Formation of a Russian literary language. How did the Russian language develop? Formation of the Russian language How Russian Literary Language developed

The deeper we climb into history, the less before us are indisputable facts and reliable information, especially if we are interested in intangible problems, for example: language consciousness, mentality, attitude to language phenomena and the status of language units. You can ask eyewitnesses about the events of the recent past, to find written evidence, even photo and video materials can be. And what if there is no need to do anything: the native speakers have long been alive, the material evidence of their speech fragmented or is absent at all, a lot has lost or subjected to later editing?

It is impossible to hear how the ancient vetchi said, and therefore, it was understood how much the written language of the Slavs was different from the oral tradition. There are no evidence of how the Novgorod Spectacle perceived or the language of the sermons of Metropolitan Hilarion, and therefore remains without an unequivocal answer the question of the dialect part of the Old Russian language. It is impossible to determine the actual degree of proximity of the languages \u200b\u200bof the Slavs of the end of the 1st millennium N.E., and therefore, to accurately answer the question, the artificial starlistian language, created in South Slavic, was equally perceived by Bulgarians and Rusichi.

Of course, the painstaking work of the historians of the language brings fruits: research and comparison of texts of different genres, styles, eras and territories; The data of comparative linguistics and dialectology, indirect evidence of archeology, history, ethnography allow you to recreate the picture of the distant past. However, it is necessary to understand that the analogy with the picture here is much deeper than it seems at first glance: the reliable data obtained in the process of studying the ancient states of the language is only individual fragments of the single web, between which white spots are located (the older period, the more ) missing data. Thus, a holistic picture is created, it is based on a researcher on indirect data surrounding white spot fragments, well-known principles and most likely opportunities. And therefore, errors are possible, various interpretations of the same facts and events.

At the same time, even in remote history there are immutable facts, one of which is the baptism of Russia. The nature of the flow of this process, the role of certain actors, the dating of specific events remains the subjects of scientific and occasional discussions, but without any doubt it is known that at the end of the 1st millennium N.E. The state of the Eastern Slavs, denoted in modern historiography as Kievan Rus, adopts the Christianity of the Byzantine sense as a state religion and officially goes to Cyrillic writing. What sights did not adhere to the researcher, whatever the data did not use, it is impossible to bypass these two facts. Everything else concerned this period, even the sequence of these events and causal relations between them, constantly becomes the subject of the dispute. The chronicle vaults hold the versions: Christianity brought culture on Russia and gave writing, at the same time preserving references to contracts concluded and signed in two languages, between Byzantia and yet Gentiles-Roussichi. There are also mention of the presence of pre-Christian writing in Russia, for example, Arab travelers.

But at the moment, the other is important for us: at the end of the 1st millennium AD. The Language Situation of Ancient Russia undergoes significant changes caused by the change in state religion. Whatever the situation before, the new religion brought with him a special language reservoir, canonically fixed in writing, - Staroslavlyansky, which (in the form of the Russian national version - of the Church Slavonic language) from now on, became an integral element of Russian culture and Russian language mentality. In the history of the Russian language, this phenomenon received the name "First South Slavic influence".

The scheme of formation of the Russian language

We will come back to this scheme. In the meantime, we need to understand which elements a new language situation began to develop in ancient Russia after the adoption of Christianity and that in this new situation can be identified with the concept of "literary language".

Firstly, there was an oral ancient Russian language represented by highly different, capable of going to the level of nearby languages, and almost not distinguished dialects (Slavic languages \u200b\u200bat this point, not yet fully overcame the stage of dialects of the Single Praslanic language). In any case, he had a certain story and was quite developed to serve all the spheres of the life of the ancient Russian state, i.e. He had sufficient language means to not only be used in domestic communication, but also to serve diplomatic, legal, trade, cult and cultural (oral folk creativity) of the sphere.

Secondly, an old Slavonic written language appeared, brought by Christianity to serve religious needs and gradually spreading to the sphere of culture and literature.

ThirdlyThere was to exist a state-business written language for the conduct of diplomatic, legal and trade correspondence and documentation, as well as service of household needs.

Here is just extremely relevant and the question of the proximity of the Slavic languages \u200b\u200bto each other and the perception of the Church Slavonic carriers of the Old Russian language is. If Slavic languages \u200b\u200bwere still very close to each other, it is likely that, while studying the letter on church Slavonic samples, Rusichi perceived the differences between the languages \u200b\u200bas the difference between the oral and writing speech (say "Karov" - write "Cow"). Consequently, at the initial stage, the entire written speech was given to the Church Slavonic language, and only over time in conditions of increasing discrepancies in it, and above all in the texts of non-spiritual content, the ancient Russian elements began to penetrate, and in the status of conversational. What in the end and led to the labeling of the ancient Russian elements as simple, "low", and the preserved Old Slavonic - as "high" (for example, turn - rotate, the milk - the Milky Way, the freak - the warring).

If the differences were already significant, noticeable for carriers, the language came with Christianity began to be associated with religion, philosophy, education (as the training was conducted by copying the texts of the Holy Scriptures). The solution of household, legal, other material issues, as in the pre-Christian period, continued to be carried out with the help of ancient Russian language both oral and in the written sphere. What would lead to the same consequences, but with other source data.

An unambiguous answer here is practically impossible here, since at the moment it is not enough of the source data: very few texts have reached the early period of Kievan Russia, most of them are religious monuments. The rest has been preserved in later lists, where the differences between the Church Slavonic and Old Russian can be both source and appeared later. But now let's go back to the question of the literary language. It is clear that to use this term under the conditions of the ancient Russian language space, it is necessary to adjust the meaning of the term in relation to the situation of the absence of both the very idea of \u200b\u200bthe language norm and the means of state and public monitoring of the state of the language (dictionaries, reference books, grammatics, laws, etc.).

So, what is a literary language in the modern world? The definitions of this term are set, however, in fact, this is a stable version of the language that meets the needs of the state and society and ensures the continuity of the transfer of information and the safety of the National Occupation. It cuts off all that in fact or declaratively unacceptably for society and the state at this stage: supports language censorship, stylistic differentiation; It ensures the preservation of the wealth of the language (even unclaimed by the language of the era, for example: adorable, young lady, multi-cable) and preventing time in the language of non-checking time (neoplasms, borrowing, etc.).

Due to what is ensured by the stability of the linguistic version? Due to the existence of fixed language norms, which are marked as an ideal version of this language and are transmitted to the following generations, which ensures the continuity of the linguistic consciousness, preventing language changes.

It is obvious that if any use of the same term, in this case it is a "literary language", the essence and basic functions of the term described by the term should remain unchanged, otherwise the principle of unambiguity of the terminological unit is violated. What is changing? After all, it is no less obvious that the literary language of the XXI century. And the literary language of Kievan Russia differ significantly from each other.

Main changes occur in how to maintain the stability of the linguistic variant and the principles of interaction between the subjects of the linguistic process. In modern Russian, the means of maintaining stability serve:

language Dictionaries (sensible, spelling, orphoepic, phraseological, grammatical, etc.), grammar and grammatical reference books, Russian language textbooks for school and university, Russian language training programs in school, Russian language and speech culture in high school, laws and legislative acts about the state language - means of fixing the norm and informing about the norm of society;
teaching in high school Russian language and Russian literature, publication of works of Russian classics and classical folklore for children, proofreading and editorial work in publishing houses; Mandatory exams in the Russian language for graduates of schools, emigrants and migrants, the obligatory course of the Russian language and culture of speech in high school, government programs for support of the Russian language: for example, "Year of the Russian Language", the program of supporting the status of the Russian language in the world, targeted holiday events (their Financing and widespread lighting): the day of Slavic writing and culture, the day of the Russian language - means of forming carriers of the norm and maintain the status of the norm in society.

The system of relations between the subjects of the literary language process

We return to the past. It is clear that the complex and multi-level system of maintaining the stability of the language in Kievan Russia was not, as well as the concept of "norm" in the absence of a scientific description of the language, full-fledged language education and the system of language censorship, allowing to identify and correct errors and prevent their further distribution. Actually, there was no "mistake" concept in its modern sense.

However, there was already (and indirect evidence of this) awareness of the rulers of the opportunities of a single literary language in strengthening the state and the formation of a nation. Oddly, it sounds, Christianity, as described in the "Tale of Bygone Years", most likely, indeed, was chosen from several options. Selected as a national idea. Obviously, the development of the East Slavic state at some point faced with the need to strengthen the statehood and unification of the tribes into a single people. This explains why the process of appealing to other religion, which usually occurs either in deep personal reasons, or for political reasons, is presented in the chronicle as a free, conscious choice of all possible options at that time. There was a strong unifying idea that did not contradict the key, principal for the ideology of the presentations of the tribes, of which the nation was formed. After the choice was made, if using modern terminology, a wide campaign was deployed to implement the national idea, which included:

bright mass shares (for example, the famous baptism of Kievans in the Dnieper);
historical justification (chronicles);
publicistic support (for example, "Word about the law and grace" Metropolitan of Hilarion, where the differences between the Old and the New Testament are not only analyzed and the principles of Christian world-world are explained, but also a parallel between the right arrangement of the inner world of a person, which gives Christianity, and the right arrangement of the state which is provided by peace-loving Christian consciousness and one-chisty that protects against internal stripping and allowing the state to become strong and stable);
means of distribution and maintaining a national idea: translation activities (actively started under Yaroslav Mudrome), the creation of its own book tradition, school learning3;
the formation of an intelligentsia - an educated social layer - carrier and, more importantly, the relay is a national idea (Vladimir purposefully teaches children for children, forms a priesthood; Yaroslav collects scribes and translators, seeks the permission from Byzantia to form a national higher clergy, etc.).

For the successful implementation of the "State Program", a socially significant, uniform language (language version), having a high status and developed written tradition, was required. In the modern sense of the main linguistic terms, these are signs of a literary language, and in the linguistic situation of the ancient Russia of the XI century. - Church Slavonic language

Functions and signs of the literary and church Slavonic language

Thus, it turns out that the national version of the Old Russia Slavonic - Church Slavonic language becomes the literary language of ancient Russia after baptism. However, the development of ancient Russian language does not stand still, and despite the adaptation of the Church Slavonic language to the needs of the Eastern Slavic tradition in the process of forming a national service, the gap between the Old Russian and Church Slavonic is beginning to grow. The situation worsens several factors at once.

1. Already mentioned evolution of the living Old Russian language against the background of the stability of the literary Church Slavonic, who weakly and inconsisibly reflects even the common processes for all for all the Slavs (for example, the fall of the reduced: weak reduced continues, even if not everywhere, fixed in monuments and XII, and XIII century. ).

2. Using a sample as a norm supporting stability (i.e., the letter learning is by repeatedly copying the exemplary form, it also acts as the only measure of the text of the text: if I do not know how it should be written, I have to look into the sample or remember it ). Consider this factor in more detail.

We have already talked about the fact that for the normal existence of the literary language, special means are necessary to protect it from the influence of the national language. They ensure the preservation of the stable and unchanged state of the literary language for the maximum possible period of time. Such funds are called the standards of the literary language and are fixed in dictionaries, grammar, collections of rules, textbooks. This allows the literary language to ignore the living processes until it begins to contradict the nationwide linguistic consciousness. In the daughter period, when there is no description of the language units, a tradition, a sample becomes maintaining the stability of the literary language to maintain the stability of the literary language, the sample: instead of the principle "I am writing, because it is right" the principle "I am writing, because I see (or remember ) how to write it. " This is quite reasonable and convenient when the main activity of the book tradition is becoming rewriting books (i.e. text replication by manual copying). The main task of the scribe in this case is just to accurately observe the submitted sample. Such an approach causes very many features of the ancient Russian cultural tradition:

a small number of texts in culture;
anonymity;
canonism;
small number of genres;
stability of revolutions and verbal structures;
traditionality of fine-expressive means.

If modern literature does not accept erased metaphor, non-original comparisons, beaten phrases and strives for the maximum uniqueness of the text, then the Old Russian literature and, by the way, the oral folk creativity, on the contrary, tried to use proven, recognized linguistic means; To express a certain type of thoughts, they tried to use the traditional, adopted society method of registration. From here and absolutely conscious anonymity: "I put information on God's command to the tradition" - Here is the canon of life, here is the life of the saint - "I only put the events that were in the traditional form in which they should be stored." And if the modern author writes to see it or heard, the Old Russian wrote because it should report this information. Therefore, the number of original books turned out to be small.

However, over time, the situation began to change, and the sample as a keeper of the stability of the literary language manifested itself a significant disadvantage: he was neither universal nor mobile. The higher the originality of the text, the harder the scribe to rely on memory, which means it was necessary to write not "as it is written in the sample", but "as I think it should be written." The use of this principle led to the text elements of a living language, which entered into a contradiction with the tradition and provoked the emergence of doubts from the correspondence: "I see (or I remember) the different writing of the same word, which means somewhere a mistake, but where"? Helped either statistics ("such an option I saw more often"), or a live language ("And I say, how do I"?). Sometimes, however, hypercorrection was triggered: "I say so, but I am usually not writing, as I say, so I will write, as I do not say." Thus, the sample as a means of maintaining stability under the action of several factors at once began to gradually lose its effectiveness.

3. The existence of writing is not only in Church Slavonic, but also in ancient Russian language (legal, business, diplomatic writing).

4. The limited sphere of consumption of the Church Slavonic language (it was perceived as the language of faith, religion, the Holy Scriptures, therefore, the sensation of the language had a feeling that it was impossible to use it for something less high, more landed - incorrectly).

All these factors under the influence of a catastrophic weakening of centralized state power, the weakening of educational activities led to the fact that the literary language entered into the phase of the protracted crisis, which ended in the formation of Moscow Rus.

The history of the Russian literary language as an independent scientific discipline emerged in the 20th century. Although the study of the characteristics of the Russian literary language relates to very early sometimes, since "vague and unilateral, but life-effective, practical ideas about the process of historical development of the language invariably accompany the evolution of the Russian book language and precede the emergence of the scientific history of the Russian literary language."

Starting from the 18th century, observing the relationships of the Russian literary language with other Slavic and European languages, over the composition of the Church Slavonic language, his similarity with the Russian language and honors from him.

To aware of the national specifics of the Russian literary language, the creation in 1755 "Russian grammar" M.V. Lomonosov was extremely important. The exit to the light of the "Dictionary of the Russian Academy" (1789-1794), the emergence of the exercise M.V. Lomonosov on the three styles of the Russian literary language set forth in the reasoning "On the benefits of church books", "rhetoric" and "Russian grammar", as the creator Theories first pointed out the main elements of the Russian literary national language, anticipating Pushkin style. (4, from 18).

The question of the origin of the Russian literary language is not resolved by experts, moreover, they argue that the final decision is not close.

Of such a close interest in the problems of the origin of the Russian literary language are explained by the fact that the entire concept of its further development, the formation of a national literary language from 17 to 19 V. (6, from 53) depends on one or another understanding of the education process of the Education of the Old Russian Literary Language. (6, from 53).

The history of the Russian literary language with its evidence convinces that the language has reacted very sensitively to various changes in the history of the people and primarily in public life that the history of the emergence and consumption of many words and expressions finds its rationale in the development of social thought. So, for example, in the 40s - 60s of the 19th century, such words as socialism, communism, the constitution, reaction, progress, etc. (5, C 4) are included in the universal use of such words as socialism.

As a result of the October Revolution, the most composition of the carriers of the literary language was significantly expanded, since already in the first years after the revolution, the masses of workers who had not previously had for this possibilities were coming to the literary language.

The ratio of the literary language and dialects changed to the Soviet era. If earlier dialects had a well-known impact on the literary language, then after the revolution, thanks to the powerful development of culture and the dissemination of knowledge through schools, theater, movie, radio, the population became vigorously joined to the means of literary expression. In this regard, many features of local govors began to quickly disappear; The remnants of old dialects are preserved now in the village mainly from the older generation.

The Russian literary language was released into the Soviet era of the influence of class jargues that existed in the past and to a certain extent influenced the norms of the literary language. (5, from 415).

In the late 19th early 20 century, bibliographic reviews were published, which summed up the study of the Russian literary language. Kotlyarevsky A.A. Ancient writing: the experience of the blessing presentation of the history of its study. - 1881; Bulich S.K. Essay of the story of linguistics in Russia. - 1904; Yagich I.V. The history of Slavic philology. - 1910.

In the 20th century, the history of the Russian literary language becomes a subject of special attention.

I did a lot to create science of the Russian literary language V.V. Vinogradov, whose list of major works on the history of the Russian literary language and language writers has more than twenty works. (4, from 19).

They left a deep mark in the development of the history of the Russian literary language of the work of Proceedings of G.Oo Vinokura: "Russian literary language in the first half of the 18th century", 1941; Russian language, 1945; "To the history of the rationing of Russian written language in the 18th century." 1947; and etc.

To solve the problems of the origin of the Russian literary language, the formation of the Russian national language was of great importance to research L.P. Yakubinsky - "History of the Old Russian language", published in 1953, and "a brief essay of the origin and the initial development of the Russian National Literary Literature", published in 1956

The issue of the origin of the Russian literary language, the problems of the formation of the Russian national language, the history of the Russian literary language of the older period (Moscow state) are devoted to the work of F.P. Filin. (4, from 21).

The wealth and power of the Russian literary language was created thanks to the incessant impact on the literary language of the living nationwide language. Pushkin, Gogol, Turgenev, Saltykov - Shchedrova, L. Tolstova, and many other Krayfields of the Russian shaped word with their brightness, force, bribing simplicity, must first of all, lively sources of popular speech.

Thus, the history of the Russian literary language is primarily the history of the continuous and all developing processing of the literary processing of the riches of the nationwide language and creative enrichment and replenish them at the expense of new linguistic property values. (5, from 46).

Literary Russian language began to develop many centuries ago. Until now, there are disputes about its basis in science, about the role of the Church-Slavic language in its origin. Russian refers to the Indo-European family. Its origins of the time of the existence and disintegration of the pan-European (Praslavyansky) language. From this general Slavic unity (VI-VII centuries) several groups are distinguished: Eastern, Western and South. It was in the East Slavonic group who will later stand out Russian (XV century).

In the Kiev state, a mixed language was used, which was called church-Slavic. All the liturgical literature, being written off from the Old Slavonic, Byzantine and Bulgarian sources, reflected the norms of the Old Slavonic language. However, the words and elements of the Old Russian language penetrated into this literature. In parallel, social and business literature existed in parallel. If the examples of the Church-Slavic language serve "Psaltry", "Gospel" and so on, then the example of the secular and business language of ancient Russia is considered "the word about the regiment of Igor", the "Tale of Bygone Years", "Russian True".

This literature (secular and business) reflects the language norms of the living spoken language of Slavs, their oral folk creativity. Based on the fact that in ancient Russia there was such a complex dual language system, scientists are difficult to explain the origin of the modern literary Russian language. Opinions will disagree them, but the most common is the theory of academician V. V. Vinogradova . According to this theory, two types of literary languages \u200b\u200bfunctioned in ancient Russia:

1) Book-Slavic literary language, based on Staroslavlyansky and used mainly in church literature;

2) People's literary language based on live old Russian language and used in secular literature.

According to V. V. Vinogradov, these are two types of language, not two special languages, i.e., there were no bilinguals in Kievan Rus. These two types of tongue interacted for a long time with each other. Gradually, they got together, and based on them in the XVIII century. A single literary Russian language was formed.

The beginning of the development phase of the Russian literary language is considered to be the time of creativity of the great Russian poet Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin, which is sometimes called the creator of the modern Russian literary language.

A. S. Pushkin ordered the artistic means of the Russian literary language, significantly enriched him. He managed, based on various manifestations of the folk language, to create a language in his works, which was perceived by society as a literary.

Pushkin's creativity is a really defined line in the history of the literary Russian language. His creations we now read easily and with pleasure, while the works of its predecessors and even many contemporaries with some difficulty. It is felt that they wrote now outdated tongue. Of course, with time A. S. Pushkin passed a lot of time and much has changed, including Russian: some of him left, a lot of new words appeared. Although the great poet did not leave us a gramman, he was the author of not only artistic, but also historical, journalistic works, clearly delimited the author's speech and characters, that is, practically laid the foundations of the modern functional and stylist classification of the literary Russian language.

The further development of the literary language continued in the work of great Russian writers, publicists, in the diverse activities of the Russian people. End of the XIX century. To date, the second period of the development of the modern literary Russian language. This period is characterized by well-established language regulations, but these norms are improved during the time.

Russian language Russian language dialects Portal: Russian

The history of the Russian literary language - Formation and transformation of the Russian language used in literary works. The oldest of the preserved literary monuments date back to the XI century. In the XVIII-XIX centuries, this process took place against the background of opposing the Russian language, which the people spoke, French - the nobility. The classics of Russian literature actively investigated the possibilities of the Russian language and were innovators of many language forms. They emphasized the richness of the Russian language and often indicated its advantages compared with foreign languages. At the soil of such comparisons, there were repeated disputes, such as disputes between Wessengers and Slavophiles. In Soviet times, it was emphasized that the Russian language is the language of communism builders, and in the era of the Board of Stalin, a campaign of combating cosmopolitanism in literature was conducted. The transformation of the Russian literary language continues at the present time.

Folklore

Oral folk art (folklore) in the form of fairy tales, epic, proverbs and sayings is rooted in a distant story. They were transmitted from mouth to mouth, their content was polished in such a way that the most stable combinations remained, and the language forms were updated as the language develops. Oral creativity continued to exist after the appearance of writing. In a new time, a worker and urban, as well as army and blessed (prison-camp), was added to the peasant folklore. Currently, oral folk creativity is most pronounced in jokes. Oral folk art affects writing literary language.

Development of a literary language in ancient Russia

The introduction and dissemination of writing in Russia, which led to the creation of a Russian literary language, is usually associated with Cyril and Methodius.

Thus, in the ancient Novgorod and other cities in the XI-XV centuries were in the course of barking diplomas. Most of the preserved birch marks are private letters that are business, as well as business documents: testaments, receipts, boss, judicial protocols. Also there are church texts and literary and folklore works (conspiracies, school jokes, riddles, household instructions), educational records (alphabets, warehouses, school exercises, children's drawings and doodle).

The Church Slavonic writing introduced by Cyril and Methodius in 862 was based on the Starrod Slavonic language, which in turn occurred from South Slavic dialects. The literary activity of Cyril and Methodius consisted of the books of the Holy Scripture of the New and Old Testament. Pupils of Cyril and Methodius transferred to Church Slavonic language with Greek a large number of religious books. Some researchers believe that Kirill and Methodius introduced not Cyrillic, but a verb; And Cyrillic was developed by their students.

The Church Slavonic language was a bookbook language, not a conversational, the language of church culture, which spread among many Slavic peoples. Church Slavonic literature has spread from Western Slavs (Moravia), southern Slavs (Bulgaria), in Valahia, parts of Croatia and the Czech Republic and, with the adoption of Christianity, in Russia. Since the Church Slavonic language was different from spoken Russian, church texts at the correspondence were subjected to change, rubbing. The correspondencers corrected the church Slavonic words, bringing them around to the Russians. At the same time, they brought the features of local govors.

For the systematization of church Slavonic texts and the introduction of unified language norms in the Commonwealth, the first grammar was written - the grammar of the Zizzaniya Lawrence (1596) and the grammar of the Maleti of Poutscho (1619). The process of forming the Church Slavonic language was mainly completed at the end of the 18th century, when the Patriarch Nikon was made corrected and systematization of liturgical books. The liturgical books of Russian Orthodoxy became the norm for all Orthodox peoples .

As the church Slavonic religious texts spread in Russia, the literary writings were gradually began to appear, which were used by Cyril and Methodius writing. The first such works belong to the end of the XI century. This is "Tale of Bygone Years" (1068), "Tale of Boris and Gleb", "Life of Feodosia Pechora", "The Word of Law and Grace" (1051), "The teachings of Vladimir Monomakh" (1096) and "Word about the regiment Igor" (1185-1188). These works are written by a language, which is a mixture of the Church Slavonic language with ancient Russian.

Reforms of the Russian literary language of the XVIII century

"Beauty, splendor, the strength and wealth of the Russian language is pretty of the books, in the past eyelids written, when there are no longer any rules for the essays, our ancestors did not know, but it was hardly thought that there were or maybe", - - Armedd by Mikhail Vasilyevich Lomonosov

The most important reforms of the Russian literary language and the system of resentment of the XVIII century were made by Mikhail Vasilyevich Lomonosov. In G. He wrote a letter about the rules of the Russian poems, "in which the principles of new renovation in Russian formulated. In controversy with Tredyakovsky, he argued that instead of cultivating poems written by the schemes borrowed from other languages, it is necessary to use the possibilities of Russian. Lomonosov believed that it was possible to write poems by many types of stops - doubled (Yamb and Jarea) and three-stroke (dactyl, anapest and amphibery), but considered it improperly replacing the feet on pyrical and sponders. Such an innovation of Lomonosov caused a discussion in which Tremakovsky and Sumarokov actively participated. In the city of the 143rd Psalm, performed by these authors, and readers were invited to speak out, which of the texts they consider the best.

However, the statement of Pushkin, in which Lomonosov's literary activity is not approved: "Odi him ... tedious and pour. His influence on the literature was harmful and still responds. High polhood, sophistication, disgust from simplicity and accuracy, the absence of any nation and originality - these are traces left by Lomonosov. " Belinsky called this look "amazingly faithful, but one-sided." According to Belinsky, "In the time of Lomonosov, we did not need folk poetry; Then the great question is - to be or not to be - it was not a nation for us, and in Europeism ... Lomonosov was a Peter of Our Great Literature. "

In addition to the contribution to the poetic language, Lomonosov was also the author of the scientific Russian grammar. In this book, he described the wealth and opportunities of the Russian language. Lomonosov grammar was published 14 times and went on the basis of the course of Russian grammar Barsov (1771), which was a student of Lomonosov. In this book, Lomonosov, in particular, wrote: "Karl Fifth, the Roman emperor said that Ishpansky with God, French - with friends, German - with enemies, Italian - with the female sex to talk decently. But if he was skilled in the Russian language, then, of course, it would be imposed that they would be decentned with all these, because I would find the magnificence of the Ishpansky, the liveliness of the French, the fortress of German, the tenderness of Italyansky, beyond that wealth and strong in the images The brevity of the Greek and Latin language. " Interestingly, Derzhavin appeared later: "Slavic-Russian, according to the testimony of foreign aesthetics themselves, is not inferior to Latin's courage, nor in smoothness Greek, surpassing all European: Italian, French and Spanish, German Page.

Modern Russian literary language

Alexander Pushkin, whose works are considered to be the top of Russian literature are considered the creator of the modern literary language. This thesis is maintained as a dominant, despite significant changes in the language for almost two hundred years, which have passed since the creation of its largest works, and obvious stylistic differences between Pushkin's language and modern writers.

Meanwhile, the poet himself points to the primary role of N. M. Karamzin in the formation of the Russian literary language, according to A. S. Pushkin, this glorious historian and the writer "liberated the language from alien Iga and returned him freedom, turning him to live popular sources of popular the words".

"The Great, Mighty ..."

Turgenev belongs, perhaps, one of the most famous definitions of the Russian language as "the Great and Mighty".

In the days of doubt, in the days of doubtful thinking about the fate of my homeland, - you are alone support and support, about the great, mighty, truthful and free Russian language! Do not be you - how not to fall into despair at the sight of everything that is done at home? But it is impossible to believe that such a language is not given the Great People! (I. S. Turgenev)

Karl V, the Roman emperor, used to say that the Gishpanic language with God, French - with friends, German - with the enemies, Italian - with the female sex to speak decently. But if he was skilled in the Russian language, of course, it would be imposed that they would talk to everyone with all these. For I found it in it: great ... ... Skogo, German fortress, tenderness of Italian, excess of that wealth and strong in the image of the brevity of Greek and Latin languages.

Notes

Russian language

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Folklore

Development of a literary language in ancient Russia

Reforms of the Russian literary language of the XVIII century

Modern Russian literary language

Meanwhile, the poet himself pointed out the primary role of N. M. Karamzin in the formation of the Russian literary language, according to A. S. Pushkin, this glorious historian and writer "released the language from alien Iga and returned him freedom, turning him to live popular sources of popular the words".

« Great, mighty…»

I. S. Turgenev belongs, perhaps, one of the most famous definitions of the Russian language as "the Great and Mighty":

In the days of doubt, in the days of doubtful thinking about the fate of my homeland, - you are alone support and support, about the great, mighty, truthful and free Russian language! Do not be you - how not to fall into despair at the sight of everything that is done at home? But it is impossible to believe that such a language is not given the Great People!

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Excerpt characterizing the history of the Russian literary language

- To His Majesty with the instruction.
- Here it is! - said Boris, who heard that Rostov had to be His Highness, instead of His Majesty.
And he pointed out to him on the Grand Duke, which is in a hundred steps from them, in a helmet and in the cavalry river, with his raised shoulders and frowning eyebrows, something shouted to the Austrian white and pale officer.
"But this is the Grand Duke, and to me to the commander-in-chief or to the sovereign," Rostov said and touched a horse.
- Graph, Graph! - shouted Berg, the same lively, like Boris, running on the other side, - a graph, I was injured in my right hand (he said, showing a hand brush, bloody, lined with a nose handkerchief) and stayed at the front. Count, I hold the sword in the left hand: in our breed Bergs, a graph, all were knights.
Berg said something else, but Rostov, without hearing him, was already driving further.
Driving the guard and an empty gap, Rostov, in order not to get again in the first line, as he fell under the attack of Kavaleargards, drove along the reserves, far casting the place where the hottest shooting and cannonade was heard. Suddenly there is ahead and behind our troops, in such a place where he could not assume the enemy, he heard a close rifle shooting.
"What could it be? - thought Rostov. - Enemier in the rear of our troops? It may not be, "Rostov thought, and the horror of fear for himself and for the outcome of the whole battle suddenly found him. - Whatever it was, however, he thought, "now there is nothing to go around. I have to look for the commander-in-chief here, and if everything died, then my business to die with everyone together. "
A bad premonition, who was suddenly at Rostov, was confirmed more and more, the further he went into the space for the village of Pratis, engaged in the crowds of heterogeneous troops.
- What? What? On whom shoot? Who shoots? - asked Rostov, evenly with Russian and Austrian soldiers, fucked mixed crowds in the road.
- Does Chort know them? All broke! Loss all! - They answered him in Russian, in German and on Czech crowds running and misunderstanding just like he, what was happening here.
- Bay Germans! - I shouted one.
- And Chort them Deri, - traitors.
- ZUM HENKER DIESE RUESEN ... [To Chort these Russians ...] - something grumbled German.
Some wounded walked on the road. Crossing, screams, moans merged into one common hum. The shooting raised and, as Rostov learned later, they shot each other Russian and Austrian soldiers.
"Oh my God! What is it? - thought Rostov. - And here, where every minute the sovereign can see them ... But no, it is, right, only a few flashers. It will pass, it's not that it can not be, "he thought. - only as soon as possible, quickly drive them! "
The thought of defeat and flight could not be attached to Rostov. Although he saw the French guns and troops on Pratcensk Mountain, on that very, where he ordered to find the commander-in-chief, he could not and did not want to believe it.

Near the village of Pracea Rostov ordered to seek Kutuzov and the sovereign. But here not only did not have them, but there was not a single boss, but were heterogeneous crowds of upset troops.
He chased the tired horse, to speed these crowds rather, but the farther he was fused, the crowds became upset. On the big road, on which he left, crowded strollers, the crews of all varieties, Russian and Austrian soldiers, all kinds of troops, wounded and unreasonable. All this buzzed and mixedly kept on the gloomy sound of flying nuclei from the French batteries set on the pratsky altitudes.
- Where is the sovereign? Where is Kutuzov? - He asked Rostov from everyone who could stop, and could not get a response from anyone.
Finally, grasping a soldier's collar, he forced him to answer himself.
- e! brother! For a long time, everything is there, forward twitched! - said Rostov soldiers, laughing with something and pulling out.
Leaving this soldier, who, obviously, was drunk, Rostov stopped the horse of the twin or Beretor of an important person and began to ask him. The Rentman declared Rostov that the sovereign from his hour ago was taken to the whole spirit in a carriage on this very road, and that the sovereign was dangerous.
"Can't be," said Rostov, "right, another who."
"I saw himself," said the Bunker with a self-confident smile. "It's time for me to know the sovereign: it seems how many times in St. Petersburg it seems that way. Pale, the earliest in the carriage sits. The fourth of the crow as it will sweep, my father, by us thundered: it's time, it seems, and royal horses and Ilya Ivanycha to know; It seems with the other as with the king of Ilya Kucher does not go.
Rostov allowed his horse and wanted to go on. The walking past the wounded officer appealed to him.
- Yes, who do you need? - asked an officer. - Commander-in-Chief? So killed the core, killed in the chest at our shelf.
"Not killed, wounded," the other officer corrected.
- Who? Kutuzov? - asked Rostov.
"Not Kutuzov, but how do you mean him," well, yes, all one, there is not much alive. Won go there, won to the village, there all the bosses gathered, "said this officer, pointing to the village of the hotel, and passed by.
Rostov drove a step, not knowing why and to whom he will go now. The sovereign is injured, the battle is lost. It was impossible not to believe it now. Rostov was driving by the direction that he specified and on which the tower and church were visible in the distance. Where did he hurry? What was he now to speak sovereign or Kutuzov, if even they were alive and not injured?
"This expensive, your welfare, go, and then they will kill it right," the soldiers shouted him. - It will be killed!
- ABOUT! What you say! Said another. - Where will he go? Here closer.
Rostov thought and went precisely by the direction where he was told that they would kill.
"Now it's all the same: if the sovereign is injured, did you really care about yourself?" He thought. He entered the space on which people running from Puzzen died most. The French have not yet occupied this place, and the Russians, those who were alive or injured, have long left him. On the field, like a shock on a good pasha, lay ten people, fifteen killed, wounded at every tithing place. The wounded clutched two, three together, and they were heard unpleasant, sometimes pretending, as it seemed to be Rostov, their screams and moans. Rostov launched a trot's horse so as not to see all these suffering people, and it became scary. He was afraid not for his life, and for the courage that he needed and which he knew would not stand the appearance of these unfortunate.
The French, who stopped shooting along this, destroyed dead and wounded, the field, because no one was already living on it, seeing the adjutant on him, they brought the gun on him and threw several cores. The feeling of these whistles, terrible sounds and the surrounding dead merged for Rostov in one impression of horror and regret to themselves. He remembered the last letter of his mother. "Whatever she felt, he thought," he would have seen me now here, on this field and sent to me to the guns. "
In the village of the hotel there were though confused, but more Russian troops, walking away from the battlefield. There were no French kernels here, and shooting sounds seemed distant. Everyone has already been clearly seen and said that the battle was lost. Rostov applied to anyone, no one could tell him or where there was a sovereign, no where Kutuzov was. Some said that the rumor about the head of the sovereign is fair, others said that no, and explained this false spread of the rumor by what, indeed, in the head of the sovereign, she slipped back from the battlefield pale and frightened Ober Gofamarsal Count Tolstoy, left with others in the emperor retinue On the battlefield. One officer told Rostov, that behind the village, left, he saw someone from the top supervision, and Rostov went there, no longer hoping to find someone, but in order to clean their conscience before himself. After passing the versts, three and passed by the last Russian troops, near the garden, the oked ditch, Rostov saw two riders stood against the ditches. One, with a white sultan on the hat, seemed for some reason familiar Rostov; Another, unfamiliar rider, on a beautiful red horse (this horse seemed familiar Rostov) drove up to the ditch, pushed the horse to spurs and, having released the reins, easily jumped over a ditch of garden. Only the earth sat down from the mound from the rear hooves of the horse. Cool turning the horse, he again jumped a ditch again and respectfully turned to the rider with a white sultan, obviously, offering him to do the same. The rider whom the figure seemed familiar to Rostov and for some reason involuntarily chained his attention, made a negative gesture of his head and hand, and on this gesture of Rostov instantly recognized his mourne, adored the sovereign.
"But it could not be, one in the midst of this empty field," Rostov thought. At this time, Alexander turned his head, and Rostov saw her favorite traits cracked into his memory. The sovereign was pale, his cheeks fell and their eyes fell; But the more charms, the meekness was in his features. Rostov was happy, making sure that hearing about the wound of the sovereign was unfair. He was happy that he saw him. He knew that he could have even had to directly turn to him and convey what was ordered to transfer to him from Dolgorrukova.
But as the in love, the young man shakes and goes, without daring to tell what he dreams about the night, and frightened looking around, looking for help or the possibility of a delay and flight, when the desired minute came, and he stands alone with her and Rostov now, reaching that What he wanted most in the world, did not know how to go to the sovereign, and thousands of considerations were presented, why it was uncomfortable, indecent and impossible.
"How! I seem to be happy to take advantage of the fact that he is alone and in despondency. It is unpleasant to him and heavily may seem unknown person at this moment of sadness; Then, what can I tell him now, when at one glance at him, my heart flies and dries in my mouth? " None of those countless speeches, which he, reversing the sovereign, made it in his imagination, did not come to him in his head. Those speeches kept the part of the part at all other conditions, they stated the most part of the victories and celebrations and mostly on the deathbed of the received wounds, while the sovereign thanked him for the heroic acts, and he, dying, expressed him confirmed in fact His.
"Then, what will I ask the sovereign about his orders to the right flank, when now the 4th hour of the evening, and the battle is lost? No, I decisively should not approach him. Should not break his thoughtfulness. It is better to die a thousand times, than getting a bad look from him, a bad opinion, "Rostov decided and with sadness and with despair in the heart went away, indifferently looking at the sovereign who stood in the same position.
While Rostov did these considerations and sadly drove away from the sovereign, captain von Tol randomly hit the same place and, seeing the sovereign, directly drove up to him, offered him his services and helped go on foot through the ditch. The sovereign, wanting to relax and feeling unhealthy, sat down under the apple tree, and only stopped by him. Rostov from afar with envy and repentance saw the background for a long time for a long time and spoke with the heat, as a sovereign, apparently, closed, closed his eyes with his hand and shook the hand of Tol.
"And I could be in his place?" Rostov thought about himself and, barely holding tears of regret about the fate of the sovereign, in perfect despair went further, not knowing where and why he was now riding.
His despair was the stronger that he felt that his own weakness was the cause of his grief.
He could ... not only could, but he had to drive up to the sovereign. And it was the only case to show sovereign his dedication. And he did not take advantage of them ... "What did I do?" He thought. And he turned his horse and rocked back to the place where he saw the emperor; But no one was behind the ditch. Only drove wagons and crews. From one Furman Rostov found out that the Kutuzov headquarters is nearby in the village where there was an overview. Rostov drove them.
He was ahead of him Beretor Kutuzov, driving horses in his back. Behind the Beretor rose a wagon, and the old man was on the cart, in the carriage, serrated coat and curves.