By David Goddy (Associate Editor, Scholastic Update)
The public"s right to know is one of the central principles of American society. The men who wrote the Constitution of the United States resented the strict control that the American colonies" British rulers had imposed over ideas and information they did not like. Instead, these men are determined, that the power of knowledge should be placed in the hands of the people.
"Knowledge will forever govern ignorance," asserted James Madison, the fourth president and an early proponent of press freedom. "And a people who mean to be their own governors must arm themselves with the power knowledge gives."
THE FIRST AMENDMENT
To assure a healthy and uninhibited flow of information, the framers of the new government included press freedom among the basic human rights protected in the new nation"s Bill of Rights. These first 10 Amendments to the Constitution of the United States became law in 1791 . The First Amendment says, in part, that "Congress shall make no law... abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press..."
That protection from control by the federal government meant that anyone - rich or poor, regardless of his political or religious belief - could generally publish what he wished. The result, Madison declared, was that the power to decide what was harmful behavior "is in the people over the Government and not in the Government over the people."
Ever since, the First Amendment has served as the conscience and shield of all Americans who reported the news, who wished to make their opinions public, or who desired to influence public opinion. Over the past two centuries, however, the means of communication - what we now c all the"media" - have grown immensely more complex. In Madison's day, the media, created by printing presses, were few and simple - newspapers, pamphlets and books. Today the media also include television, radio, films and cable TV. The term "the press" has expanded to refer now to any news operation in any media, not just print. These various organizations are also commonly called the "news media."
This media explosion has created an intricate and instantaneous nerve system shaping the values and culture of American society. News and entertainment are beamed from one end of the American continent to another. The result is that the United States has been tied together more tightly, and the media have helped to reduce regional differences and customs. People all over the country watch the same shows often at the same time. The media bring the American people a common and shared experience - the same news, the same entertainment, the same advertising.
Indeed, Americans are surrounded by information from the time they wake in the morning until the time they sleep at night. A typical office worker, for instance, is awakened by music from an alarm-clock radio. During breakfast, he reads the local newspaper and watches an early morning news show on TV. If he drives to work, he listens to news, music and traffic reports on his car"s radio. At his office, he reads business papers and magazines to check on industry developments. Perhaps he helps plan an advertising campaign for his company"s product. At home, after dinner, he watches the evening news on TV. Then he flips through the over 20 channels offered by cable TV to find his favorite show or a ballgame or a recent Hollywood movie. In bed, he reads himself to sleep with a magazine or a book.
Our typical office worker, like most Americans, takes all this for granted. Yet this dizzying array of media choices is the product of nearly 300 years of continual information revolution. Technological advances have speeded up the way information is gathered and distributed. Court cases have gradually expanded the media's legal protections. And, because the news media in the United States have been businesses which depend on advertising and sales, owners have always stressed appealing to the widest possible audiences.
Transport and telecommunications Short review In Germany modern vehicles and telecommunications network. The country is known for its expressways, railways and busy ports. Telecommunications reform introduced competition into a previously monopolistic system. Roads The length of roads in Germany is approximately 231,500 km, including limited access roads, expressways (12,400 km), federal highways (41,000 km), regular roads (86,600 km) and regional roads (91,600 km). In general, the road network is modernized. Outdated roads in the East of the country were reconstructed under the "Reconstruction of the East" program, in accordance with which by the end of 2001 13,200 km had been built or upgraded. federal highways or so-called main roads. Railways The length of the railway in Germany is about 38,000 km. They are known for the efficiency of their work. In 1994, 4 years after German reunification, the private German Joint Stock Company railways took control of the former state railways of the Federal Republic of Germany in the West of the country and the German State Railway in the East. By the end of 2001, 5,800 km had been built or modernized in Germany under this program. railways in new lands in the East. German trains carry passengers, cargo, cars, and even trucks in special carriages. In 1991, high-speed intercity trains were introduced in the West of the country. Their speed reaches 250 km/h. In May 2007, high-speed trains along the Frankfurt, Stuttgart, Paris line were launched in Germany and France. In addition, German Railways plans to build a maglev train connecting Munich and Munich International Airport. The international airport uses German technology known as "magnetic levitation" Ports The busiest port in Germany is Hamburg, which in 2007 ranked 9th in the world for container traffic. The second largest port is Bremen (Bremerhaven), which received half of the cargo from Hamburg. Hamburg, Bremerhaven and Wilhelmshaven are North Sea ports, while the port of Lübeck and Rostock are Baltic Sea ports. The inland port on the banks of the Rhine and Ruhr rivers at Duisburg is the main distribution and supply center.Inland waterways Total length Germany's inland waters are about 7,500 km. Natural waterways make up 39% of the total river network, dams 38% and canals 23%. Movement along the Rhine River accounts for about 2/3 of total river traffic within the country.Civil aviation and airportsThere are 19 international airports in Germany. The largest is Frankfurt am Main. The German government is modernizing the airport system in Berlin, which reflects the division of the city since the Cold War. The main goal of the plan is to build by 2012. a new international airport to be named Berlin-Brandenburg. Berlin's Tegel and Tempelhof airports will be closed between 2008 and 2010. Other major airports are located in Cologne, Dresden, Hamburg, Munich and Stuttgart. The largest German airline is Lufthansa, which is owned by a public limited company. Pipeline Germany has an extensive network of pipelines for importing natural gas, which consists of 8 main ones connected to local distribution networks. Some of these pipelines serve others European countries. In 2004, 83% (of the country's demand) of natural gas was supplied to Germany. Germany receives most of its natural gas from Russia, Norway and the Netherlands. Russia's influence as a supplier of natural gas will increase with the construction of an undersea pipeline, 1,197 km long and with a capacity of 55 million m3 annually, from Russia directly to Germany. Construction began in September 2005 by the giant Russian oil company Gazprom and is due to be completed in 2010. A television Regulatory reform, which culminated in the passage of the Television Act in 1998, eliminated the monopoly of Deutsch Telekom AG and Deutsch Post AG, thereby introducing competition into the television industry. The Federal Ministry of Economics supervises and controls the activities of the 2 former monopolies and new market participants. In 2006, there were about 54.5 million landline phones in Germany, or 661 phones per 1,000 people, and 84.3 million cell phones, or 1,023 per 1,000 people. In the third quarter of 2006, cell phone penetration exceeded 100% for the first time. Each telephone customer has a number that he can use both within the country and abroad. In 2006, there were 42 million Internet users over the age of 14 in Germany, representing 58% of the total population. In 2007, there were 16.5 million website owners on the Internet. In 2006, 70% of families had a personal computer. And in the same year, the majority of German families (37 million) had television: 50.5% - cable, 43.8% - satellite and the rest with an individual remote antenna. (Arbeitsgemeinschaft der offentlich-rechtlichen Rundfunkanstalten der Bundesrepublik Deutschland) - Association of Public Broadcasting Companies of the Federal Republic of Germany, known as ARD. Within the framework of ARD, the “first” channel of German television is broadcast. Its competition is ZDF. ARD broadcasts local radio and television channels such as Westdeutscher Rundfunk (West German Broadcasting) and Norddeutscher Rundfunk (North German Broadcasting). In 2003, the number of high-frequency radio receivers in the range from 30 to 300 MHz electromagnetic waves was estimated at 225 million, which belonged to 45 million families with an average of 5 children. Also within the framework of ARD, radio and television broadcasts are carried out by Deutsche Welle - “Deutsche Welle” - the only public service broadcasting in Germany. In 1984, public television began to compete with the private sector for the first time; at that time there were two public television channels; in Mainz SAT.1 and in Cologne, which were broadcast. Various media companies have established other television channels available through cable, satellite and even over-the-air frequencies. Private companies do not charge fees but rely on advertising to survive. In 2003, there were 276 private radio stations in Germany with more than half a million listenersContent:
I would like to tell you about telecommunications and their future.
We can not deny the role of telecommunications in our life. The Internet, phones, telegraph, cell phones, radio, television, satellite television, video cell phones are all the means of communication or telecommunication. Nowadays we live in the information era, when information is the key and engine of progress. Our society needs to develop means of information exchange for its future developing and growth that is why all types of telecommunication are under the permanent developing”
Future is speed and power. New technologies in electronics continue to develop. Computers become more compact, faster and inexpensive. Technology exerts revolutionary influence on society only when it is universal. Real revolution in manufacture, accumulation, treatment of matter began when first universal machines appeared and telecommunication systems were created. In ancient machines energy source was combined with machine itself, but in the process of development, division of manufacture, new means of transmission and consumption of energy took place.
Revolutionary modifications in use of energy connected with the appearance of universal electric machines and power grids, social changes to informational society are observed in all the countries.
On base of analogy between matter, energy and information we can have ideas about the future. Earlier, for example, number of manufactured metal played the strategic role and was the description of development. Now we save metal, energy and we think about energy saving technologies.
It is very difficult to predict many steps of telecommunication development. Telecommunications change the world very much and probably will change the human being.
Topic translation: The future of telecommunications
I would like to tell you about telecommunications and its future.
We cannot deny the role of telecommunications in our lives. Internet, telephone, telegraph, cell phone, radio, television, satellite television, cellular video phones - all these are means of communication. We currently live in the information era, when information is the key and engine of progress. For its future development, our society needs to develop means of information exchange, which is why all types of telecommunications are in the process of constant development.
The future is speed and power. New technologies in electronics continue to develop. Computers are becoming smaller, faster and cheaper. Technology has a revolutionary impact on society only when it is universal. The real revolution in the production, accumulation and processing of material begins only after the appearance of the first machine and the creation of telecommunications systems. In ancient machines, energy was an integral part of the machine itself, but in the process of development and division of production, new ways of transmitting and consuming energy appeared.
Revolutionary changes in the use of energy associated with the emergence of universal electrical mechanisms and energy systems and the social transition to an information society are observed in all countries.
Based on the analogy between matter, energy and information, our future ideas can be realized. Previously, for example, the amount of metal produced played a strategic role and was decisive in development. Now we save metal, energy and think about energy-saving technologies.
It is very difficult to predict all the steps in the development of telecommunications. Telecommunications are changing the world very much and, perhaps, will change people themselves in the future.
1. Didenko Alena Alexandrovna. Research of methods of digital signal processing on long optical lines
Co-authors: Fokin V.G., Candidate of Technical Sciences, Associate Professor, Head of the Department of Multichannel Telecommunications and Optical Systems, SibGUTI
In this work, research was carried out on coherent data transmission systems, namely, we were interested in digital signal processing. The main task was to see the constellation diagrams before and after the DSP block.
2. Zhuraeva Gulchekhra Khamidovna. DEVELOPMENT TRENDS OF RADIO ELECTRONICS AND TELECOMMUNICATIONS IN UZBEKISTAN There is a review. The article was published in No. 42 (February) 2017
Co-authors: Abdullaev Akhmed Mallaevich, Professor of the Department of Electronics and Radio Engineering, Tashkent University information technologies, Usmanov Bekhzod Shukhratovich assistant of the Department of Electronics and Radio Engineering, Tashkent University of Information Technologies
The article examines trends in the development of radio electronics and telecommunications in Uzbekistan, the transition to integrated technologies, establishing the fundamental limits of radio electronics, the transition to digital information processing systems, and the creation of global communication and information systems.
3. Bolonnaya Elizaveta Igorevna. REVIEW OF QUANTUM CRYPTOGRAPHY TOOLS AND METHODS: BASIC PROTOCOLS AND TECHNICAL APPLICATIONS
Co-authors: Bolonnaya E.I., graduate student Yuriy Fedkovich Chernivtsi National University, Institute of Physical-Technical and Computer Sciences, Department of Radio Engineering and Information Security, P.M. Shpatar, Associate Professor, Candidate of Technical Sciences Yuriy Fedkovich Chernivtsi National University, Institute of Physical-Technical Sciences and Computer Science, Department of Radio Engineering and Information Security
The article discusses the main milestones development of quantum cryptography as a separate branch of science. An analysis of systems and protocols of quantum cryptographic communication tools was carried out. An analysis of the current and most common types of quantum cryptography systems was carried out.
4. Stepanova Taisiya Aleksandrovna. Evolution of development and main characteristics of antenna-feeder devices There is a review. The article was published in No. 31 (March) 2016
Co-authors: Simchenko Sergey Vladimirovich, assistant at the Department of Physics, Berdyansk State Pedagogical University.
The article examines the evolution of the development of antenna-feeder devices, from the time of their appearance to today. A historical overview of the main stages of their development is provided. The design features of the antenna structure for individual frequency ranges of radio communications are indicated. The study was conducted on the basis of a theoretical analysis of literary sources. The results of the study summarize the development of transceiver antenna-feeder devices and experience in designing antennas for certain frequency ranges of communication.
5. Aldabergenova Symbat Arsenovna. Modeling a radio link in cellular mobile communications
Co-authors: Sharifov Dzhumakhon Mukhtorovich, Candidate of Physical and Mathematical Sciences, Eurasian National University. L.N. Gumileva
For radio communications and radio broadcasting, the ultrashort wave range has proven to be attractive due to the possibility of building multi-channel radio links, allowing simultaneous multiple independent transmissions using one network of radio stations.
6. Fedorova Albina Olegovna. Formal aspects of advertising design There is a review. The article was published in No. 25 (September) 2015
The article discusses various emphatic methods of advertising design. Typographical and color aspects are indicated, as well as the influence of text volume on its perception.
7. Korshakevich Irina Sergeevna. PROBLEM OF DATA CONVERSION FOR SATELLITE COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS There is a review.
Co-authors: Kukartsev Vladislav Viktorovich, Candidate of Technical Sciences, Associate Professor, Siberian State Aerospace University named after Academician M.F. Reshetnyova
There is a problem of converting satellite position data for satellite communication stations using data provided by the OTUS. The article describes how satellite communications are carried out, the orbits in which communication satellites are located, and the formats for presenting data on the location of TLE and IDRCU satellites.
8. Semykin Andrey Viktorovich. Flood forecasting system. Justification of the relevance of the research topic. Research concept. There is a review.
Co-authors: Sultanov N.Z. Professor, Doctor of Technical Sciences, Head of the Department of Production Automation Systems
This article discusses the construction of the concept theoretical research and the feasibility of the practical implementation of a flood and flood forecasting system. The relevance of the research topic, the shortcomings of existing systems, the economic justification of the project, as well as the criteria for its usefulness are considered.
9. Aseeva Ksenia Andreevna. Study of the problem of the influence of microwave radiation from a cell phone on humans There is a review. The article was published in No. 19 (March) 2015
Co-authors: Chernykh Sergey Viktorovich, Ph.D., Associate Professor, Department of Telecommunication Systems, Volgograd State University
Analysis carried out various points view on the problem of the influence of microwave radiation from a cell phone on a person. Based on this analysis, an independent technical position on this issue is presented.
10. Kupa Irina Vitalievna. THE PROBLEM OF FIGHTING DOGS IN THE MEDIA There is a review. The article was published in No. 18 (February) 2015
The problem of aggressive dogs has existed for a long time. Since the 80s of the twentieth century, they began to talk about Dobermans as the most inadequate animal that can injure or kill a person. Its impressive size and inexhaustible energy made this dog an enemy of civilians. Despite isolated cases of human death due to Doberman aggression, other cases of attacks on humans by dogs of other breeds were left unattended. In the 90s of the twentieth century, a new problem arose - the Rottweiler. This breed was classified as a so-called “fighting dog,” and despite the great popularity of this breed at that time, the Rottweiler was labeled as an undisciplined and aggressive dog. Over time, Rottweilers became less interesting to people and the media, which turned every roar of the dog into a manifestation of aggression and bad manners.
11. Pleshkova Anastasia Dmitrievna. Galvanic influence of ground currents on single-wire circuits and protective measures There is a review.
Co-authors: Evgeniy Zinovievich Savin, Professor of the Department of Automation, Telemechanics and Communications, Far Eastern State Transport University
The article discusses methods for calculating galvanic influence on single-wire communication lines of railways and measures to protect single-wire circuits from it.
12. Tarasov Alexander Evgenievich. Technology for measuring the quality of optical communication lines There is a review.
Co-authors: Vikhman Victoria Viktorovna Candidate of Technical Sciences, Candidate of Pedagogical Sciences Department of VT NSTU, Vyacheslav Leonidovich Gorbunov, Head of the Department of Voice and Multimedia Communication Systems
The article describes methods for checking the quality of optical communication lines.
13. Nguyen Fat Tien. FAST ADAPTIVE ALGORITHM FOR SUPPRESSION OF COMBINED INTERFERENCE WITH VARIABLE NOISE POWER There is a review.
Co-authors: Candidate of Technical Sciences, Associate Professor Nguyen Huy Hoang (Vietnamese State Technical University named after Le Quy Don); Scientific director: Ph.D., Associate Professor Andreev Vladimir Grigorievich (RGRTU)
The work proposes a simplified adaptive algorithm, the use of which makes it possible to reduce the number of computational operations by 1.23...2.84 times compared to the optimal solution.
14. Lagutin Ilya Anatolyevich. Methods for automating algorithms for working with Juniper equipment There is a review. The article was published in No. 13 (September) 2014
Co-authors:
The article analyzes two methods of automated user interaction with Juniper equipment, and also identifies their advantages and disadvantages.
15. Lagutin Ilya Anatolyevich. Advanced algorithm for network diagnostics on Juniper equipment There is a review. The article was published in No. 11 (July) 2014
Co-authors: Consultant: Maramzin Valery Valentinovich, Leading Design Engineer Direction of Networks and Data Transmission Systems NVision Group
The article describes in detail the process of analyzing networks built on Juniper equipment. The basic commands for diagnosing problem routers are considered, a block diagram is constructed for the possibility of further implementation of the algorithm in scripting languages.
16. Mitroshina Natalya Olegovna. Comparative analysis of the concepts of reliability, fault tolerance, non-failure operation, safety and survivability There is a review.
Co-authors:
The article contains detailed analysis concepts of reliability, reliability, fault tolerance, safety and survivability: semantic differences between them are recorded, terminological features are considered. Attributes of concepts are defined with appropriate explanations.
17. Mitroshina Natalya Olegovna. Genetic algorithm as a method for optimizing the search for shortest paths in telecommunication networks There is a review.
Co-authors: Scientific supervisor: Vyacheslav Petrovich Shuvalov, Doctor of Technical Sciences, Professor, Head of the Department of Discrete Message Transmission and Metrology (PDS and M), Siberian State University of Telecommunications and Informatics
The article provides a study of the genetic algorithm as a search optimization method shortest paths in telecommunication networks. The general logic of the algorithm is analyzed, and a step-by-step mechanism for generating paths is presented.
18. Kaunov Oleg Andreevich. Study of the problem of population refusal to use fixed telephone communications There is a review. The article was published in No. 10 (June) 2014
Co-authors: Scientific supervisor: Chernykh S.V., Volgograd State University, Associate Professor of the Department of Telecommunication Systems, Ph.D., Associate Professor
An analysis of the reasons for the population's refusal to use fixed telephone communications was carried out. Based on the results of the analysis, proposals were made to solve this problem.
19. Lagutin Ilya Anatolyevich. Troubleshooting networks on Juniper equipment There is a review. The article was published in No. 9 (May) 2014
Co-authors: Consultant: Maramzin Valery Valentinovich, Leading Design Engineer Direction of Networks and Data Transmission Systems NVision Group
The article presents the basics of implementing a troubleshooting model as applied to Juniper equipment.
20. Kim Alexander Georgievich. Generator operating modes by voltage There is a review.
Co-authors: Consultant: Anton Aleksandrovich Kolkov, Head of Operator Networks, NVision Group, [email protected]
This article is devoted to the operating modes of the generator according to voltage. The load, dynamic characteristics of the hot water supply, and the modes: understressed, critical and overstressed are considered.
Developing of Telecommunications
I would like to tell you about telecommunications and their developing.
We can not deny the role of telecommunications in our life. The Internet, phones, telegraph, cell phones, radio, television are all the means of communication or telecommunication. Nowadays we live in the information era, when information is the key and engine of progress. Our society needs perfect means of information exchange that is why all types of telecommunication are under the permanent developing.
Currently hundreds of millions of people use wireless communication means.
Cell phone is no longer a symbol of prestige but a tool, which lets you use working time more effectively. Considering that the main service of a mobile connection operator is providing high quality connection, much attention in the telecommunication market is paid to the spectrum of services that cell network subscriber may receive.
Today we can easily connect to the Internet using our cell phone or to take a picture or to take a short movie, using our video cell phone.
Late in the nineteenth century, communication facilities were augmented by a new invention - telephone. In the USA its use expanded slowly and by 1900 the American Telephone and Telegraph Company controlled 855,000 telephones.-After 1900, telephone installations extended much more rapidly in all the wealthier countries. The number of telephones in use in the world grew at almost 100 per cent per decade. But long
distance telephone services gradually developed and began to compete with telegraphic business. A greater contribution to long-range communication came with the development of wireless technology.
Before the outbreak of the First World War, wireless telegraphy was established as a means of regular communication with ships at sea and provided a valuable supplement to existing telegraph lines. In the next few years the telephone systems of all the chief countries were connected with each other by radio. Far more immediate was the influence that radio had through broadcasting and by television, which followed it at an interval of about twenty-five years.
Telephones are as much a part of infrastructure of our society as roads or electricity, and competition will make them cheaper. Losses from lower prices will be countered by higher usage. Most important of all, by cutting out the need to install costly cables and microwave transmitters, the new telephones could be a boon to the remote and poor regions of the earth. Even today, half the world's population lives more than two hours away from a telephone.
Satellite phones are not going to deliver all their benefits at once.
Telecommunications development
I would like to tell you about telecommunications and its development.
We cannot deny the role of telecommunications in our lives. Internet, telephone, telegraph, cell phone, radio, television - all these are means of communication. We currently live in the information era, when information is the key and engine of progress. Our society needs perfect means of information exchange, which is why all types of telecommunications are in the process of constant development.
Currently, hundreds of millions of people use wireless communications. The cell phone is no longer a symbol of prestige, but has become a tool that allows you to use your work time more efficiently. Taking into account the fact that the mobile operator provides communication High Quality
, in the telecommunications market, more attention is now paid to the range of services provided that a network client can receive.
Today, using our cell video phone, we can easily connect to the Internet, take photos or make a short film.
At the end of the nineteenth century, the means of communication were replenished with a new invention - the telephone. In the US, development of the telephone was slow, and by 1900 the American Telephone and Telegraph Company operated 855,000 telephones. After 1900, telephone installation progressed rapidly in all rich countries. The number of telephones used increased by almost 100% every ten years. Long-distance telephone services gradually developed and began to compete with the telegraph business.
Huge contribution The development of radio contributed to the development of long-distance telephone communications. Before the First One broke out World War, radiotelegraph became a regular means of communication between ships at sea and a significant addition to existing
Phones are as much a part of our society's infrastructure as roads or electricity, and competition makes them cheaper. Losses due to low tariffs will be compensated by a larger number of users. Most importantly, by eliminating the need for expensive cable and microwave transmitters, the new telephones were a "great boon" to remote and poor areas. Even today, half of all people on the planet live more than two hours from the nearest telephone.
All the benefits of using satellite phones will not appear immediately.
A large number of other new communication services, such as online movie libraries, personal computers that can send video clips and sound files as easily as typing letters, earthly mobile telephone systems cheap enough to replace older systems - all are already technically possible.
Questions:
1. What means of telecommunication do you know?
2. Why do we try to develop all types of telecommunication?
3. Can we connect to the Internet using our cell phone today?
4. What was invented late in the nineteenth century?
5. What technology made a great contribution to a long-range communication?
6. Was there wireless telegraphy as a means of regular communication before the outbreak of the First World War?
7. What new telecommunication services do you know?
Vocabulary:
telecommunication - telecommunication, long-distance communication; telephone, telegraph, radio
to develop - to develop, improve
to deny - deny, refuse.
cell phone - mobile phone
exchange - exchange
permanent - permanent
tool - tool
effectively - effectively
to consider - consider, believe
operator - operator
to provide - provide, supply
network - network, system
subscriber - subscriber, client
to receive - to receive, accept, perceive
facility - equipment, apparatus, devices
to augment - increase, add
invention - invention
to expand - expand, increase
installation - installation, placement
to extend - to distribute, expand
to grow (past grew, p.p. grown) - grow, increase
gradually - gradually, little by little
to compete - compete, compete
contribution - assistance, contribution
wireless - wireless, remote
outbreak - (z) sudden onset
to establish - establish, create
valuable - valuable, useful
supplement - addition, addition
immediate - sudden, urgent, immediate
influence - impact, influence
to broadcast (past broadcast, p.p. broadcast) - broadcast, broadcast
interval - interval, interval
infrastructure - infrastructure
electricity - electricity
microwave - microwave
transmitter - transmitter
boon - benefit, gift; advantage, convenience
remote - distant, distant
benefits - services, benefits, privileges
terrestrial - earthly, terrestrial
