Report on the history of world civilizations
India after the war
Formation of an anti-colonial front
During the war, the colonial authorities promised to give India self-government. However, the hopes of the people of India for a change in status were not realized. England had a stranglehold on its main colony, and this was not surprising, given the general weakening of forces in the post-war period - England more than ever needed the resources that it “pumped out” from the colonies. One way or another, this caused new stage anti-colonial struggle.
The development of the capitalist system strengthened the position of the national bourgeoisie. Industry and the ranks of the working class grew. However, for India the number of the latter was small. But at the same time, half of the workers were employed large enterprises with a workforce of over 1 thousand people. Such concentration in large enterprises and in several centers (Bombay, Madras, etc.) turned the small proletariat into an important organized force.
However, it was not the working class, but the multi-million-strong peasantry that determined the character of Indian society. The Indian village formed the basis of the socio-economic structure. This is not just a community, but a special social organization. The entire life of the village is permeated by the caste system, the tribal and class principle of dividing the community, and Brahmanism as a unifying religious factor. Thus, the Indian village is a self-sufficient organization.
The Indian peasantry constituted the main mass force of the national liberation movement in India during the interwar period. It was possible to involve such a village in the broad stream of anti-colonial struggle only by taking into account the socio-psychological characteristics of the Indian peasantry and the urban worker - yesterday's peasant. Outstanding role in organizing mass non-violent resistance campaigns in the 20-40s. belonged to Mahatma Gandhi (1869-1948). During the interwar period, Gandhi became the ideological leader of the Indian National Congress. Thanks to Gandhi, as well as the fact that the national bourgeoisie put forward the idea of complete national independence, a nationwide anti-colonial front was formed in India.
Mahatma Gandhi and Gandhism
Gandhi's teachings are rooted in the deep past of India, in the powerful layers of the unique Indian culture. Gandhiism combined political, moral, ethical and philosophical concepts. Gandhi was also familiar with the principle of non-violence of L. N. and Tolstoy. Gandhi's social ideal is also deeply national. This is a peasant utopia for the establishment of a “welfare society” ( sarvodaya), the kingdom of God on earth, a society of justice, which is colorfully described in the sacred books of Hinduism. At the same time, this side of Gandhi’s teachings contained a protest against the capitalist way of life, his denial of the progressiveness and necessity for India of the capitalist path along which European civilization took.
Gandhism resonated with large sections of the peasantry and urban lower classes because it combined a social ideal with the belief that the struggle for independence against British rule was a vital cause because it was a struggle for justice. Gandhi drew from cultural, historical and religious traditions appeals and images close to the peasant and artisan. Therefore, the demands for the independence of the country and the transformation of society, dressed in traditional images, became clear to many tens of millions ordinary people. This is the secret of the enormous popularity of Gandhi’s personality and his ideas. The stamp of India's deepest traditions and understanding of the psychology of the peasantry marked the tactical method of Gandhism in the national liberation struggle, the method of non-violent resistance (boycott, peaceful marches, non-cooperation, etc.). This method combined patience and protest, conservatism and spontaneous revolutionism in a very unique way. This was typical for the Indian peasant, brought up for centuries in a fatalistic, religious worldview. Gandhi combined active protest with tolerance towards the enemy. It is in this combination that Gandhi’s nonviolence emerges as the only possible form of resistance to colonial oppression. Gandhi denied the class struggle as a destabilizing factor dividing the nation in the face of common task- liberation from foreign oppression. Thus, Gandhism was a deeply national and peasant ideology in nature. Gandhism also met the interests of the national bourgeoisie, which adopted this ideology. The national bourgeoisie, together with the people, sought to eliminate British colonial rule and establish its own power peacefully, supported by a mass movement. Gandhism united the peasantry, artisans, and national bourgeoisie and forced the colonialists to leave India without a bloody armed struggle.
Gandhi's critics argued that he was prone to compromise, but he knew better than anyone when exactly a mass nonviolent movement needed to be suspended, lest it turn into its opposite, that is, a bloodbath. Extremists also reproached him for not pursuing all the revolutionary possibilities of mass nonviolent resistance. What would have happened if Gandhi had carried them through to the end?
Once in Indian history, this process got out of control, triggered by the British policy of “divide and rule” in 1947, when India was divided into two states along religious lines. Then the conflicts between Muslims and Hindus escalated into a religious war, which claimed millions of lives of both Muslims and Hindus. Gandhi himself became a victim of civil strife. He was killed by a religious fanatic shortly after Indian independence in January 1948.
The first campaign of nonviolent non-cooperation was organized by Gandhi in 1919-1922. The post-war rise of the national liberation movement in India began with major strikes in Bombay, Madras, Kanpur and Ahmedabad. The strikes were spontaneous, but they were a general symptom of changes in the mood of the Indian people. The colonial authorities took the path of maneuvers. India Secretary Montagu proposed reform of India's electoral system to ease tensions. It was proposed to increase the number of voters in elections to the central and provincial legislative assemblies, as well as to provide Indians with additional seats in the councils of the Viceroy and provincial governors. At the same time, a repressive law was passed defining penalties for anti-government actions (Rowlett's Law). Thus, the British tried to contain the rising tide of the liberation movement with a “carrot and stick” policy.
The Defiance Campaign began as a protest against the Rowlett Act. On April 6, 1919, Gandhi called for a hartal (closing of shops and cessation of all business activities). Colonial authorities responded with violence. On April 13, in Amritsar, Punjab province, the British colonialists shot at a peaceful rally. Over 1 thousand people were killed and about 2 thousand were wounded. This bloody massacre caused general outrage in Punjab and spread throughout the country. Gandhi urgently left for Punjab to prevent the outrage from developing into a spontaneous riot. He succeeded.
In the fall of 1919, it was here in Amritsar that the congress of the Indian National Congress took place, which decided to boycott the elections under the Montagu Act. The boycott completely disrupted the elections.
The experience of the 1919 performances led Gandhi to the conclusion that it was necessary to gradually develop the struggle for independence. Based on this experience, Gandhi developed the tactics of nonviolent non-cooperation, which provided for a gradual, two-stage development of the movement. In order to keep the struggle within the framework of non-violence and at the same time ensure its growth, it was envisaged at the first stage to carry out campaigns to boycott the colonial regime: renunciation of honorary titles and positions, boycott official receptions, boycott English schools and colleges, English courts, boycott of elections, boycott of foreign goods; at the second stage - evasion of state taxes.
The start of the disobedience campaign was scheduled for August 1, 1920. The Indian National Congress and the Muslim League jointly led the campaign. During these years, the INC turned into a mass political organization (10 million members). The movement had 150 thousand volunteer activists. Gandhism became the ideology of the INC.
On February 4, 1922, an incident occurred that threatened to escalate the movement into an uncontrollable phase: a crowd of peasants burned several policemen who had been driven into a building. Gandhi sharply condemned this act of lynching and announced an end to the campaign of civil non-cooperation. The movement began to wane.
The new rise of the anti-colonial movement in India came at a time of global economic crisis. This stage of non-violent non-cooperation (1928-1933) is characterized by a more organized movement, a clear formulation of the question of Indian independence and constitutional demands.
The second campaign of civil non-cooperation began in April 1930. It followed approximately the same pattern as in the early 1920s. The British authorities declared the campaign illegal. The leaders of the movement, including Gandhi, were arrested. 60 thousand participants of the movement ended up in prisons. In some places, protests began to develop into uprisings. The unrest also affected the army. The soldiers refused to shoot.
On March 5, 1931, an agreement was concluded between the leadership of the INC and the administration of the Viceroy, according to which the British side pledged to stop repression and release prisoners arrested for participating in the campaign of non-cooperation, and Congress announced an end to the campaign of civil disobedience. Gandhi agreed to participate in the round table conference convened in London to discuss Indian problems. Thus, the fight was brought to the negotiating table.
For the round table conference, the INC presented a document “On the Fundamental Rights and Responsibilities of Indian Citizens.” In fact, this was the basis of the constitution.
The document contained important points: the introduction of bourgeois-democratic freedoms in India, the recognition of caste and religious equality, the administrative and territorial reorganization of the country taking into account the religious factor, the establishment of a minimum wage, limiting land rent, and reducing taxes. The conference ended in failure.
In August 1935, the British Parliament adopted a new reform program for India. The reform envisaged expanding (up to 12% of the population) the participation of Indian citizens in elections by reducing property and other qualifications and giving local legislative bodies greater rights.
Campaigns of nonviolent resistance undermined the colonial regime. In 1937, elections to the central and provincial legislative assemblies were held under a new electoral system. The Indian National Congress won a majority of elected seats in 8 of India's 11 provinces and formed local governments there. This was a major step forward towards seizing power in the country and accumulating “parliamentary experience”.
With the outbreak of the Second World War in 1939 and Britain's declaration of war on Germany on September 3, 1939. The Viceroy of India declared India a belligerent.
The INC adhered to a dual policy. During 1938-1939 There was a struggle among the Congress over the issue of the status of India.
Some radical members of Congress advocated an immediate demand for changes to the constitution regarding the country's colonial status. In April 1939, the struggle ended with the change in the leadership of the Congress from Subhas Chandra Bose (1895-1945) to Ranjendra Prasad (1884 - 1963). S.Ch. Bose created his own factional bloc within the Congress.
Immediately after the emergency law on the defense of India was declared on September 3, 1939, M. Gandhi declared support for the British and called on his supporters not to interfere with the colonial administration in carrying out military activities.
Note 1
In response to M. Gandhi's statement, the British government promised to grant independence to the country immediately after the victory. On September 14, 1939, the INC proposed a partnership program to the British, but after the Viceroy refused to negotiate, the ministers of the provincial governments who were members of the National Congress resigned.
Alarmed by the possibility of destabilizing the domestic political situation on the eve of a military clash with Japan, on January 10, 1940, the Viceroy officially promised India dominion status after the end of the war. The Muslim League immediately reacted to this, which in March 1940 clearly defined its position, demanding that the colony be divided into Hindu and Muslim parts. A.M. Jinnah announced that the league would seek the creation of a separate Muslim state called Pakistan.
Requirements for independence
Note 2
Japanese success in the war forced Congress to reconsider its previous decisions. First, the INC announced the start of a campaign of “limited personal satyagraha for freedom of speech.” The British responded with arrests, arresting 20 thousand people by the end of May 1941, among whom were 31 former ministers and 398 parliamentarians. The next upsurge of the patriotic movement was associated with the announcement of the Atlantic Charter in August 1941.
British Prime Minister W. Churchill was even forced to make an explanation that India, Burma and other parts of the British colonial empire were not covered by the guarantees declared in the charter of the rights to the post-war sovereign system of all enslaved peoples.
At the beginning of 1942, M. Gandhi demanded the immediate granting of independence to the country. Believing that recognition of Indian independence would lead to unrest and ethnic conflicts that were undesirable during the war, the British tried to persuade Congress to withdraw their demands. In March 1942, British diplomat Stafford Cripps, who was personally acquainted and maintained friendly relations with M. Gandhi and J. Nehru, was sent to India.
Note 3
In support of the British in the war, S. Crips proposed that the INC grant India dominion status with the potential right of secession, as well as the creation of a body to develop a new constitution, but all this only after the end of the war.
On April 11, 1942, the INK rejected the proposals of S. Crips. On August 8, 1942, the INC adopted a resolution demanding the immediate granting of independence to the country and the creation of a national provisional government from representatives of the local population. The very next morning, the British immediately arrested all the leaders of the Congress, and the organization itself was dissolved. M. Gandhi, who was also captured, was under house arrest in one of the Delhi palaces until May 1944.
Having withdrawn from politics, he studied philosophy and religious problems. In protest against the arrests, INC supporters held speeches. A wave of violence and sabotage swept across the country. Using weapons, the British suppressed these protests by force. By the end of 1942, more than 60 thousand people were arrested, and 940 were killed in clashes with the police.
The creation and collapse of the Indian National Army
Wanting to exploit anti-British sentiments of the part former soldiers Anglo-Indian army, at the end of 1942 the Japanese created the Indian National Army in Singapore. Its fighters included 10 thousand prisoners of war, and its commander was Mogan Sighi, and later S.Ch. Boss On October 21, 1942, a puppet Indian government was created in Argad-Hindi, which was also headed by S.C. Boss. This government declared war on the United States and Great Britain, but was never able to organize effective assistance to the Japanese.
Note 4
After the start offensive operations allies in Burma 30 thousand indian army partially deserted and partially laid down arms. Some of its units defected to the Western Allies and took part in the battles with the Japanese.
By the end of World War II, a powerful national-patriotic movement arose in India. Despite constant repression by the colonial authorities, sentiments of complete independence were increasingly spreading among the local population. The specifically Indian way of anti-colonial struggle, which consisted of non-violent resistance to British rule, ultimately proved to be an effective path to the creation of an independent state.
After the end of World War II, India experienced the rise of a national liberation movement. The British authorities, trying to stay in India, maneuvered, combining methods of brutal suppression with concessions and actions aimed at splitting the Indians.
Under the pretext of protecting the interests of Muslims and other minorities, the authorities established a system of elections to the Central Legislative Assembly in 1946 by religious curiae, which exacerbated the conflict between the Indian National Congress (INC) and the Muslim League. The INC program included demands for the independence of the country and the equality of all its citizens and the unity of Hindus, Muslims and adherents of other religions:
The main demand of the Muslim League was the division of India into two states along religious lines and the creation of the Muslim state of Pakistan, “the land of the pure.”
The INC and the Muslim League received a majority in their curiae, but in a number of provinces a considerable part of Muslims supported the Inc. program. The overwhelming majority of the population spoke out against English rule.
The INC included representatives of various social strata and was very authoritative due to many years of opposition to the colonialists. The most popular leaders of the INC were M. Gandhi and Jawaharlal Nehru.
In August 1946, a provisional government headed by Nehru was created. The Muslim League refused to join the government and declared the beginning of a direct struggle for Pakistan. Already in August, pogroms began in Calcutta in Hindu neighborhoods, and in response, the Muslim quarters of the city went up in flames. Clashes between Hindus and Muslims, escalating into massacres, spread to other parts of the country.
In February 1947, the British government announced its intention to grant India dominion rights subject to its division along religious lines into the Indian Union and Pakistan. The principalities themselves decided which of the dominions they would join. The INC and the Muslim League accepted this plan.
A huge number of refugees moved from Pakistani units to Indian areas and vice versa. The death toll numbered in the hundreds of thousands. M. Gandhi spoke out against inciting religious hatred. He demanded the creation of acceptable conditions for the Muslims remaining in India. This caused attacks and accusations of betraying the interests of Hindus. In January 1948, M. Gandhi was assassinated by a member of one of the religious organizations.
On August 14, 1947, the establishment of the Dominion of Pakistan was proclaimed. The leader of the Muslim League became the head of the government of Pakistan Liqiat Ali Khan. On August 15, the Indian Union declared its independence. Of the 600 princely states, the vast majority acceded to India. The first Indian government was headed by J. Nehru.
When dividing the territory, neither economic ties between regions, nor geographical boundaries, nor national composition were taken into account. 90% of all mineral reserves, textiles and sugar industries remain in Indian territory. Most of the areas for the production of bread and industrial crops went to Pakistan.
A difficult situation has developed in the principality of Kashmir. It was to become part of the Indian Union, although the majority of the population was Muslim. In the fall of 1947, Pakistani troops invaded Kashmir. The Maharaja announced his accession to India, and Indian troops entered Kashmir. But the western part of the principality was occupied by Pakistani troops. The Kashmir issue became a bone of contention between India and Pakistan and one of the main reasons for the Indo-Pakistani wars of 1965 and 1971. The result of the 1971 war was the formation of the state of Bangladesh on the site of East Pakistan.
In 1949, India adopted a constitution declaring it a republic. Election victories until the end of the 70s. XX century INC won. Its leaders advocated the development of a mixed economy with a strong position of the state in it. Agrarian reform and various social transformations were carried out. The Indian economy, despite all the difficulties, developed quite successfully. Evidence of this was the creation and testing by India at the turn of the 21st century. nuclear weapons.
In foreign policy, India has taken a course of non-participation in blocs and the struggle for peace. Friendly relations were maintained with the USSR. After Nehru's death, the post of Prime Minister passed to his daughter Indira Gandhi. After the assassination of I. Gandhi in 1984, her son became prime minister Rajiv Gandhi, killed in 1991. These murders are associated with the intensification of nationalist and separatist movements in the country
movements (Sikhs, Tamils). At the end of the twentieth century. INC lost its monopoly on power. Representatives of Hindu parties came to rule the country (Prime Minister A. Vajpayee). However, the main directions of domestic and foreign policy, as well as the generally successful development of the country, continue.
Second World War led to fundamental changes in international situation and in the internal situation of India. Economics, especially Agriculture was going through a crisis. Long-term colonial oppression led to poverty and ruin among the broad masses. The contradiction between the tendency to independent development India and the colonial rule of England, which caused the rise of a powerful anti-imperialist movement from the summer of 1945. It united the main sections of the population, and due to historical circumstances, it was led by the national bourgeoisie, whose interests were represented by the Indian National Congress (INC). Despite his desire to limit his speeches to the framework of “nonviolent struggle,” a protest movement developed in the country against the sending of Indian troops to Indochina and Indonesia, and a campaign to protect the Indian National Army. At the beginning of 1946, this movement captured the army and navy, and the state apparatus. It revealed the unity of religious communities, nationalities and political movements. Elections to the Central and Provincial Legislative Assemblies (late 1945-early 1946) turned out to be a failed political maneuver for the British to spark a Hindu-Muslim conflict. However, as a result of the policy of opposing religious communities and the reluctance to grant India full independence, 1946 became a time of bloody clashes, and the Muslim League declared the beginning of a “direct struggle” for Pakistan.
From February to June 1947, the British proposed a new declaration on India and a “plan for the transfer of power to India.” After the plan became legal as the Indian Independence Act (August 15, 1947), the former colony was replaced by two dominions - the Union of India and Pakistan. Divided along religious lines, they proved bitterly hostile from the very beginning. Their very disengagement took place in an atmosphere of heightened hostility, brutal persecution and bloody massacre, costing almost millions of human lives (in Punjab alone, massacres and pogroms claimed about 500 thousand people). The situation was aggravated by the fact that the princely states (562) were given the right of freedom of choice, as a result of which a number of princes in India (most of them were Muslims) expressed a desire - against the will of the population of the principality, predominantly Hindu - to join Pakistan. This required the armed intervention of the Indian Union government. The partition caused a multimillion-dollar flow of refugees and an explosion of nationalist and chauvinistic sentiments. Their victim was M.K. Gandhi, who tried to extinguish passions, and was killed in 1948 by a member of the religious-nationalist group Hindu Mahasabha. It was not an easy task to reconstruct the economy of each part of the previously unified organism: rich agricultural areas that provided cotton and jute for Indian textile enterprises were transferred to Pakistan. The country did not have enough of its own bread. The industry became dependent on foreign equipment and capital.
1949 passed under the banner of preparing constitutional reforms. They were formalized by the Constituent Assembly as the constitution of the new India, which came into force in January 1950. The Republic of India was proclaimed, which at the same time turned out to be a member of the British Commonwealth of Nations, i.e. retained its usual ties with the former metropolis. In the first elections to the central parliament and state legislative assemblies (1951-1952), almost three-quarters of the seats were won by the INC - since then the almost permanent ruling party. The government was headed by J. Nehru (1947–1964).
India developed along the capitalist path. The civilizational foundation here turned out to be fundamentally unfavorable for experiments in the Marxist-socialist spirit, despite the fact that in India there are two influential communist parties, one of which spent many years at the helm of government in the state of Bengal. But the democratic traditions brought to India by the British have grown well into the local structure. In India, the concept of a “socialist model society”, born of J. Nehru, began to be realized. It included a mixed economy with the priority of the public sector, democratic unity of a strong center and regions endowed with broad rights, planning National economy(five-year plans since 1951), pluralism of social thought.
The general assessment of the transformations of the 50s - early 90s is the path to compromise, social reformist transformations. Everything in the concept turned out to be vital and gave sustainable dynamism to the development of India.
The first serious reform was the agrarian one. Its essence was to eliminate the layer of intermediaries - zamindars and to transfer the land to those who cultivate it. The result of the reform was a reduction in the share of tenants and the transformation of the bulk of peasants into landowners. With the support of the state, cooperation was developed to reduce the influence of moneylenders in the country. In the 60s and 70s, agricultural reforms were complemented by a series of advanced agrotechnical methods and techniques associated with the “green revolution” and aimed at dramatically improving the agricultural process. Since 1978, India stopped importing food and achieved complete self-sufficiency. These days, the country is largely coping with the food problem, although a significant proportion of its population eats extremely poorly.
The basis economic policy two important principles were laid down: the development of the public sector in industry and the planned management of the national economy. Since the 70s, direct cooperation with private capital has been developing, and the two sectors are merging. The main directions of the economic policy of all INC governments were: a) strengthening public investment in basic industries; b) weakening of government regulation of the private sector; c) strengthening the national currency system and finances, strengthening the national market. In general, by the mid-60s, the volume of industrial production increased 2.5 times. From 1980 to 1991 economic growth was 5.4% annually. India has joined the ranks of industrial-agrarian countries. At the same time, negative phenomena also emerged in this process: the growth of bureaucracy, the insufficient efficiency of a number of enterprises, the failure to fulfill five-year plans, and the lack of funds to solve pressing social problems.
The orientation towards capitalist development was harmoniously combined in republican India with general guidelines in the sphere of political and legal, rooted in the classic Westminster parliamentary-democratic system of government. According to the Constitution, the Republic of India is a union that includes 25 states and 6 union territories. Legislative power belongs to the bicameral all-Indian parliament, and in the states - to legislative assemblies; executive power is in the hands of the All-India Council of Ministers in Delhi and state governments headed by chief ministers. Formally, the president is considered the supreme head of the country's executive branch; in fact, power is in the hands of the prime minister.
The political process in the country is based on the competition of parties with complete freedom for party coalitions. English is still considered the common Indian language. The attempt to make Hindi such in 1965 could not be carried out, because this was vigorously opposed by a number of southern states, for which Hindi is foreign. Since most people are illiterate, symbols play an important role in winning voters. For the INC this is an image of a sacred cow. It is difficult for parties to unite people around an ideological issue, because... Society is still split along many lines.
Election campaigns testified to the stability of the sympathies of the bulk of voters: in the presence of a communist left (since 1964 - two communist parties with approximately equal forces) and the religious-communalist right wing, the bulk of the vote went to the center. It was represented, first of all, by the INC, and later by a coalition of opposition groups such as the Janata Party, which was in power in 1977–1979. Apart from this short interval, all other years the INC government was at the head of India, which after the death Nehru (1964) was led by his daughter Indira Gandhi (1966–1977, 1980–1984) and, after her assassination, by her son Rajiv Gandhi (1984–1991). There were frequent aggravations of intra-state political contradictions on a national, religious or other basis, to resolve or extinguish which Delhi usually introduced presidential rule (more than 116 times during independence).
In the mid-60s, internal instability in the country was growing. INC's position on social issues, the peasant movement is strengthening, right-wing groups in the INC are becoming more active. In an effort to restore the popularity of the Congress, I. Gandhi advocated new reforms: encouraging small-scale production, expanding the public sector, nationalizing large banks and wholesale trade, limiting monopolies, lowering the land maximum, etc. In the 70s, progressive reforms were continued, however, it soon became evident the influence of bureaucracy and the decline in efficiency of the public sector. Political development was a consequence of acute economic depression, the polarization of class forces, the half-heartedness of the progressive economic program, the inability of the government to solve the main problems of the country: reducing unemployment, allocating land to peasants, reconciling the interests of the state and the strengthened monopoly bourgeoisie. All this shook the authority of the INC and for the first time led to the defeat of conservative parties in 1977. In 1980, he regained his position and returned to leadership on an all-India scale.
In the 80s economic development India slowed down, revealed Negative consequences protectionism, monopolization of the domestic market by industrial clans, inflation, uncompetitiveness of Indian goods, bureaucratization of the administrative apparatus, ineffective work of public sector enterprises. In 1990, external debt amounted to $70 billion, and the influx of foreign capital decreased by 59%. Notable successes of the 90s are associated with the implementation since 1991. radical economic program. Its main provisions are the liberalization of policies regarding foreign and national capital, public sector reform. The peak of positive trends occurred in 1995–1996 – the growth rate of industrial production increased by 12.4%. In the second half of the 90s, economic growth slowed down, capital stagnation continued, and the problem of low labor productivity and public sector reform had not been resolved. Correct economic decisions did not produce results at the micro level, so at the beginning of the 21st century. main goal proclaimed “economic growth and justice” (investment in social sphere and infrastructure).
Modern India owns high technology, is major manufacturer and software exporter - 140 of the world's top 500 companies meet their software needs through exports from India. The country ranks third in the world in terms of the number of scientific and technical personnel, fifth in terms of agricultural production and GDP. In the mid-90s, it took second place in the world in wheat exports and achieved self-sufficiency in basic food products. In 1998 it became a nuclear power. The Indian economy is now one of the 10 fastest growing in the world.
In the 80s, the previous structure of power no longer corresponded to the new alignment of social class forces, flaws in political life (corruption, violations of democracy) were becoming more and more noticeable, the influence of radicalism and populism was growing, and new political parties received mass support. In 1989, the INC ceded power to coalition governments. This indicates the emergence in the last 10-15 years of a trend (not yet completed) of creating a truly multi-party power structure instead of the dominance of one party. In the 90s, India finally switched to coalitions - in the fall of 1999, in the parliamentary elections, the center-right National Democratic Alliance (24 parties) received a majority. The transition of parties from confrontational to competitive politics began. The problem of social consolidation has become urgent. The preservation of regional communalism and regionalism hinder the strengthening of patriotism. Last years showed the rapid growth of influence of Hindu parties.
The development of modern India is significantly influenced by the persistent serious problems. The most important internal one is religious strife. Despite the 1947 partition, 106 million (11.4% of the population) Muslims live in the republic. The largest and most influential communities are Sikhs (2%) and Buddhists (0.7%). Ethno-regional conflicts are superimposed on long-standing territorial disputes, developing into a fierce separatist and terrorist struggle. Hindu-Muslim clashes and the struggle of the Sikh minority, first for political autonomy, and then for their own independent state of Khalistan (the separation of Punjab from India) are practically insoluble problems. The transition to armed struggle by extremist Sikh organizations in the 80s led to their assassination of I. Gandhi (October 31, 1984), which caused a new wave of violence and victims. Acts of terror continued into the 1990s, despite the authorities' attempts to find a political solution to the Punjab crisis. The source of political instability for all of India remains in the 21st century. Jammu and Kashmir problem. Separatist groups are seeking the creation of an independent state here. The problem is complicated by claims to this state from Pakistan, which contains 1/3 of its territory. Mutual intransigence and tough positions of the two countries make the dispute one of the most dangerous border conflicts in the world and have brought neighbors to the brink of war more than once (1947, 1965, 1971, 2001). Added to these conflicts are the tensions that arose in the 1980s in India's far north-west, Assam and other areas where migrant refugees from Bangladesh are creating serious instability. Separatist sentiments among the Tamils in the south and some tribal groups in the Himalayan region also create problems. No one knows the exact number of separatist groups (179 languages and 544 dialects are “spoken” in India). The intensification of religious fanaticism and inter-party strife since the late 1980s has been facilitated by the evolution of the ideology of nationalism. After India won independence, hypertrophied national ambitions and separatism began to manifest themselves in the nationalism of individual nations.
Another group of problems, seemingly less acute, but fraught with far-reaching consequences, is demographic. Rapid population growth (almost doubling since decolonization) threatens the country with disaster. Its most severe consequences, primarily famine, were mitigated by the success of the “green revolution” and farming (Punjab). Attempts to solve it at an accelerated pace, with administrative pressure, did not produce results; moreover, they led to I. Gandhi’s defeat in 1977. Despite the implementation of the birth control program, demographic growth is increasing - in the 21st century. India became a country of billions.
Among the internal ones is the problem of castes. The state has done a lot to eradicate caste inequality: criminal prosecution was introduced for discrimination on the basis of caste; quotas in universities and government institutions were reserved for representatives of lower castes (according to the 1950 constitution - 27% of places). At the same time, an attempt to extend such a manifestation of social justice to the intermediate castes (52% of the population) caused mass discontent and the political crisis of 1989-1990. Castes play the same role as in the past - the role of a stabilizing factor. However, the preservative function of caste and community, which is clearly opposed to the tasks of the country's development, is more significant. Over time, this function will weaken, and development will take its toll. However, questions remain: will communal-caste India, in the event of a demographic explosion, be able to feed a country that clearly had not managed to turn into a farming country by that time?
The most challenging problems are extreme population density, depletion natural resources, unemployment, glaring social contrasts, unresolved agrarian question(50–55% of farms are degrading), growing water shortage (80% of the population does not have access to
drinking water), the narrowness of the “middle class” (20–25%) with mass poverty, illiteracy of the population (48%), etc.
Essential element foreign policy In the 50s and 60s, India became non-aligned with military blocs and strives for the consolidation of young independent states. The country's foreign policy position is largely explained by the geopolitical confrontation of forces in Asia, in particular, the confrontation with the PRC and its ally, Pakistan. This at one time led the country, which declared independence, neutrality and non-alignment as the fundamental principles of its political course, to a close alliance with the USSR. Their cooperation contributed to strengthening state economy India and the conclusion of important treaties of peace, friendship and cooperation, including the Delhi Declaration of 1986. With the collapse of the USSR, Russia took its place. Since 1995, attention to cooperation with the Republic of Belarus has been increasing.
Foreign policy in the 70–90s pursued four main goals: strengthening the country’s security, realizing expansionist ambitions in South Asia (which led to sustained confrontation in the system of regional relations), increasing influence among the states of the world community (becoming an emerging center of world politics, but without becoming a superpower) and establishing optimal external relations to create favorable conditions for economic modernization.
Since the mid-90s, a new foreign policy has been implemented - the normalization of relations with large and small countries. In 1995, with the creation of the Indian Ocean Rim Association, India strives to become one of the regional leaders. After the collapse of the military blocs, the position of non-alignment with them lost its meaning. Therefore, “freedom to accept” has acquired special significance independent decisions"(J. Nehru). Despite its status as the dominant power in the region with military-political functions, India has repeatedly confirmed its role as a guarantor of political stability. The peacefulness of India is well known, enviable for all developing world internal stability. India is not familiar with political upheavals, nor with attempts by the army to play a political role, nor with overly sharp social conflicts. No one has ever fought or is fighting for India. This is explained by the fact that there has never been a power vacuum here, and a state with a stable political course stable and reliable, always based on the usual norms of existence and responded to these norms in its policies.
The end of the Second World War and the first post-war years made up a whole for Asia historical era. The August Revolution in Vietnam won, the liberation of Indonesia began, Burma, Laos, and Cambodia became independent. Revolutionary China celebrated the success of many years of struggle.
The national liberation revolution in India occurred during the same period. No longer relying on the hypocritical promises of England, the Indian working class and the Indian peasantry demanded independence and achieved it through revolutionary means. In February 1946, an uprising of Indian sailors began (almost 20 ships raised red flags).
The British Labor government had to make a statement granting India political independence within the framework of the British Commonwealth of Nations.
A special mission sent to India from London proposed the following plan: India would be transformed into a union of autonomous provinces and principalities, and after that would receive the right to be considered a dominion; The provinces, in turn, are divided into Hindu and Muslim - based on religion.
This plan involved the dismemberment of the country: it was assumed that in this way it would be easier to keep it in its former dependence.
After various kinds of maneuvers aimed at dividing the two main political parties into different ends and at odds with each other national liberation- Indian National Congress and Muslim League - England managed to carry out a plan for the dismemberment of India. The Act of August 15, 1947 created two dominions: India and Pakistan.
Pakistan (111 million people) was made up of two parts, spaced 1.5 thousand kilometers from each other. The princely state of Kashmir was claimed by both India and Pakistan. Already in October 1947, Pakistani armed forces occupied part of Kashmir. At the request of the Maharaja of Kashmir, the princely state was included in India (1947).
The dismemberment of the country entailed innumerable disasters. Hundreds of thousands of people were forcibly relocated from one dominion to another. Economic ties that had been established for centuries were artificially severed. Religious strife became even more bitter.
When the Punjab province began to be divided into two parts, the struggle between Hindus (and Sikhs) on the one hand, and Muslims on the other, resulted in massacres. About 500 thousand people died and at least 12 million were left homeless. Pogroms and massacres swept across the vast country and, as for Punjab, have not stopped to this day.
The dismemberment was followed by the creation of the governments of India and Pakistan. The Government of India was formed by the Indian National Congress - a party of the national bourgeoisie, landowners, and intelligentsia. D. Nehru became the head of the government.
The state independence of India received its final confirmation in the act of January 26, 1950, by which India was declared “sovereign and democratic republic"On the same day, the Constitution of the Indian Republic was put into effect.
The Constitution proclaimed the federal structure of the new state: at the beginning the states differed in the form of government, but in 1956 a reform was carried out that introduced a new Administrative division. Currently, states have a uniform system of government.
The principalities of India (Hyderabad, Mysore, etc.) were to become part of the republic: the attempts of their feudal rulers to remain on the sidelines were thwarted by the popular masses.
The equality of citizens is recognized regardless of the caste and religion to which they belong.
The castes we talked about, characterizing ancient India, have not disappeared to this day. This division is especially noticeable in the village, where the custom holds stronger and longer.
The predominance of Brahmins (Brahmins) is undoubtedly in political life: they comprise the main cadres of senior government officials, leaders political parties and organizations.
At least 70 million people of the Indian population are “untouchables”: rickshaw pullers, sweepers, messengers, sanitation workers, etc. And although the laws are on their side, the old customs have not yet disappeared.
The Constitution contains special mention of providing the people with a means of subsistence as a management task, and of labor protection for workers and minors.
In this regard, it is worth mentioning agrarian reform(the task of which should be the destruction of feudal land ownership and feudal remnants in general), as well as the policy of industrialization of the country.
The first agrarian reform began to be implemented in 1948, but it was of a limited nature, carried out by state governments, and amounted to some alienation (for a fee) of surplus lands of landowners. Redemption payments were very high (10-15 year annual annuity), and therefore only the kulaks benefited from the fruits of the reform.
In subsequent years, new measures were taken to redistribute land. However, even after that the situation changed little: 80Uo peasants owned the same amount of land (27%) as 2% of large landowners.
The industrialization of the country is carried out on the basis of state plans. Particular attention is paid to the creation of the state sector of the national economy. India has created some important industrial complexes.
In November 1949, the Indian Constitution came into force. The head of the Indian Republic is the President, elected for a 5-year term. He appoints the prime minister of the government (Council of Ministers). The latter is responsible to parliament. The parliament is bicameral. One of its chambers is elected by state electors, the other by popular vote. Suffrage is universal and is granted to citizens over 21 years of age.
Bearing in mind the separatist aspirations of some states, and even more the inevitability of acute social clashes, the Indian Constitution provides for the right of the President to declare a state of emergency and take emergency measures to suppress anti-government actions.
