vast majority of mutations are preserved, starting with those that arose in the most ancient ancestors. As a result, the set of mutations in two populations of the same species turns out to be very similar. On the other hand, various mutations will also be present. Their number is an indicator of how long ago the two populations became isolated from each other.
Thus, the mutation process is a source of reserve of hereditary variability of populations. Supporting high degree genetic diversity of populations, it creates the basis for action natural selection.

Question 3. Will selection act on carriers of recessive mutations?
As a rule, carriers of recessive mutations (heterozygous organisms) do not differ noticeably in properties from homozygous dominant organisms. Moreover, in the heterozygous state, many mutations increase the viability of individuals. Therefore, selection usually does not act on such individuals. After a certain time, the population may accumulate enough large number recessive alleles, i.e. the proportion of heterozygous organisms will increase. This will lead to an increase in the likelihood of their meeting and, as a consequence, to the birth (in 25% of cases) of recessive homozygotes. It should also be borne in mind that in nature mutations occur in combination with each other. Some combinations due to the interaction of genes can be positive for an individual, increasing its viability. This is where natural selection can begin to act.

Question 4. Give an example illustrating the change in the significance of a mutation when environmental conditions change.
Mutations that are harmful in some conditions can increase the viability of an individual in other environmental conditions. Mutations that are harmful in some conditions can increase viability. individuals in other environmental conditions. For example, mutant insects that are wingless or have poorly developed wings have an advantage on oceanic islands and mountain passes where strong winds blow. For similar reasons, the formation of species now exterminated by humans, such as the dodo and the great auk, occurred.
An example is a mutation in insects that provides resistance to a pesticide. Over time, this mutation will be neutral, and its occurrence in the population will be low. But after this pesticide begins to be used to control insects, the mutation will become useful, since it will ensure the survival of individuals in changed conditions. Thanks to the action of selection, the proportion of this mutation in the gene pool of the population will increase sharply - the faster, the stricter the selection, i.e., the greater the percentage of individuals die in each generation from the action of the pesticide. It is clear that such events will manifest themselves much more clearly if the mutation of resistance to the pesticide is dominant.

Question 5. Is the mutation process capable of exerting a directing influence on the process of evolution and why?
The mutation process is a random, nonspecific phenomenon. Mutations arise undirectedly and have no adaptive significance, that is, they cause uncertain hereditary variability (according to Charles Darwin). With equal probability, mutations can lead to changes in any organ system. Thus, the mutation process in itself is not capable of exerting a directing effect on the course of evolution.

Question 6. What is genetic drift?
Genetic drift is a process of random, non-directional change in allele frequencies in a population. It is observed when a population passes through a state of low numbers (the so-called “bottleneck” effect, which occurs as a result of epidemics and natural disasters). As a result of random genetic drift, genetically homogeneous populations living in similar conditions can gradually lose their original similarity. Genetic drift is one of the factors contributing to population change.

Question 7. What factor leads to the cessation of exchange genetic information between populations? What is its evolutionary significance?
The cessation of the exchange of genetic information is facilitated by isolation - the restriction or cessation of crossings of individuals belonging to different populations. Isolation can be spatial or environmental.
Geographic isolation consists of spatial separation of populations due to landscape features within the species’ range - the presence of water barriers for “land” organisms, land areas for aquatic species, alternation of elevated areas and plains. It is promoted by a sedentary or immobile (in plants) lifestyle.
Ecological isolation occurs if individuals are separated by environmental barriers within the same landscape, for example, the probability of encountering inhabitants of shallow and deep parts of a reservoir during the breeding season is very low. Long-term ecological isolation contributes to the divergence of populations up to the formation of new species. Thus, it is assumed that the human and pork roundworms, which are morphologically similar, originated from a common ancestor. Their divergence, according to one hypothesis, was facilitated by the ban on human consumption of pork meat, which was spread for religious reasons long time to large numbers of people. Ecological isolation exists due to the nuances of the courtship ritual, coloring, smells, “singing” of females and males from different populations. Thus, the subspecies of goldfinches - gray-headed and black-headed - have pronounced markings on their heads. Hooded crows from the Crimean and Northern Ukrainian populations, outwardly indistinguishable, are distinguished by their croaking. With physiological isolation, differences in the structure of the reproductive organs or simply differences in body size serve as an obstacle to crossing. In plants, this form of isolation is caused by the adaptation of the flower to a particular type of pollinator.
Isolation in the process of speciation interacts with other elementary evolutionary factors. It enhances the genotypic differences created by the mutation process and genetic combinatorics. Intraspecific groups that arise due to isolation differ in genetic composition and experience unequal selection pressure. The evolutionary significance of isolation lies in the fact that it consolidates and enhances genetic differences between populations and creates the preconditions for the further transformation of these populations into separate species.

The gradual accumulation of differences between populations isolated from each other can lead to the fact that they turn into two different species, i.e. speciation will occur.

Types of isolation/speciation:

Geographical - if there is an insurmountable barrier between populations - a mountain, river or a very large distance (occurs with rapid expansion of the range). For example, Siberian larch (in Siberia) and Daurian larch (in the Far East).

Ecological (biological) - if two populations live in the same territory (within the same area), but cannot interbreed. For example, different populations of trout live in Lake Sevan, but they go to different rivers that flow into this lake to spawn.

Isolation as biological term denotes the separation of individuals or groups of individuals from each other. Such separation leads to species changes, which is the driving force of evolution, since groups isolated from each other acquire completely different species characteristics. Thus, insulation is one of the evolutionary factors– a driving force that causes and consolidates changes in individual populations. The main factors of evolution are natural selection and mutation processes. Such factors also include genetic drift, which is especially evident under conditions of isolation. Genetic drift leads to a significant decrease in the genetic diversity of one isolated population, and at the same time, differences between individual populations in a number of species traits increase. This is how isolation causes the emergence of a specific species that differs in its characteristics from others. An example is people - how many different races and peoples, and how many tribes existed and exist now. The difference in the development of each individual people is also very indicative.

According to the nature of the insulating barriers they are classified:

Geographic isolation is the separation of a certain population from other populations of the same species by some insurmountable geographical obstacle. Such isolation may arise as a result of changes in geographical conditions within the species' range or when groups of individuals disperse beyond the range, when "founder populations" can gain a foothold in certain isolated areas with favorable conditions for them external environment. Geographic isolation is one of the important factors in speciation, since it prevents interbreeding and thereby the exchange of genetic information between isolated populations.

Reproductive isolation. Reproductive (biological) isolation leads to disruption of free mating or the formation of sterile offspring. They classify environmental, ethological, temporary, anatomical-morpho-physiological and genetic reproductive isolation. With the ethological nature of reproductive isolation for individuals of different populations, the probability of fertilization is reduced due to differences in lifestyle and behavior, for example, different types Birds have different courtship rituals and mating songs. With an ecological nature, the living conditions of living organisms differ, for example, fish populations spawn in different places. With temporary isolation, the timing of reproduction differs. With anatomical-morpho-physiological reproductive isolation in living organisms, differences arise in the structure and size of individual organs of the reproductive system, or differences arise in the biochemical aspects of reproductive function. With the genetic nature of reproductive isolation, incompatible gametes arise or hybrids with reduced viability, fertility or sterility appear.

The listed forms of reproductive isolation arise independently of each other and can be combined in any combination. However, it is genetic isolation that is considered one of the most important forms reproductive isolation, since other forms of reproductive isolation during speciation ultimately lead precisely to the emergence of independence of the gene pools of two populations. Long-term geographic isolation often contributes to reproductive isolation.

Population waves as a driving factor in evolution.

IN natural conditions Periodic fluctuations in the population numbers of many organisms constantly occur. They are called population waves, or waves of life. This term was proposed by S.S. Chetverikov.

Population numbers undergo significant changes due to the seasonal nature of the development of many species and their habitat conditions. It can also vary greatly depending on different years. There are known cases of mass reproduction of populations of certain species, for example, lemmings, locusts, pathogenic bacteria and fungi (epidemics), etc.

There are frequent cases of sharp, sometimes catastrophic reduction in population numbers associated with the invasion of diseases, pests, natural phenomena(forest and steppe fires, floods, volcanic eruptions, prolonged droughts, etc.).

There are known examples of a sharp increase in the numbers of some species, whose representatives found themselves in new conditions where they have no enemies (for example, the Colorado potato beetle and Elodea in Europe, rabbits in Australia, etc.).

These processes are random in nature, leading to the death of some genotypes and stimulating the development of others, as a result of which significant rearrangements of the gene pool of the population can occur. In small populations, the offspring will produce a small number of randomly surviving individuals, so the frequency of closely related crosses in them increases significantly, which increases the likelihood of individual mutations and recessive allelic genes transitioning to a homozygous state. Thus, mutations can actually manifest themselves in populations and serve as the beginning of the formation of new forms or even new species. Rare genotypes can either completely disappear or suddenly multiply in populations, becoming dominant. Dominant genotypes can either persist in new conditions, or sharply decrease in number and even completely disappear from populations. The phenomena of restructuring the structure of the gene pool and changes in the frequencies of occurrence of different allelic genes in it, associated with a sharp and random change in population numbers, are called genetic drift.

Thus, population waves and the associated phenomena of genetic drift lead to deviations from genetic equilibrium in populations. These changes can be picked up by selection and can influence further processes of evolutionary transformations.

Migration is a driving factor in evolution.

Gene introgression - exchange of genes between populations of different species

Migration is the movement of individuals from one habitat to another, caused by a change in living conditions in the habitat of these individuals. There are regular (seasonal, daily, etc.) and irregular migrations.

The evolutionary significance of migrations lies in the fact that they perform two important functions in nature: 1) contribute to the unification of species as integral systems, ensuring regular or periodic contacts between its individual populations; 2) contribute to the penetration of species into new habitats (in this case, isolation of distant populations from the main species may occur).

Populations of the same species, as a rule, are not isolated from each other. Genes are constantly exchanged between them. The intensity of gene exchange between populations depends on the distance between them.

Thanks to free crossing during migration, genes are exchanged between individuals of a population of the same species (gene flow). In this case, the genes of migrating individuals are included in the gene pool of the population during crossing. As a result, the gene pool of populations is updated.

Natural selection

Darwin's principle of natural selection is fundamental to evolutionary theory. Natural selection is the directional, driving factor of evolution organic world. Currently, ideas about natural selection have been replenished with new facts, expanded and deepened. Natural selection should be understood as selective survival and the possibility of leaving offspring by individuals. Biological significance of an individual that produces offspring is determined by the contribution of its genotype to the gene pool of the population. Selection operates in a population; its objects are the phenotypes of individual individuals. The phenotype of an organism is formed on the basis of the implementation of genotype information under certain environmental conditions.

Thus, selection from generation to generation based on phenotypes leads to selection of genotypes, since not traits, but gene complexes are transmitted to descendants. For evolution, not only genotypes matter, but also phenotypes and phenotypic variability.

There are three main forms of selection: stabilizing, driving and disruptive.

F1-F3 – generations (options eliminated by selection are shaded)

1). Stabilizing selection promotes the preservation of the characteristics of a species under relatively constant environmental conditions. It maintains average values, rejecting mutational deviations of the previously formed norm. The stabilizing form of selection operates as long as the conditions that led to the formation of a particular trait remain.

2). Driving selection favors a change in the average value of a trait under changed environmental conditions. It determines the constant transformation of the adaptations of species in accordance with changes in living conditions. Individuals of a population have some differences in phenotype and genotype.

Test in biology “Evolution of the living world on Earth”

1.Name of itembiology

2. Teacher Chernousova S.A.

3.Date. 9a – 10/18/2016, 9b – 10/14/2016.

4.Control objectives: check your mastery level educational material students in the section “evolution of the living world on Earth”

5. Evaluation criteria:

Ioption

IIoption

1-4,2-1,3-4,4-1,5-1,6-2,7-1,8-1,9-1,10-4

1-2,2-3,3-1,4-4,5-4,6-3,7-1,8-4,9-4,10-2

2,4,5

1,2,5

12121

211212

1. There is a manifestation of modification (non-hereditary, specific, phenotypic) variability;

2. The manifestation of this symptom is determined by seasonal changes in temperature and day length

1. Form of fitness - protective coloring.

2. Any adaptation is relative, i.e. fitness arises as a result of natural selection and relative to the environment in which a living organism lives

0-8b "2"

9-11b "3"

12-14b "4"

15-17b "5"

1 option

A1. What is the guiding factor of evolution?

1) heredity 2) variability 3) struggle for existence 4) natural selection

A2. What criterion can be used to most accurately determine species identity?

1) genetic 2) geographical 3) morphological 4) physiological

A3. What prevents the exchange of genetic information between populations?

A4. Which of the elementary factors of evolution leads to the emergence of new genes?

1) mutational variability 3) genetic drift

2) population waves 4) isolation

A5. Under gradually changing conditions environment acts...natural selection

A6. Which scientist considered the driving force of evolution to be the desire of organisms for perfection and argued for the inheritance of acquired characteristics?

A7. An example of an intraspecific struggle for existence is the relationship:

1) black cockroaches among themselves 3) black cockroaches with pesticides

2) black and red cockroaches 4) black cockroaches and black rats

A8. Change of fur, hibernation in mammals, well-developed root systems in plants are examples...

1) combating unfavorable environmental conditions 3) intraspecific mutual assistance

2) intraspecific struggle for existence 4) interspecific struggle

A9. Select the reason for geographic isolation.

1) migration of a group of individuals outside the range of the original species

2) the occurrence of biochemical differences in gametes in a group of individuals

3) the emergence of structural features in a group of individuals

4) a change in the timing of reproduction in a group of individuals

A10. Under relatively constant environmental conditions, it acts...naturally. selection

1) driving 2) disruptive 3) tearing 4) stabilizing

B1. Which of the listed factors lead to a decrease in the number of mouse-like rodents in a coniferous forest?

1) reduction in the number of birds of prey and mammals

2) cutting down coniferous trees

3) harvest of fir cones after a warm, dry summer

4) increase in predator activity

5) outbreak of epidemics

6) deep snow cover in winter

B2. Establish a correspondence between the forms of struggle for existence and their characteristics

CharacteristicsForms of the struggle for existence

a) competition for food, shelter, females 1) intraspecific

c) very tough and intense struggle

d) leads to the development of mutual adaptations

d) contributes to the prosperity of the species

C1. The thickness of the fur of midland mammals changes throughout the year, and molting occurs. Explain what type of variability is observed in mammals and what determines the manifestation of this trait.

Test in biology “Evolutionary teaching”

IIoption

A.1 What is the name of the complex of various relationships between organisms and factors of inanimate and living nature?

1) natural selection 3) fitness

2) struggle for existence 4) variability

A2. What phenomenon leads to a change in the gene pool of a population?

1) reproduction 2) isolation 3) natural selection 4) modification variability

A3. The reduction of leaves and the formation of long roots in plants is an example:

1) combating unfavorable environmental conditions 3) intraspecific mutual assistance

2) intraspecific struggle for existence 4) interspecific struggle for existence

A4. What evolutionary factor contributes to the emergence of barriers to the free crossing of individuals?

1) waves of life 2) natural selection 3) modifications 4) isolation

A5. Natural selection is aimed at preserving mutations leading to less variability in the average value of a trait...

1) driving 2) disruptive 3) tearing 4) stabilizing

A6. In winter, animals change color, thickness of fur, and hibernate. This is an example

1) fight against unfavorable environmental conditions 3) intraspecific mutual assistance

2) intraspecific struggle for existence 4) interspecific struggle for existence

A7. indicate the animal for which the struggle for existence is most intense and accompanied by greater mortality of offspring.

1) roundworm 2) rat 3) partridge 4) elephant

A8. What is natural selection?

1) complex relationships between living and inanimate nature

2) the process of formation of new populations and species

3) the process of population growth

4) the process of preserving individuals with useful hereditary changes

A9. The emergence of industrial melanism in insects is promoted by... natural selection

1) driving 2) disruptive 3) tearing 4) stabilizing

A10. Which scientist considered the driving force of evolution to be the desire of organisms for perfection and argued for the inheritance of acquired characteristics?

1) Carl Linnaeus 2) Jean-Baptiste Lamarck 3) Charles Darwin 4) A.N.Severtsov

B1. What are the main forms of natural selection?

1) stabilizing 2) driving 3) methodical

4) individual 5) tearing 6) artificial

B2. Establish a correspondence between the types of selection and their examples

ExamplesTypes of selection

a) endurance of dogs to frost 1) artificial selection

b) dogs’ attachment to humans 2) natural selection

c) high egg production in domestic chickens

d) protective coloration of the white hare

d) a breed of rabbit with pure white fur

e) horses' hooves

C. In the Far North, many animals are painted white ( polar bear, white partridge). Indicate the form of animal adaptation and its nature.

3. Combinative variability in populations and its role in evolution

Three sources of combinative variability are known: crossing over, the random nature of the divergence of homologous chromosomes in meiosis, and the random nature of fertilization.
If we assume that in each pair of homologous chromosomes there is only one pair of allelic genes, then in humans (the haploid set of chromosomes is 23), the number of possible types of gametes will be 223, and the number of possible genotypes will be 323. This is 20 times more population Earth - and that's without taking into account the diversity added by crossing over!
Thus, the possibility of the emergence of two identical organisms during sexual reproduction is practically zero (the exception is identical twins, the emergence of which is not, strictly speaking, sexual reproduction).
Combinative variability, like mutations, plays the role of a supplier of material for natural selection.
Hereditary variability in general (mutational, combinative) is random, non-directional. It only supplies material for selection. Hereditary variability itself, without the participation of other evolutionary factors, cannot lead to a directed change in the gene pool of a population.

III. Consolidation of knowledge

IV. Homework

Study the textbook paragraph (factors of evolution, the role of mutational and combinational variability in the evolution).

Lesson 3. Waves of life, gene flow, genetic drift and their role in evolution

I. Checking homework on the topic: “Elementary factors of evolution. Hereditary variability and its role in evolution"

Working with cards

1. Genetics have studied more than 2 billion fruit flies, and flies with blue or green eyes have never been observed among them. What is the probability of discovering these mutations in the future?

2. How to explain the fact that albinism occurs in all human races and is widespread among mammals (there are known cases of white gorillas, tigers and other mammals)?

Oral knowledge test on the following questions:

1) the concept of evolutionary factors;
2) mutations and their role in evolution;
3) combinative variability and its role in evolution.

II. Learning new material

1. Waves of life and their role in evolution

The periodic alternation of rises and falls in population numbers is called population waves, or waves of life (the term was introduced in 1905 by S.S. Chetverikov).
Invasions of voles, mice, and locusts have been known to man since ancient times. Periodic fluctuations in numbers are especially noticeable in rodents and other species with short life cycles and rapid succession of generations. But the phenomenon itself is characteristic of all populations of plants and animals.
Waves of life can be seasonal (periodic) and non-seasonal (non-periodic). Seasonal changes in population numbers are often genetically determined. Non-seasonal waves of life are caused by the direct impact on the population of various abiotic and biotic environmental factors (temperature, humidity, influence of predators, abundance of food, drought, fire, flood, etc.). As a result, the population size is determined by many factors at once.
Communities often experience periodic fluctuations in population numbers associated with predator-prey relationships. Increased reproduction of predators' prey due to an increase in food resources leads, in turn, to increased reproduction of predators. This is followed by the mass destruction of their victims. The lack of food resources causes a reduction in the number of predators and a restoration of the size of the prey population.
Waves of life are one of the elementary evolutionary factors. As the population size increases, the number of mutants also increases. After a decline in numbers, the remaining part of the population will differ significantly in genetic composition from the previously large population, since some mutations will completely randomly disappear along with the individuals carrying them, and some mutations, also by accident, will sharply increase their concentration.
Thus, population waves themselves do not cause hereditary variability, but only contribute to random changes in the frequencies of alleles and genotypes, i.e. waves of life are a unique factor – a supplier of evolutionary material, bringing a number of genotypes into the evolutionary arena completely randomly and without direction. After stabilization of environmental conditions in the population, individuals with optimal genotypes will be selected.
It should be remembered that waves of life threaten the survival of small populations.

2. Isolation and its importance for saturation of populations with mutations

Isolation in the theory of evolution is the exclusion or difficulty of free crossing between individuals of the same species, leading to the separation of intraspecific groups and new species.
Highlight various shapes isolation: geographical, temporary, environmental, seasonal, ethological, etc. All these forms can contribute to reproductive isolation. For example, geographic isolation prevents interbreeding due to the separation of populations by any geographic barriers (rivers, mountains, deserts, etc.). Thus, it disrupts the exchange of genetic information between populations of the same species.
Thus, isolation is one of the most important factors of evolution, contributing to the saturation of a given population with mutations. It consolidates interpopulation differences in the frequencies of occurrence of various genotypes and contributes to the creation of groups with independent gene pools that can become independent species.

3. Gene flow and its role in evolution

If the isolation between neighboring populations is incomplete, then an exchange of genes occurs between them as a result of free crossing of their individuals. This process is called gene flow.
Gene flow is an important source of variation. Some migrant individuals from one population penetrate into another, and their genes are included in the gene pool of this population. When individuals from different populations are crossed, the genotypes of the offspring will differ from the genotypes of both parents. In this case, recombination of genes occurs at the interpopulation level, i.e. gene flow also provides material for natural selection. Gene flow has the most important biological consequence - the unification of all populations into a single species system.

4. Genetic drift as a factor in evolution

Random, non-directional changes in gene frequency in a population are called genetic drift. It is observed in small populations where the probability of chance is high.
Let us assume that in a population a certain gene is represented by two alleles – the “+” allele and the “–” allele, with 50% of individuals carrying the “+” allele, and 50% carrying the “–” allele. In each season, only 25% of the members of a given population take part in reproduction. By pure chance, in a particular year, among them there was only one individual carrying the “+” gene. As a result, in the next generation this gene will be found much less frequently, i.e. the frequency of occurrence of this gene will drop sharply - for completely random reasons not related to the characteristics of this gene.
An interesting case of genetic drift is the founder effect. When several individuals leave a large population and occupy a new area, there is a very high probability that some genes will be represented there in completely different proportions than in the original population. This circumstance can greatly influence the evolution of such newly emerging isolated populations. An example is Darwin's finches, descendants of several finches from South America, carried out to sea during a storm and establishing a new population.
Thus, all the factors of evolution we have considered are non-directional in nature. They themselves cannot cause a targeted change in the gene pool of the population, i.e. cannot cause a targeted change in the concentration of certain genes and cannot lead to an elementary evolutionary phenomenon.
The only directional factor is natural selection. All the previously discussed factors can only increase or decrease its effectiveness.

III. Consolidation of knowledge

Summarizing conversation while learning new material.

IV. Homework

Study the textbook paragraph (the role in the evolution of waves of life, isolation, gene flow, genetic drift).

Purpose: identify the level of students' mastery of the course material" General biology"based on the results of the 1st half of the year.

The test was compiled on the topic: “Basic teachings about evolution” for the textbook by A.A. Kamensky, E.K. Kriksunov, V.V. Pasechnik.

The estimated time to complete the administrative test is 40 minutes.

Subject“Fundamentals of the doctrine of evolution” is studied in the 11th grade in the course “General Biology” and is a broad and rather complex topic.

In the course of studying this section, students become acquainted with the history of evolutionary ideas, with the works of C. Linnaeus, the teachings of J.B. Lamarck, the evolutionary theory of Charles Darwin, and the role of evolutionary theory in the formation of the modern natural science picture of the world is studied. Students are introduced to the synthetic theory of evolution. They study the population as a structural unit of a species, a unit of evolution; driving forces of evolution, their influence on the gene pool of the population.

To reliably determine the level of mastery of theoretical material by each student, it is advisable to use test control. The test includes the ability not only to reproduce knowledge, but also to apply it to formulate worldview conclusions and generalizations. In addition, testing is a high-quality and objective way of assessing students’ knowledge; it puts all students on an equal footing, excluding the subjectivity of the teacher.

Testing tasks: test knowledge of the history of evolutionary ideas, the scientific merits of C. Linnaeus and J.B. Lamarck, C. Darwin; systematize knowledge about the species, population, driving forces evolution and its results; test students' understanding of macroevolution and speciation, the main directions of evolution of the organic world.

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Option 1

Part 1

one is correct.

A1. Which scientist considered the driving force of evolution to be the desire for perfection and argued for the inheritance of acquired characteristics?

Carl Leenay
Jean-Baptiste Lamarck
Charles Darwin
A.N. Chetverikov

A2. A collection of freely interbreeding individuals of the same species that exists for a long time in a certain part of the range relatively separately from other populations of the same species is called:

Population
Variety
Colony

A3. What type criterion refers to the features of external and internal structure field mouse?

Morphological
Genetic
Ecological
Geographical

A4. Which species criterion includes the totality of environmental factors to which the polar bear is adapted?

Morphological
Genetic
Ecological
Geographical

A5. Population statistics include:

Mortality
Number
Fertility
Growth rate

A6. What is the random non-directional change in allele and genotype frequencies in populations called?

Mutational variability
Population waves
Genetic drift
Insulation

A7. What are periodic and non-periodic fluctuations in population size in the direction of increasing or decreasing the number of individuals called?

Waves of life
Genetic drift
Insulation
Natural selection

A8. An example of an intraspecific struggle for existence is the relationship:

Black cockroaches among themselves
Black and red cockroaches
Black cockroaches with pesticides
Black cockroaches and black rats

A9. What form of struggle for existence is the most intense?

A10. What form of natural selection operates under gradually changing environmental conditions?

Driving natural selection

A11. Biological isolation is due to:

Small number of species
Inability to mate and fertilize
Geographical barriers
Combinative variability

A12. Which group of evidence for the evolution of the organic world includes the similarity of the embryos of reptiles and birds?

Comparative anatomical
Embryological
Paleontological
Biogeographical

A13. Indicate the correct classification scheme for animals:

A14. What organs arise as a result of convergence?

Homologous
Similar
Atavistic
Vestigial

A15. Which of the following devices Not is it an aromorphosis?

The emergence of the spine in chordates
The appearance of the elephant's trunk
Formation of a 3-chambered heart in amphibians

Part 2

three correct answers out of six.

B1. What evolutionary changes can be attributed to aromorphoses?

The appearance of a flower
Formation of organs and tissues in plants
The emergence of thermophilic bacteria
Atrophy of roots and leaves of dodder
Specialization of some plants to certain pollinators
Constant body temperature

B2. Evolutionary factors include:

Divergence
Hereditary variability
Convergence
Struggle for existence
Parallelism
Natural selection

Administrative test in biology for the 1st half of the year, grade 11

On the topic "Basic teachings about evolution"

to the textbook A.A. Kamensky, E.K. Kriksunov, V.V. Pasechnik

Option 2

Part 1

For each task A1-A15 there are 4 answer options, of which only one is correct.

Carl Leenay
Jean-Baptiste Lamarck
Charles Darwin
A.N. Chetverikov

A2. The structural unit of the species is...

Individual
Population
Colony
Pack

A3. What species criterion includes the set of chromosomes characteristic of Homo sapiens: their number, size, shape?

Morphological
Genetic
Ecological
Geographical

A4. What species criterion applies to the growth of the Grouse grandiflora in forests on rocky areas?

Geographical
Morphological
Ecological
Ethological

A5. Dynamic population indicators include:

Mortality
Number
Density
Structure

A6. Cause of population waves is not:

Seasonal temperature variations
Natural disasters
Aggression of predators
Mutational variability

A7. What prevents the exchange of genetic information between populations?

Mutational variability
Population waves
Genetic drift
Insulation

A8. What is the name of the complex of various relationships between organisms and factors of inanimate and living nature:

Natural selection
Struggle for existence
Fitness
Variability

A9. What form of struggle for existence is a river perch eating its fry?

Interspecific
Intraspecific
With unfavorable environmental conditions
Intraspecific mutual assistance

A10. What form of natural selection is aimed at preserving mutations that lead to less variability in the average value of a trait?

Driving natural selection
Tearing natural selection
Stabilizing natural selection
Disruptive natural selection

A11. What evolutionary factor contributes to the emergence of barriers to the free crossing of individuals?

Waves of life
Natural selection
Modifications
Insulation

A12. Which group of evidence for the evolution of the organic world does the phylogenetic series belong to?

Comparative anatomical
Embryological
Paleontological
Biogeographical

A13. Indicate the correct plant classification scheme:

Species genus family order class type
Species genus family order class type
Species genus family order class department
Species genus order family class type

A14. What organs arise as a result of divergence?

Homologous
Similar
Atavistic
Vestigial

A15. Which of the following devices is classified as idioadaptations?

Emergence of the chord
The appearance of a creeping stem in strawberries
Formation of 2 circles of blood circulation
Loss of circulatory organs in the bovine tapeworm

Part 2.

When completing tasks B1-B2, selectthree correct answers out of six.

When completing tasks B3-B4, establish a correspondence between the contents of the first and second columns. Enter the numbers of the selected answers in the table.

B1. What signs characterize biological progress?

Decline in species numbers
Expansion of the species' range
Emergence of new populations, species
Narrowing of the species' range
Simplify organization and transition to a sedentary lifestyle
Increase in the number of species

B2. What features illustrate the stabilizing form of natural selection?

Operates in changing environmental conditions
Operates under constant environmental conditions
Maintains the reaction norm of the trait
Changes the average value of a characteristic either towards decreasing its value or towards increasing it
Controls functioning organs
Leads to a change in reaction norm

B3. Establish a correspondence between the death of plants and the form of struggle for existence.

Q4. Establish a correspondence between an animal’s trait and the direction of evolution to which it corresponds

C1. What type of natural selection is shown in the picture? Under what environmental conditions is it observed? What mutations does it retain?

INSTRUCTIONS FOR CARRYING OUT

Administrative testBIOLOGY IN 11TH GRADE

(I half of the 2013-2014 academic year)

Purpose:to identify the level of students’ mastery of the educational material of the “General Biology” course based on the results of the 1st half of the year.

The test is based on the topic: “Basic teachings about evolution” totextbook A.A. Kamensky, E.K. Kriksunov, V.V. Pasechnik.

The estimated time to complete the administrative test is 40 minutes.

Subject “Fundamentals of the doctrine of evolution” is studied in the 11th grade in the course “General Biology” and is a broad and rather complex topic.

During the study of this section, students become familiar with andthe history of evolutionary ideas, with the works of C. Linnaeus, the teachings of J.B. Lamarck, the evolutionary theory of Charles Darwin, the role of evolutionary theory in the formation of the modern natural science picture of the world is studied. Students are introduced to the synthetic theory of evolution. They study the population as a structural unit of a species, a unit of evolution; driving forces of evolution, their influence on the gene pool of the population.

Testing tasks: test knowledge of the history of evolutionary ideas, the scientific merits of C. Linnaeus and J.B. Lamarck, C. Darwin; systematize knowledge about the species, population, driving forces of evolution and its results; test students' understanding of macroevolution and speciation, the main directions of evolution of the organic world.

Test evaluation criteria.

All tasks are divided by difficulty levels.

Quests basic level correspond to the minimum content biological education and requirements for the level of training of graduates. They are compiled in accordance with the standard of secondary biological education. For each task there are answer options, of which only one is correct. For correct completion of each such task, a score will be awarded. 1 point.

Quests higher level are aimed at testing students' mastery of more complex content. They contain tasks with a choice of several answers from those given, to establish correspondence, to determine the sequence biological phenomena, to indicate the truth or falsity of statements. For correct completion of each such task, a score will be awarded. 2 points each.

Part C task includes a free response task. For correct completion of the task you will be awarded 3 points.

Work structure:

1) The content of the work includes the following blocks:

Type and its criteria
Populations

2) According to the levels of tasks, the work allows us to identify the assimilation of material at basic, advanced and high levels.

3) According to forms test tasks the work consists of multiple choice tests the right option answer, open type with a short answer, open type with a full detailed answer.

Distribution of work tasks by content:

Blocks	Test task numbers	Number of jobs	Percentage of tasks for this block
Development evolutionary doctrine Ch. Darwin			6,7%
Type and its criteria	A2, A3, A4
Populations			6,7%
Genetic composition and changes in the gene pool of populations	A6, A7		13,3%
The struggle for the existence of her form	A8, A9		13,3%
Natural selection and its forms	A10		6,7%
Isolating mechanisms. Speciation	A11		6,7%
Macroevolution and its evidence	A12		6,7%
The system of plants and animals - displaying evolution	A13		6,7%
The main directions of evolution of the organic world	A14, A15		13,3%
TOTAL-10			100%

Distribution of work tasks into parts.

Parts of the work	Number of jobs	Maximum Primary Score	Job type
Part 1 (A)			Multiple choice
Part 2 (B)			With a short answer
Part 3 (C)			With a detailed answer
Total

Distribution of work tasks by difficulty level:

Difficulty level of tasks	Test task numbers	Number of jobs	Percentage of tasks at a given difficulty level
Base	A1-A15		57,7%
Elevated	B1-B4		15,5%
High			3,8%

Answers to administrative test tasks:

Option 1

Option 2

A1 – 2

A2 – 2

A3 – 1

A4 – 3

A5 – 2

A6 – 3

A7 – 1

A8 – 1

A9 – 1

A10 – 2

A11 – 2

A12 –2

A13 – 1

A14 – 2

A15 – 2

A1 – 2

A2 – 2

A3 – 2

A4 – 3

A5 – 1

A6 – 4

A7 – 4

A8 – 2

A9 – 2

A10 – 3

A11 – 4

A12 – 3

A13 – 3

A14 – 1

A15 – 2

B1 – 1, 2, 6

B2 – 2, 4, 6

B3 –

B4 -

B1 – 2, 3, 6

B2 – 2, 3, 5

B3 –

B4 -

C1:

Stabilizing selection
Observed under relatively constant environmental conditions
Preserves mutations leading to less variability in the average trait value

C1:

1) Driving selection

2) Observed in a unidirectional change in environmental conditions

3) Preserves mutations leading to other extreme manifestations of the magnitude of the trait (either in the direction of strengthening or in the direction of weakening)