First world war (1914 - 1918)

The Russian Empire collapsed. One of the goals of the war has been achieved.
Chamberlain

The First World War lasted from August 1, 1914 to November 11, 1918. 38 states with a population of 62% of the world took part in it. This war was quite controversial and described extremely contradictorily in modern history. I specifically quoted Chamberlain’s words in the epigraph in order to once again emphasize this inconsistency. A prominent politician in England (Russia's war ally) says that by overthrowing the autocracy in Russia, one of the goals of the war has been achieved!

The Balkan countries played a major role in the beginning of the war. They were not independent. Their policies (both foreign and domestic) were greatly influenced by England. Germany had by that time lost its influence in this region, although it controlled Bulgaria for a long time.

Opponents in war

The war took place between two groups of countries:

Entente. Russian Empire, France, Great Britain. The allies were the USA, Italy, Romania, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand.
Triple Alliance. Germany, Austria-Hungary, Ottoman Empire. Later they were joined by the Bulgarian kingdom, and the coalition became known as the “Quadruple Alliance”.
The following took part in the war: large countries: Austria-Hungary (27 July 1914 - 3 November 1918), Germany (1 August 1914 - 11 November 1918), Turkey (29 October 1914 - 30 October 1918), Bulgaria (14 October 1915 - 29 September 1918). Entente countries and allies: Russia (August 1, 1914 - March 3, 1918), France (August 3, 1914), Belgium (August 3, 1914), Great Britain (August 4, 1914), Italy (May 23, 1915), Romania (August 27, 1916) .

One more important point. Initially, Italy was a member of the Triple Alliance. But after the outbreak of World War I, the Italians declared neutrality.

Causes of the First World War

The main reason for the outbreak of the First World War was the desire of the leading powers, primarily England, France and Austria-Hungary, to redistribute the world. The point is that colonial system collapsed by the beginning of the 20th century. The leading European countries, which had prospered for years through the exploitation of their colonies, could no longer simply obtain resources by taking them away from Indians, Africans and South Americans. Now resources could only be won from each other. Therefore, contradictions grew:

Between England and Germany. England sought to prevent Germany from increasing its influence in the Balkans. Germany sought to strengthen itself in the Balkans and the Middle East, and also sought to deprive England of maritime dominance.
Between Germany and France. France dreamed of regaining the lands of Alsace and Lorraine, which it had lost in the war of 1870-71. France also sought to seize the German Saar coal basin.
Between Germany and Russia. Germany sought to take Poland, Ukraine and the Baltic states from Russia.
Between Russia and Austria-Hungary. Controversies arose due to the desire of both countries to influence the Balkans, as well as Russia's desire to subjugate the Bosporus and Dardanelles.

The reason for the start of the war

The reason for the outbreak of the First World War was the events in Sarajevo (Bosnia and Herzegovina). On June 28, 1914, Gavrilo Princip, a member of the Black Hand of the Young Bosnia movement, assassinated Archduke Franz Ferdinand. Ferdinand was the heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, so the resonance of the murder was enormous. This was the pretext for Austria-Hungary to attack Serbia.

The behavior of England is very important here, since Austria-Hungary could not start a war on its own, because this practically guaranteed war throughout Europe. The British at the embassy level convinced Nicholas 2 that Russia should not leave Serbia without help in the event of aggression. But then the entire (I emphasize this) English press wrote that the Serbs were barbarians and Austria-Hungary should not leave the murder of the Archduke unpunished. That is, England did everything to ensure that Austria-Hungary, Germany and Russia did not shy away from war.

Important nuances of the casus belli

In all textbooks we are told that the main and only reason for the outbreak of the First World War was the assassination of the Austrian Archduke. At the same time, they forget to say that the next day, June 29, another significant murder took place. The French politician Jean Jaurès, who actively opposed the war and had great influence in France, was killed. A few weeks before the assassination of the Archduke, there was an attempt on the life of Rasputin, who, like Zhores, was an opponent of the war and had great influence on Nicholas 2. I would also like to note some facts from the fate of the main characters of those days:

Gavrilo Principin. Died in prison in 1918 from tuberculosis.
The Russian Ambassador to Serbia is Hartley. In 1914 he died at the Austrian embassy in Serbia, where he came for a reception.
Colonel Apis, leader of the Black Hand. Shot in 1917.
In 1917, Hartley’s correspondence with Sozonov (the next Russian ambassador to Serbia) disappeared.
This all indicates that in the events of the day there were a lot of black spots that have not yet been revealed. And this is very important to understand.

England's role in starting the war

At the beginning of the 20th century, there were 2 great powers in continental Europe: Germany and Russia. They did not want to openly fight against each other, since their forces were approximately equal. Therefore, in the “July crisis” of 1914, both sides took a wait-and-see attitude. British diplomacy came to the fore. She conveyed her position to Germany through the press and secret diplomacy - in the event of war, England would remain neutral or take Germany's side. Through open diplomacy, Nicholas 2 received the opposite idea that if war broke out, England would take the side of Russia.

It must be clearly understood that one open statement from England that it would not allow war in Europe would be enough for neither Germany nor Russia to even think about anything like that. Naturally, under such conditions, Austria-Hungary would not have dared to attack Serbia. But England, with all its diplomacy, pushed European countries to war.

Russia before the war

Before the First World War, Russia carried out army reform. In 1907, a reform of the fleet was carried out, and in 1910 a reform ground forces. The country increased military spending many times over, and the total peacetime army size was now 2 million. In 1912, Russia adopted a new Field Service Charter. Today it is rightly called the most perfect Charter of its time, since it motivated soldiers and commanders to show personal initiative. Important point! Army Doctrine Russian Empire was offensive.

Despite the fact that there were many positive changes, there were also very serious miscalculations. The main one is the underestimation of the role of artillery in war. As the course of events of the First World War showed, this was a terrible mistake, which clearly showed that at the beginning of the 20th century, Russian generals were seriously behind the times. They lived in the past, when the role of cavalry was important. As a result, 75% of all losses in the First World War were caused by artillery! This is a verdict on the imperial generals.

It is important to note that Russia never completed preparations for war (at the proper level), while Germany completed it in 1914.

According to the data from the table, it can be seen that Germany and Austria-Hungary were many times superior to Russia and France in terms of heavy guns. Therefore, the balance of power was in favor of the first two countries. Moreover, the Germans, as usual, created an excellent military industry before the war, which produced 250,000 shells daily. By comparison, Britain produced 10,000 shells per month! As they say, feel the difference...

Another example showing the importance of artillery is the battles on the Dunajec Gorlice line (May 1915). In 4 hours, the German army fired 700,000 shells. For comparison, during the entire Franco-Prussian War (1870-71), Germany fired just over 800,000 shells. That is, in 4 hours a little less than during the entire war. The Germans clearly understood that heavy artillery would play a decisive role in the war.

This table clearly shows the weakness of the Russian Empire in terms of equipping the army. In all main indicators, Russia is much inferior to Germany, but also inferior to France and Great Britain. Largely because of this, the war turned out to be so difficult for our country.

The table shows that Great Britain made the smallest contribution to the war, both in terms of combatants and deaths. This is logical, since the British did not really participate in major battles. Another example from this table is instructive. All textbooks tell us that Austria-Hungary, due to large losses, could not fight on its own, and it always needed help from Germany. But notice Austria-Hungary and France in the table. The numbers are identical! Just as Germany had to fight for Austria-Hungary, so Russia had to fight for France (it is no coincidence that the Russian army saved Paris from capitulation three times during the First World War).

The table also shows that in fact the war was between Russia and Germany. Both countries lost 4.3 million killed, while Britain, France and Austria-Hungary together lost 3.5 million. The numbers are eloquent. But it turned out that the countries that fought the most and made the most effort in the war ended up with nothing. First, Russia signed a shameful agreement for itself Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, having lost many lands. Then Germany signed the Treaty of Versailles, essentially losing its independence.

Progress of the war

Military events of 1914

July 28 Austria-Hungary declares war on Serbia. This entailed the involvement of the countries of the Triple Alliance, on the one hand, and the Entente, on the other hand, into the war.

Russia entered World War I on August 1, 1914. Supreme Commander Nikolai Nikolaevich Romanov (Uncle of Nikolai 2) was appointed.

In the first days of the war, St. Petersburg was renamed Petrograd. Since the war with Germany began, and the capital could not have a name German origin- "burg".
Historical background

German "Schlieffen Plan"

Germany found itself under the threat of war on two fronts: Eastern - with Russia, Western - with France. Then the German command developed the “Schlieffen Plan”, according to which Germany should defeat France in 40 days and then fight with Russia. Why 40 days? The Germans believed that this was exactly what Russia would need to mobilize. Therefore, when Russia mobilizes, France will already be out of the game.

On August 2, 1914, Germany captured Luxembourg, on August 4 they invaded Belgium (a neutral country at that time), and by August 20 Germany reached the borders of France. The implementation of the Schlieffen Plan began. Germany advanced deep into France, but on September 5 it was stopped at the Marne River, where a battle took place in which about 2 million people took part on both sides.

North Western Front Russia in 1914

At the beginning of the war, Russia did something stupid that Germany could not calculate. Nicholas 2 decided to enter the war without fully mobilizing the army. On August 4, Russian troops, under the command of Rennenkampf, launched an offensive in East Prussia (modern Kaliningrad). Samsonov's army was equipped to help her. Initially, the troops acted successfully, and Germany was forced to retreat. As a result, part of the forces of the Western Front was transferred to the Eastern Front. The result - Germany repulsed the Russian offensive in East Prussia (the troops acted disorganized and lacked resources), but as a result the Schlieffen plan failed, and France could not be captured. So, Russia saved Paris, albeit by defeating its 1st and 2nd armies. After this, trench warfare began.

Southwestern Front of Russia

On the southwestern front, in August-September, Russia launched an offensive operation against Galicia, which was occupied by troops of Austria-Hungary. The Galician operation was more successful than the offensive in East Prussia. In this battle, Austria-Hungary suffered a catastrophic defeat. 400 thousand people killed, 100 thousand captured. For comparison, the Russian army lost 150 thousand people killed. After this, Austria-Hungary actually left the war, since it lost the ability to conduct independent actions. Austria was saved from complete defeat only by the help of Germany, which was forced to transfer additional troops to Galicia.
y divisions.

The main results of the military campaign of 1914

*Germany failed to implement the Schlieffen plan for lightning war.
*No one managed to gain a decisive advantage. The war turned into a positional one.

Map of military events of 1914-15

Military events of 1915

In 1915, Germany decided to shift the main attack to eastern front, directing all his forces to the war with Russia, which was the weakest country of the Entente, according to the Germans. It was a strategic plan developed by the commander of the Eastern Front, General von Hindenburg. Russia managed to thwart this plan only at the cost of colossal losses, but at the same time, 1915 turned out to be simply terrible for the empire of Nicholas 2.

Situation on the northwestern front

From January to October, Germany waged an active offensive, as a result of which Russia lost Poland, western Ukraine, part of the Baltic states, and western Belarus. Russia went on the defensive. Russian losses were gigantic:

Killed and wounded - 850 thousand people
Captured - 900 thousand people
Russia did not capitulate, but the countries of the Triple Alliance were convinced that Russia would no longer be able to recover from the losses it had suffered.

Germany's successes on this sector of the front led to the fact that on October 14, 1915, Bulgaria entered the First World War (on the side of Germany and Austria-Hungary).

Situation on the southwestern front

The Germans, together with Austria-Hungary, organized the Gorlitsky breakthrough in the spring of 1915, forcing the entire southwestern front of Russia to retreat. Galicia, which was captured in 1914, was completely lost. Germany was able to achieve this advantage thanks to the terrible mistakes of the Russian command, as well as a significant technical advantage. German superiority in technology reached:

*2.5 times in machine guns.
*4.5 times in light artillery.
*40 times in heavy artillery.
It was not possible to withdraw Russia from the war, but the losses on this section of the front were gigantic: 150 thousand killed, 700 thousand wounded, 900 thousand prisoners and 4 million refugees.

Situation on the Western Front

"Everything is calm on the Western Front." This phrase can describe how the war between Germany and France proceeded in 1915. There were sluggish military operations in which no one sought the initiative. Germany implemented plans in Eastern Europe, and England and France calmly mobilized their economy and army, preparing for further war. No one provided any assistance to Russia, although Nicholas 2 repeatedly turned to France, first of all, so that it would take active action on the Western Front. As usual, no one heard him... By the way, this sluggish war on Germany’s western front was perfectly described by Hemingway in the novel “A Farewell to Arms.”

The main result of 1915 was that Germany was unable to bring Russia out of the war, although all efforts were devoted to this. It became obvious that the First World War would drag on for a long time, since during the 1.5 years of the war no one was able to gain an advantage or strategic initiative.

Military events of 1916

"Verdun Meat Grinder"

In February 1916, Germany launched a general offensive against France with the goal of capturing Paris. For this purpose, a campaign was carried out on Verdun, which covered the approaches to the French capital. The battle lasted until the end of 1916. During this time, 2 million people died, for which the battle was called the “Verdun Meat Grinder”. France survived, but again thanks to the fact that Russia came to its rescue, which became more active on the southwestern front.

Events on the southwestern front in 1916

In May 1916, Russian troops went on the offensive, which lasted 2 months. This offensive went down in history under the name “Brusilovsky breakthrough”. This name is due to the fact that the Russian army was commanded by General Brusilov. The breakthrough of the defense in Bukovina (from Lutsk to Chernivtsi) happened on June 5. The Russian army managed not only to break through the defenses, but also to advance into its depths in some places up to 120 kilometers. The losses of the Germans and Austro-Hungarians were catastrophic. 1.5 million dead, wounded and prisoners. The offensive was stopped only by additional German divisions, which were hastily transferred here from Verdun (France) and from Italy.

This offensive of the Russian army was not without a fly in the ointment. As usual, the allies dropped her off. On August 27, 1916, Romania entered the First World War on the side of the Entente. Germany defeated her very quickly. As a result, Romania lost its army, and Russia received an additional 2 thousand kilometers of front.

Events on the Caucasian and Northwestern fronts

Positional battles continued on the Northwestern Front during the spring-autumn period. As for the Caucasian Front, the main events here lasted from the beginning of 1916 to April. During this time, 2 operations were carried out: Erzurmur and Trebizond. According to their results, Erzurum and Trebizond were conquered, respectively.

The result of 1916 in the First World War

The strategic initiative passed to the side of the Entente.
The French fortress of Verdun survived thanks to the offensive of the Russian army.
Romania entered the war on the side of the Entente.
Russia carried out a powerful offensive - the Brusilov breakthrough.

Military and political events 1917

The year 1917 in the First World War was marked by the fact that the war continued against the background of the revolutionary situation in Russia and Germany, as well as the deterioration of the economic situation of the countries. Let me give you the example of Russia. During the 3 years of the war, prices for basic products increased on average by 4-4.5 times. Naturally, this caused discontent among the people. Add to this heavy losses and a grueling war - it turns out to be excellent soil for revolutionaries. The situation is similar in Germany.

In 1917, the United States entered the First World War. The position of the Triple Alliance is deteriorating. Germany and its allies cannot effectively fight on 2 fronts, as a result of which it goes on the defensive.

The end of the war for Russia

In the spring of 1917, Germany launched another offensive on the Western Front. Despite the events in Russia, Western countries demanded that the Provisional Government implement the agreements signed by the Empire and send troops on the offensive. As a result, on June 16, the Russian army went on the offensive in the Lvov area. Again, we saved the allies from major battles, but they themselves were completely set up.

The Russian army, exhausted by the war and losses, did not want to fight. The issues of provisions, uniforms and supplies during the war years were never resolved. The army fought reluctantly, but moved forward. The Germans were forced to transfer troops here again, and Russia's Entente allies again isolated themselves, watching what would happen next. On July 6, Germany launched a counteroffensive. As a result, 150,000 Russian soldiers died. The army virtually ceased to exist. The front fell apart. Russia could no longer fight, and this catastrophe was inevitable.


People demanded Russia's withdrawal from the war. And this was one of their main demands from the Bolsheviks, who seized power in October 1917. Initially, at the 2nd Party Congress, the Bolsheviks signed the decree “On Peace,” essentially proclaiming Russia’s exit from the war, and on March 3, 1918, they signed the Brest-Litovsk Peace Treaty. The conditions of this world were as follows:

*Russia makes peace with Germany, Austria-Hungary and Turkey.
*Russia loses Poland, Ukraine, Finland, part of Belarus and the Baltic states.
*Russia cedes Batum, Kars and Ardagan to Turkey.

As a result of its participation in the First World War, Russia lost: about 1 million square meters territory, approximately 1/4 of the population, 1/4 of arable land and 3/4 of the coal and metallurgical industries were lost.
Historical background

Events in the war in 1918

Germany got rid of the Eastern Front and the need to wage war on two fronts. As a result, in the spring and summer of 1918, she attempted an offensive on the Western Front, but this offensive had no success. Moreover, as it progressed, it became obvious that Germany was getting the most out of itself, and that it needed a break in the war.

Autumn 1918

The decisive events in the First World War took place in the fall. The Entente countries, together with the United States, went on the offensive. The German army was completely driven out of France and Belgium. In October, Austria-Hungary, Türkiye and Bulgaria concluded a truce with the Entente, and Germany was left to fight alone. Her situation was hopeless after German allies according to the “Triple Alliance” they essentially capitulated. This resulted in the same thing that happened in Russia - a revolution. On November 9, 1918, Emperor Wilhelm II was overthrown.

End of the First World War


On November 11, 1918, the First World War of 1914-1918 ended. Germany signed a complete surrender. It happened near Paris, in Compiègne forest, at Retonde station. The surrender was accepted by the French Marshal Foch. The terms of the signed peace were as follows:

*Germany admits complete defeat in the war.
*The return of the province of Alsace and Lorraine to France to the borders of 1870, as well as the transfer of the Saar coal basin.
*Germany lost all its colonial possessions, and also was obliged to transfer 1/8 of its territory to its geographical neighbors.
*For 15 years, Entente troops have been on the left bank of the Rhine.
*By May 1, 1921, Germany had to pay members of the Entente (Russia was not entitled to anything) 20 billion marks in gold, goods, securities etc.
*For 30 years, Germany must pay reparations, and the amount of these reparations is determined by the winners themselves and can be increased at any time during these 30 years.
*Germany was prohibited from having an army of more than 100 thousand people, and the army had to be exclusively voluntary.
The terms of the “peace” were so humiliating for Germany that the country actually became a puppet. Therefore, many people of that time said that although the First World War ended, it did not end in peace, but in a truce for 30 years. That’s how it ultimately turned out...

Results of the First World War

The First World War was fought on the territory of 14 states. Countries with a total population of over 1 billion people took part in it (this is approximately 62% of the entire world population at that time). In total, 74 million people were mobilized by the participating countries, of whom 10 million died and another 20 million were injured.

As a result of the war, the political map of Europe changed significantly. Such independent states as Poland, Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia, Finland, and Albania appeared. Austro-Hungary split into Austria, Hungary and Czechoslovakia. Romania, Greece, France, and Italy have increased their borders. There were 5 countries that lost and lost territory: Germany, Austria-Hungary, Bulgaria, Türkiye and Russia.

Map of the First World War 1914-1918


First World War 1914– 1918 - a war between two coalitions of powers (the Entente and the countries of the Triple Alliance) for the redistribution of the world, colonies, spheres of influence and investment of capital. This is the first military conflict on a global scale, in which 38 of the 59 independent states that existed at that time (2/3 of the world's population) were involved.

World War I: causes and essence of the conflict

After a series of successful wars against Denmark in 1864, Austria in 1866, and especially after victory over France in the Franco-Prussian War of 1870–1871, Prussia, under the leadership of Chancellor Otto von Bismarck, managed to unite the disparate German lands under its rule.

On January 18, 1871, in the Palace of Versailles near Paris, Bismarck, in the presence of German princes, read the text of the proclamation of the Prussian king as German emperor. Thus, a new strong player appeared on the European stage - the German Empire.


At first, the Russian Empire did not interfere with the unification of Germany, since Prussia, the only one of the great powers, did not oppose Russia during Crimean War. In addition, Bismarck promised Alexander II to support Russia in revising Treaty of Paris 1856, which prohibited Russia from having a Black Sea navy.

Moreover, in 1873, Alexander II and the Emperor of Austria-Hungary Franz Joseph I signed an agreement in the Schönbrunn Palace near Vienna, which Kaiser Wilhelm I joined a little later. This marked the beginning of the Alliance of the Three Emperors.

The agreements were extended twice more: in 1881 and 1884.

But the growing contradictions, primarily between Russia and Austria-Hungary due to the desire for dominance in the Balkans and Germany’s support for the latter led to a cooling of relations between the countries.

In parallel, the Austro-German Alliance was formed in 1879, which was joined in 1882 by Italy, which competed with France for dominance in North Africa.

As a counterbalance to the formed Triple Alliance, a Russian-French military alliance was concluded in 1891, called “Hearty Consent” (French Entente Cordiale - Entente).

Relations between France and Great Britain were strained due to colonial differences, but in 1904 an agreement was reached between these countries on major colonial issues, which served as the basis of the British-French Entente.

Russia entered into a similar agreement with Great Britain in 1907. Thus, two opposing military-political blocs were formed: the Triple Alliance (Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy) and the Entente (Russia, France and Great Britain).


Main contradictions between the parties

United Kingdom:

German support for the Boers in the war with Britain;

German intervention in the economic affairs of East and South-West Africa - spheres of influence of Great Britain;

Preservation of maritime and colonial power;

Waged an undeclared economic and trade war against Germany.

France:

She sought to take revenge for the defeat inflicted on her by Germany in the Franco-Prussian War of 1870;

The desire to return Alsace and Lorraine to its composition;

Incurred losses in its traditional markets in competition with German goods;

Russia:

She claimed free passage of her fleet into the Mediterranean Sea, insisted on weakening or revising in her favor the regime of control over the Dardanelles Strait;

She regarded the construction of the Berlin-Baghdad railway as an unfriendly act on the part of Berlin;

She insisted on the exclusive protection of the Slavic peoples in the Balkans.

Germany:

Sought political and economic dominance in Europe;

She wanted to acquire new territories;

Having joined the struggle for colonies only after 1871, it claimed equal rights in the colonial possessions British Empire, France, Belgium, the Netherlands and Portugal. She was particularly active in obtaining markets.

Austria-Hungary:

She sought to retain Bosnia and Herzegovina, which she captured in 1908;

It opposed Russia, which took on the role of protector of all Slavs in the Balkans, and Serbia, which claimed the role of a unifying center of the South Slavs.

Despite all the above contradictions, the main reason for the First World War was the colonial issue: Britain and France did not want to share the captured colonies, and Germany and its allies sought to get part of these colonies for themselves.

As the 28th US President Woodrow Wilson said: “Everyone is looking and not finding the reason why the war began. Their search is in vain; they will not find this reason. The war did not start for any one reason, the war started for all reasons at once.”

Beginning of the First World War

On June 28, 1914, a nineteen-year-old student, Bosnian Serb Gavrilo Princip makes a fatal attempt on the life of the heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, Franz Ferdinand, who came to Sarajevo to familiarize himself with the recently annexed territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina.



Gavrilo Princip was a member of the Mlada Bosna organization, which declared its goal to unite all South Slavic peoples into one state - Greater Serbia.

On July 23, Austria-Hungary issued an ultimatum to Serbia, accusing it of allegedly being behind the assassination of the Archduke. 48 hours were given to consider the ultimatum.

The ultimatum consisted of 10 points and was humiliating for a sovereign state. Despite this, Serbia satisfied 9 of the 10 provisions, with the exception of the clause that stated: “Conduct an investigation against each of the participants in the Sarajevo murder with the participation of the Austrian government in the investigation.”

The Entente countries, in particular Russia, proposed to resolve the conflict peacefully and send the dispute to the Hague Conference.

On July 26, Austria-Hungary, declaring that the demands of the ultimatum had not been fulfilled, began to gather troops to the Serbian border, and on July 28 declared war on Serbia, shelling Belgrade.

Russia issued an appeal that it would not allow the occupation of Serbia, and on July 31, general mobilization into the army was announced in the Russian Empire.

Germany stated that if Russia did not stop mobilization, war would be declared.

On August 1, 1914, Germany declared war on Russia, on August 3 on France and Belgium, which rejected the ultimatum to allow German troops through their territory.

Great Britain demanded that Germany maintain the neutrality of Belgium, but, having received a refusal, on August 4, together with its dominions, declared war on Germany.

On August 6, Austria-Hungary declared war on Russia. Italy, an ally of Germany and Austria-Hungary in the Triple Alliance, declared neutrality. This was the beginning of the First World War.

Plans of the parties

Without exception, all countries did not expect that the war would be protracted, hoping to end it with a decisive offensive by the winter of 1914.

Germany adhered to the so-called “Schlieffen Plan,” which envisaged concentrating 7 of the 8 German armies on the Western Front. With a quick offensive through the territories of neutral Luxembourg and Belgium, reach the flank and rear of the main group French troops, defeat it, take Paris and take France out of the war, concentrating all forces against Russia.

The phrase said by William II became famous: “We will have lunch in Paris, and dinner in St. Petersburg.” To protect the eastern borders, one field army was concentrated in East Prussia.

Austria-Hungary also had to fight on two fronts: 1/3 of the troops were sent to the Serbian front, 2/3 were concentrated against the Russian Southwestern Front. The goal was to push Russian troops back from the border, and then, together with the German troops liberated from the Western Front, to defeat Russia.

In plans France included an offensive on the territory of Alsace and Lorraine, but the strategy had to be revised on the fly due to the fact that the Germans maneuvered through Belgium.

United Kingdom was going to focus on combat operations against the German fleet, but under pressure from the allies on the eve of the war, she sent an expeditionary force of 7.5 divisions to help the French.

Russia was also forced to divide its troops into 2 fronts: the North-Western, which consisted of 2 armies, was supposed to act against the Germans in East Prussia; The Southwestern, consisting of 4 armies, was supposed to counter the Austrians. The plan was to quickly withdraw Austria-Hungary from the war and concentrate all forces against Germany.

First World War: course of events

Course of events. 1914

On the western front, the war began on August 2 with the invasion of German troops in Luxembourg, which, having passed through Belgian territory, reached the French border.

In a counter battle, the Germans defeated the Allied troops and reached the Marne River east of Paris.

The French hastily formed two new armies. From September 5 to 12, large-scale military operations took place on both banks of the Marne River, in which about 2 million people took part on both sides.

The Germans were driven back from Paris. Subsequently, trying to outflank each other, the opposing armies moved north until they hit the sea coast - the so-called “run to the sea.”

As a result, the front stabilized and trench warfare began. The German Blitzkrieg failed.

On the Eastern Front, Russia launched an offensive at the request of France, which was retreating under the pressure of German troops without fully completing mobilization. Having invaded the territory of East Prussia, the 1st Army of General Rennenkampf defeated the 8th Army in the Battle of Gumbinnen-Goldap German army. But it was not possible to develop the success: German troops regrouped and attacked the 2nd Russian Army of General Samsonov in the Masurian Lakes region.

The army was surrounded and defeated. Samsonov committed suicide. The 1st Army returned to its original positions beyond the Neman.

Despite catastrophic consequences, the offensive of the Russian army in East Prussia thwarted the German plan: they were forced to transfer troops from the Western Front to the aid of the 8th Army, thereby weakening their forces before the Battle of the Marne.

During the Galician operation of the Southwestern Front, the Austrians were defeated. Lvov, Galich and other cities were taken. In the battles of the Warsaw salient, during numerous battles, the front remained virtually unchanged.


Course of events. 1915

During the 1915 campaign, the German command decided to change the plan: most of the forces were sent to the Eastern Front with the goal of defeating Russia and taking it out of the war.

At the same time, the shortage of weapons and ammunition in the Russian army began to affect. Under the attacks of German troops, the so-called “Great Retreat” began - Poland, Galicia, Lithuania, part of Belarus and Latvia were abandoned. The front has stabilized along the line Riga - Dvinsk - Baranovichi - Pinsk - Dubno - Tarnopol. However, the strategic plan to defeat the Russian Armed Forces failed.



On the Western Front, the war took on a positional character. In conditions of defense in depth on a narrow front, new types of weapons were tried.

During the advance of German troops near Ypres, chemical weapons were used for the first time - chlorine was sprayed.

On the initiative of Winston Churchill, the failed Dardanelles operation was organized, which lasted from February 19, 1915 to January 9, 1916. Its goals were the capture of Constantinople, the withdrawal of Turkey from the war and the opening sea ​​route to Russia.

On October 14, Bulgaria entered the war on the side of Germany. The so-called Quadruple Alliance (Germany, Austria-Hungary, Bulgaria and the Ottoman Empire) appears.


Course of events. 1916

During the 1916 campaign, Germany again concentrated its main forces on the Western Front with the goal of bringing France out of the war. A huge number of troops and artillery were concentrated in the area of ​​​​the city of Verdun.

Verdun operation The German army began on February 21, but, despite the power of the initial strike, the Germans' success was insignificant. The fighting became protracted and bloody. Both sides suffered huge losses(about 1 million people).

The operation, which lasted 10 months, ended without results. This battle went down in history as the “Verdun Meat Grinder”.

The Allied offensive on the Somme River was also unsuccessful, despite the use of a new type of weapon - tanks.



On the Eastern Front, the so-called Brusilovsky breakthrough, during which Russian troops defeated the Austro-German troops and threatened the withdrawal of Austria-Hungary from the war. Germany and Austria-Hungary were forced to transfer troops from other fronts, thus easing the position of the French at Verdun and the Italians at Triente.

Romania, which entered the war on August 27 on the side of the Entente, having suffered a number of defeats, forced Russia to withdraw troops from other sectors of the front to assist it. The Eastern Front has lengthened by 500 kilometers.

On the Caucasian front, Russian troops advanced 250 km into the territory of the Ottoman Empire and captured the cities of Erzurum, Trebizond and Erzincan.


At sea, on May 31–June 1, the largest naval battle First World War - Jutlandic. The British fleet lost 14 ships, about 7 thousand people; losses of the German fleet - 11 ships and over 3 thousand people. Great Britain maintained supremacy at sea.


Course of events. 1917

By 1917, the economic superiority of the Entente countries began to take its toll. The Central Powers went on the defensive. In addition, on April 6, the United States entered the war on the side of the Entente (although its troops began to arrive only in the fall). All Allied offensive actions were unsuccessful.

In Russia, as a result February Revolution the monarchy fell.

Although the Provisional Government declared war “to the bitter end,” Order No. 1 issued by the Petrograd Soviet did not contribute to the combat readiness of the Russian army, which had lost its offensive potential.

After an unsuccessful summer offensive, Russian troops were forced to leave Riga. The Bolsheviks, who came to power as a result of a coup in October, began separate peace negotiations. Russia formally left the war.


Course of events. 1918

The revolution in Russia had a strong impact on sentiment in other countries. The Allies did not plan large-scale offensive operations until sufficient American troops arrived. Germany decided to final offensive with the goal of turning the tide in the war, since human and economic resources were at their limit. At the same time, the Germans sent about 60 divisions to intervene in Russia.

The large-scale German offensive on the Western Front did not produce results, and as a result, the Allies launched a counter-offensive in the summer.

In the fall, Germany's military and economic exhaustion reached its limit and on October 5 Germany turned to Woodrow Wilson for an armistice.

Results of the First World War

The contradictions that led to the outbreak of the First World War were not only not resolved, but deepened even more, which subsequently led to a new war.

As a result of the First World War, four empires ceased to exist: Russian, German, Ottoman and Austria-Hungary. A number of new states have appeared on the map of Europe.

Of the more than 70 million people conscripted into the armies of the warring countries, between 9 and 10 million died. The number of civilian casualties ranged from 7 to 12 million. Famine and epidemics caused by the war killed at least 20 million people.

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The war that happened was the result of all the accumulated contradictions between the leading world powers, which completed the colonial division of the world by the beginning of the twentieth century. The chronology of the First World War is an interesting page in world history, requiring reverent and attentive attitude to yourself.

Main events of the First World War

The huge number of events that happened during the war years is difficult to remember. To simplify this process Let's place the main dates of the events that occurred during this bloody period in chronological order.

Rice. 1. Political map 1914.

On the eve of the war, the Balkans were called “the powder keg of Europe.” The two Balkan wars and the annexation of Montenegro by Austria, as well as the presence of many peoples in the “patchwork Habsburg empire”, created a lot of different contradictions and conflicts, which sooner or later had to result in new war on this peninsula. This is an event that has its own chronological framework, and occurred with the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand by Serbian nationalist Gavrilo Princip on July 28, 1914.

Rice. 2. Franz Ferdinand.

Table “Main events of the First World War 1914-1918”

Date

Event

Comment

Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia

Beginning of the war

Germany declared war on Russia

Germany declared war on France

The beginning of the German offensive on Paris through Belgium

Gallician offensive of Russian troops

Liberation of Gallicia from Austrian troops.

Japan's entry into the war

Occupation of German Qingdao and the beginning of the colonial war

Sarykamsh operation

Opening of a front in the Caucasus between Russia and Turkey

Gorlitsky breakthrough

The beginning of the “Great Retreat” of Russian troops to the east

February 1915

Defeat of Russian troops in Prussia

The defeat of Samsonov's army and the retreat of Rennenkampf's army

Armenian genocide

Battle of Ypres

For the first time the Germans carried out a gas attack

Italy's entry into the war

Opening of the front in the Alps

Entente landing in Greece

Opening of the Thessaloniki Front

Erzurum operation

The fall of the main Turkish fortress in Transcaucasia

Battle of Verdun

An attempt by German troops to break through the front and take France out of the war

Brusilovsky breakthrough

Large-scale offensive of Russian troops in Galicia

Battle of Jutland

Unsuccessful attempt by the Germans to break the naval blockade

Overthrow of the monarchy in Russia

Creation of the Russian Republic

US entry into the war

April 1917

Operation Nivelle

Huge losses of Allied troops during an unsuccessful offensive

October Revolution

The Bolsheviks came to power in Russia

Treaty of Brest-Litovsk

Russia's exit from the war

Germany's "Spring Offensive"

Germany's last attempt to win the war

Entente counteroffensive

Surrender of Austria-Hungary

Surrender of the Ottoman Empire

Overthrow of the monarchy in Germany

Establishment of the German Republic

Truce of Compiègne

Cessation of hostilities

Peace of Versailles

Final peace treaty

Militarily, the Allies were never able to crush the German army. Germany had to make peace because of the revolution that had happened, and most importantly, because of the economic exhaustion of the country. Fighting with almost the entire world, the “German machine” exhausted its economic reserves earlier than the Entente, which forced Berlin to sign peace.

Rice. 3. The use of gas in the First World War.

The collapse of the four main empires of Europe was the main event of the war and led to a change in color political map world beyond recognition.

Russia was not included in the winners because of the separate Brest-Litovsk Treaty.

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What have we learned?

The result of the war was the Versailles system, where the world was divided between the victorious countries, which did not learn all the lessons taught by the First World War. The existing world order and Germany, which was not finished off militarily, were preparing history to “work on mistakes”, which would lead to the Second World War.

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First World War 1914 – 1918 became one of the bloodiest and largest conflicts in human history. It began on July 28, 1914 and ended on November 11, 1918. 38 states participated in this conflict. If we talk about the causes of the First World War briefly, then we can say with confidence that this conflict was provoked by serious economic contradictions between the alliances of world powers that formed at the beginning of the century. It is also worth noting that there was probably a possibility of a peaceful resolution of these contradictions. However, feeling their increased power, Germany and Austria-Hungary moved to more decisive action.

Participants in the First World War were:

  • on the one hand, the Quadruple Alliance, which included Germany, Austria-Hungary, Bulgaria, Türkiye (Ottoman Empire);
  • on the other hand, the Entente bloc, which consisted of Russia, France, England and allied countries (Italy, Romania and many others).

The outbreak of World War I was triggered by the assassination of the heir to the Austrian throne, Archduke Franz Ferdinand, and his wife by a member of a Serbian nationalist terrorist organization. The murder committed by Gavrilo Princip provoked a conflict between Austria and Serbia. Germany supported Austria and entered the war.

Historians divide the course of the First World War into five separate military campaigns.

The beginning of the military campaign of 1914 dates back to July 28. On August 1, Germany, which entered the war, declared war on Russia, and on August 3, on France. German troops invade Luxembourg and, later, Belgium. In 1914 major events The First World War took place in France and is today known as the “Run to the Sea.” In an effort to encircle the enemy troops, both armies moved to the coast, where the front line eventually closed. France retained control of the port cities. Gradually the front line stabilized. The German command's expectation of a quick capture of France did not materialize. Since the forces of both sides were exhausted, the war took on a positional character. These are the events on the Western Front.

Military operations on the Eastern Front began on August 17. The Russian army launched an attack on the eastern part of Prussia and initially it turned out to be quite successful. The victory in the Battle of Galicia (August 18) was accepted by most of society with joy. After this battle, Austrian troops no longer entered into serious battles with Russia in 1914.

Events in the Balkans also did not develop very well. Belgrade, previously captured by Austria, was recaptured by the Serbs. There was no active fighting in Serbia this year. In the same year, 1914, Japan also opposed Germany, which allowed Russia to secure its Asian borders. Japan began to take action to seize Germany's island colonies. However, the Ottoman Empire entered the war on the side of Germany, opening the Caucasian front and depriving Russia of convenient communications with the allied countries. At the end of 1914, none of the countries participating in the conflict was able to achieve their goals.

The second campaign in the First World War chronology dates back to 1915. The most severe military clashes took place on the Western Front. Both France and Germany have undertaken desperate attempts turn the situation in your favor. However, the huge losses suffered by both sides did not lead to serious results. In fact, by the end of 1915 the front line had not changed. Neither the spring offensive of the French in Artois, nor the operations carried out in Champagne and Artois in the fall, changed the situation.

The situation on the Russian front changed for the worse. The winter offensive of the ill-prepared Russian army soon turned into the August German counter-offensive. And as a result of the Gorlitsky breakthrough of German troops, Russia lost Galicia and, later, Poland. Historians note that in many ways the Great Retreat of the Russian army was provoked by a supply crisis. The front stabilized only in the fall. German troops occupied the west of the Volyn province and partially repeated the pre-war borders with Austria-Hungary. The position of the troops, just like in France, contributed to the start of a trench war.

1915 was marked by Italy's entry into the war (May 23). Despite the fact that the country was a member of the Quadruple Alliance, it declared the start of war against Austria-Hungary. But on October 14, Bulgaria declared war on the Entente alliance, which led to a complication of the situation in Serbia and its imminent fall.

During the military campaign of 1916, one of the most famous battles of the First World War took place - Verdun. In an effort to suppress French resistance, the German command concentrated enormous forces in the area of ​​the Verdun salient, hoping to overcome the Anglo-French defense. During this operation, from February 21 to December 18, up to 750 thousand soldiers of England and France and up to 450 thousand soldiers of Germany died. The Battle of Verdun is also known for the first time it was used new type weapon - flamethrower. However, the greatest effect of this weapon was psychological. To assist the allies, an effort was made on the Western Russian Front offensive, called the Brusilov breakthrough. This forced Germany to transfer serious forces to the Russian front and somewhat eased the position of the Allies.

It should be noted that military operations developed not only on land. There was a fierce confrontation between the blocs of the world's strongest powers on the water as well. It was in the spring of 1916 that one of the main battles of the First World War at sea took place – the Battle of Jutland. In general, at the end of the year the Entente bloc became dominant. The Quadruple Alliance's peace proposal was rejected.

During the military campaign of 1917, the preponderance of forces in favor of the Entente increased even more and the United States joined the obvious winners. But the weakening of the economies of all countries participating in the conflict, as well as the growth of revolutionary tension, led to a decrease in military activity. The German command decides on strategic defense on land fronts, while at the same time focusing on attempts to take England out of the war using the submarine fleet. In the winter of 1916–17 there were no active hostilities in the Caucasus. The situation in Russia has become extremely aggravated. Actually after October events the country emerged from the war.

1918 brought important victories to the Entente, which led to the end of the First World War.

After Russia actually left the war, Germany managed to liquidate the eastern front. She made peace with Romania, Ukraine, and Russia. The conditions of the Brest-Litovsk Peace Treaty, concluded between Russia and Germany in March 1918, turned out to be extremely difficult for the country, but this treaty was soon annulled.

Subsequently, Germany occupied the Baltic states, Poland and part of Belarus, after which it threw all its forces onto the Western Front. But, thanks to the technical superiority of the Entente, the German troops were defeated. After Austria-Hungary, the Ottoman Empire and Bulgaria made peace with the Entente countries, Germany found itself on the brink of disaster. Due to revolutionary events, Emperor Wilhelm leaves his country. November 11, 1918 Germany signs the act of surrender.

According to modern data, losses in the First World War amounted to 10 million soldiers. Accurate data on civilian casualties does not exist. Presumably, due to harsh living conditions, epidemics and famine, twice as many people died.

Following the First World War, Germany had to pay reparations to the Allies for 30 years. It lost 1/8 of its territory, and the colonies went to the victorious countries. The banks of the Rhine were occupied for 15 years allied forces. Also, Germany was prohibited from having an army of more than 100 thousand people. Strict restrictions were imposed on all types of weapons.

But the Consequences of the First World War also affected the situation in the victorious countries. Their economy, with the possible exception of the United States, was in a difficult state. The standard of living of the population has dropped sharply, national economy has fallen into disrepair. At the same time, the military monopolies became richer. For Russia, the First World War became a serious destabilizing factor, which largely influenced the development of the revolutionary situation in the country and caused the subsequent civil war.

The First World War was a war between two coalitions of powers: Central Powers, or Quadruple Alliance(Germany, Austria-Hungary, Türkiye, Bulgaria) and Entente(Russia, France, Great Britain).

A number of other states supported the Entente in the First World War (that is, they were its allies). This war lasted approximately 4 years (officially from July 28, 1914 to November 11, 1918). This was the first military conflict on a global scale, in which 38 of the 59 independent states that existed at that time were involved.

During the war, the composition of the coalitions changed.

Europe in 1914

Entente

British Empire

France

Russian Empire

In addition to these main countries, more than twenty states grouped on the side of the Entente, and the term “Entente” began to be used to refer to the entire anti-German coalition. Thus, the anti-German coalition included the following countries: Andorra, Belgium, Bolivia, Brazil, China, Costa Rica, Cuba, Ecuador, Greece, Guatemala, Haiti, Honduras, Italy (from May 23, 1915), Japan, Liberia, Montenegro , Nicaragua, Panama, Peru, Portugal, Romania, San Marino, Serbia, Siam, USA, Uruguay.

Cavalry of the Russian Imperial Guard

Central Powers

German Empire

Austria-Hungary

Ottoman Empire

Bulgarian kingdom(since 1915)

The predecessor of this block was Triple Alliance, formed in 1879-1882 as a result of agreements concluded between Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy. According to the treaty, these countries were obliged to provide support to each other in the event of war, mainly with France. But Italy began to move closer to France and at the beginning of the First World War declared its neutrality, and in 1915 withdrew from the Triple Alliance and entered the war on the side of the Entente.

Ottoman Empire and Bulgaria joined Germany and Austria-Hungary during the war. The Ottoman Empire entered the war in October 1914, Bulgaria in October 1915.

Some countries participated in the war partially, others entered the war already in its final phase. Let's talk about some of the features of individual countries' participation in the war.

Albania

As soon as the war began, the Albanian prince Wilhelm Wied, a German by origin, fled the country to Germany. Albania assumed neutrality, but was occupied by Entente troops (Italy, Serbia, Montenegro). However, by January 1916, most of it (Northern and Central) was occupied by Austro-Hungarian troops. In the occupied territories, with the support of the occupation authorities, the Albanian Legion was created from Albanian volunteers - a military formation consisting of nine infantry battalions and numbering up to 6,000 fighters in its ranks.

Azerbaijan

On May 28, 1918, the Azerbaijan Democratic Republic was proclaimed. Soon she concluded a treaty “On Peace and Friendship” with the Ottoman Empire, according to which the latter obliged “ provide assistance armed force the government of the Republic of Azerbaijan, if necessary to ensure order and security in the country" And when the armed formations of the Baku Council people's commissars launched an attack on Elizavetpol, this became the basis for the appeal of the Azerbaijani Democratic Republic for military assistance to the Ottoman Empire. As a result, the Bolshevik troops were defeated. On September 15, 1918, the Turkish-Azerbaijani army occupied Baku.

M. Diemer "World War I. Air combat"

Arabia

By the beginning of the First World War, it was the main ally of the Ottoman Empire in the Arabian Peninsula.

Libya

The Muslim Sufi religious-political order Senusiya began to lead fighting against the Italian colonialists in Libya back in 1911. Senusia- a Muslim Sufi religious-political order (brotherhood) in Libya and Sudan, founded in Mecca in 1837 by the Great Senussi, Muhammad ibn Ali al-Senussi, and aimed at overcoming the decline of Islamic thought and spirituality and the weakening of Muslim political unity). By 1914, the Italians controlled only the coast. With the outbreak of the First World War, the Senusites received new allies in the fight against the colonialists - the Ottoman and German empires, with their help, by the end of 1916, Senussia drove the Italians out of most of Libya. In December 1915, Senusite troops invaded British Egypt, where they suffered a crushing defeat.

Poland

With the outbreak of the First World War, Polish nationalist circles in Austria-Hungary put forward the idea of ​​creating a Polish Legion in order to gain the support of the Central Powers and with their help partially resolve the Polish question. As a result, two legions were formed - Eastern (Lviv) and Western (Krakow). Eastern Legion after the Russian troops occupied Galicia on September 21, 1914, it dissolved itself, and the Western Legion was divided into three brigades of legionnaires (each with 5-6 thousand people) and in this form continued to participate in hostilities until 1918.

By August 1915, the Germans and Austro-Hungarians occupied the territory of the entire Kingdom of Poland, and on November 5, 1916, the occupation authorities promulgated the “Act of Two Emperors,” which proclaimed the creation of the Kingdom of Poland - an independent state with a hereditary monarchy and a constitutional system, the boundaries of which were clearly defined were not.

Sudan

By the beginning of the First World War, the Darfur Sultanate was under the protectorate of Great Britain, but the British refused to help Darfur, not wanting to spoil their relations with their Entente ally. As a result, on April 14, 1915, the Sultan officially declared the independence of Darfur. The Darfur Sultan hoped to receive the support of the Ottoman Empire and the Sufi order of Senusiya, with which the Sultanate established a strong alliance. A two-thousand-strong Anglo-Egyptian corps invaded Darfur, the army of the sultanate suffered a number of defeats, and in January 1917 the annexation of the Darfur Sultanate to Sudan was officially announced.

Russian artillery

Neutral countries

The following countries maintained complete or partial neutrality: Albania, Afghanistan, Argentina, Chile, Colombia, Denmark, El Salvador, Ethiopia, Liechtenstein, Luxembourg (it did not declare war on the Central Powers, although it was occupied by German troops), Mexico, the Netherlands, Norway, Paraguay, Persia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Tibet, Venezuela, Italy (3 August 1914 -23 May 1915)

As a result of the war

As a result of the First World War, the Central Powers bloc ceased to exist with defeat in the First World War in the fall of 1918. When signing the truce, they all unconditionally accepted the terms of the victors. Austria-Hungary and the Ottoman Empire disintegrated as a result of the war; states created on the territory of the Russian Empire were forced to seek support from the Entente. Poland, Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia and Finland retained their independence, the rest were again annexed to Russia (directly to the RSFSR or entered the Soviet Union).

First World War- one of the largest-scale armed conflicts in human history. As a result of the war, four empires ceased to exist: Russian, Austro-Hungarian, Ottoman and German. The participating countries lost about 12 million people killed (including civilians), and about 55 million were wounded.

F. Roubaud "The First World War. 1915"