Smurdi, SMARDONES) - Social layer of glory. Societies of early Middle Ages. In sources of 11-12 centuries. C. Marked in Kievan Rus (Russian True, etc. Sources), in Poland, Poland Slavs; S., perhaps, were also in the Balkans. On the question of what social layer Dr.-Rus. The societies were indicated by the term "S.", there are three OSNs. Points of view: 1) S. - Designation of the entire mass of the rural population: Initially, S. - free communities, then with the development of the feud. Relations, they gradually lose their freedom and free and dependent S. (B. D. Greeks, I. I. Smirnov) coexist for a long time. 2) S. - Peasants, sitting on the state. Earth and crushed by tribute, later with the development of the feud. The relationship from their medium is allocated by the Group S., which were in just. Depending on Prince-Votchinnik (L. V. Cherepnin). 3) S. - a special group of dependent semi-free population, close to the Regulation to Zap.-Europe. Lithuania (S. V. Yushkov) or formed from the horses planted on Earth and their relatives in their own business. Regulation (A. A. Zimin). According to supporters of the two first points of view, the norms of the Russian truth reflect Ch. arr. The position of the most oppressed groups of S., and not the entire layer of S. in general. Position C. was dual. Unlike Rab, S. had his family and property, paid a penalty for the perfect misconduct. At the same time, legally he was incurred; The murder of S. was punished with the same fine as the murder of the Hall. His fraudary property was inherited by Prince (it is even possible that initially in relation to C. The right "dead hand" was used). Prohibition of "tormented" (torturing under the court. The proceedings) S. "Without the princess of the word" indicates a special relationship of S. Russian truth to the prince. With nach 12 V. Earth, populated by S., are transferred to the property. Feudals. For 12-13 centuries. Mention of S. remained in sources telling about events in the Galician-Volyn and Novgorod lands. In some cases, the term "S." During this period, it was most apparently, all the rural population of some terrain. S. Novgorod and Pskov Lands 14-15 centuries. Speakers in sources like the owners peasants who own land collectively (entire communities) or individually and with the right to freely align their deposits. But their personal freedom is limited: they are prohibited by the transition to someone else's terr. Or under the patronage of the prince, and the prince is forbidden to receive from C. Complaints to "Lord". C. should also be performed certain duties ("Dani", "work") in favor of the city as a collective feud. Señora. Information about S. from Polabsky Slavs, ch. arr. Ludge Serbs, and in Poland is much more scarce. According to some researchers, S. Polabsky Slavs is a layer of semi-free people, which has existed since a long time; According to others, - initially the OSN. Mass of free glory. Communities, gradually incurred their property and freedom as a result of conquest. S. Polabskiy Slavs mentioned in grades already as part of the population of certain possessions, they pledged to-rye. Feudals GEM. Emperors. They are distinguished by S. from slaves, equate them to semi-free - litam or Naz. Colonami. In Poland in grams of 12-13 centuries. C. Also mentioned as part of the population of granted deposits. feudalists of possessions. In addition to them, the values \u200b\u200bof the prince are mentioned, to-ryy called. His servs. According to a number of researchers, in Poland the term "S." Served initially for the designation of the OSN. The masses of free communities, the Polish historian K. Buchek believes that S. is the chores planted to land. Lit.: Yushkov S. V., to the question of death, "Uch. Zap. Saratov. State. Un-Ta", 1923, t. 1, in. four; True, Russian, vol. 2, M.-L., 1947; Greek B. D., Kievskaya Rus, (M.), 1953; Cherepnin L. V., from the history of the formation of a class of feudal-dependent peasantry in Russia, from, vol. 56, M., 1956; Zimin A. A., O DR. Rus XI - Nach. XII centuries, in the book: Historical archaeological staff. Sat, (M., 1962); Smirnov I. I., Essays socio-economic. relations between Russia XII-XIII century, M.-L., 1963; Marasynova L. M., new Pskov diplomas of the XIV-XV centuries., M., 1966; Ryskin B., Siddy in the regions of it. colonization of the XI-XIII centuries, "V", 1948, NO 3; K? Tzschke R., Zur Sozialgeschichte Der Westslaven, in Sat.: Jahrb? Cher F? R Kultur und Geschichte der Slaven, BD 8, HL 1, Breslau, 1932; Tymieniecki K., Uwagi o Smerdach (SMARDACH, Smurdach) Slowianskich, in Sat.: Studia Historica, Warsz., 1958; His, SMARDOWIE POLSCY, POZNAN, 1959. B. N. Flan. Moscow.
In modern dictionaries of the Russian language, the word of death is interpreted as a farmer - a free or independent, which is the XIV century became known as the peasant. According to the common thing, it is believed that after Boyarski at the end of the 15th century, the term "deathly" loses social meaning and persists in everyday speech as a derogatory nickname. Based on this, the second, portable, is indicated by the closest in meaning to the derogatory verb "Merit". For example, "a senanant person" at T. F. Efremova (the explanatory dictionary of the Russian language is Ephrachova); "Proshirudin, a non-innant man, as opposed to the prince, a deugers" (Explanatory Dictionary of Ushakov). As words-synonyms are given: plebey, black bone, man, cook son, chumazy. Currently, the dard is the word crumbling, insulting. So called a person, badly smelling - both in direct and figurative sense. That is, it has acquired a complete personal characteristic.
Siddy in Ancient Rus
There is a version that the word of Sadda initially was called by all the human population engaged in the processing of the Earth. It is not by chance that it was precisely the new word "peasant" who came with the Mongol-Tatar igm with the same general meaning. Messa led community management and were free or dependent in different periods and based on circumstances. As a result, new nicknames were obtained.
With the development of private land tenure, community fumes fell into the princely feudal dependence. At the same time, they remained legally free people in contrast to the Khopov, ordinary and procurement. However, due to the established economic circumstances, the free dard could go into a category, for example, procurement. Such an economic and legal dependence arose if the peasant-fantasy took Kupa (loan) in feudal for amendment of its own economy. During the development of the debt, which he had to be returned with interest, the deathbed completely became addicted to the master. And in the case of an attempt to escape from obligations, he could be translated into a discharge of a sheet (full) hull and become, in fact, a slave. However, in the event of a return debt, the purchase brought himself complete freedom.
Smerd could also go into the category of ordinary. The ranks were called the people of a simple class, which concluded a contract with Mr.) about the ministry. As a rule, they performed the functions of small business executives or were used on various rural works.
Arable lands in times of Russia were the main wealth, the main means of production. The most popular variation of the manufacturing organization was the victim - owned by a votchina boyars and princes, they received him from fathers and passed their sons. He worked on this earth the peasants - soughtda, chores, purchases, rankings.
In Kievan Rus, along with capital and boyars, there were a large number of community farmers, so far that there is no way dependent on the feudal. Such independent communities of the peasants paid to file the princess in favor of the country.
The first of these is the most popular categories of dependent peasants I suggest you consider death. As you know, the deaths are free farmers, who treat state land and pay a special file in favor of Power. Deaths compared to other groups of dependent peasants were in a rather favorable position - they had personal freedom, their own land, these people honestly worked and received remuneration, they had no problems with the local princely power, if they were able to file from Prince Received a protectorate and had certain civil and human rights. According to various sources, the military service of death is the direct acceptance of participation in the campaigns in the infantry, or supply for the army of horses and food. In addition, this category was the most numerous in Russia. It was the sidetis - the main component of the rural population of Kievan Rus in the 9th and 2nd centuries. The very concept of "death", according to one of the versions means - "Man", "Free Peasant". Gradually, these free commercial peasants fell dependent on the feudalists, lost personal freedom and independence, "attached" to Earth, and over time the bulk of free peasants turned into fortress peasants. The development of socio-economic relationship has led to the fact that the previous part of the population has become a powerless mass.
The following categories considered by us are chop. This social layer was not so numerous, but the slaves also constituted an impressive share among the rural population of the ancient Russian state. Directly - the chores are the dependent part of the population of Kievan Rus. This is part of the population, in its position close to slave. Colds, in the main mass - prisoners of war. Also, the hills are called fortress peasants, which existed already in 9-12 centuries in Russia. According to the most common theory, the word "Hop" means "attached to the Earth", "fixed peasant". The position of the horses was terrible - a complete trouble and slave labor. Historians claim that Kievan Rus refers to those States that in their development practically missed the period of the slave-ownership structure, however, in the conditions of the ancient Russian state, it can be announced that in it the slave-ownership system calmly existed next to the feudal, which is typical of most Slavic peoples. And there is nothing unusual about this - some part of the population in any case will be endowed with less rights than others.
Then I suggest you consider such a category of the population as purchases. Purchases - peasants who are in a serious material and social position close to the Kolaopsky. Purchases are also named NAMITs. It cannot be said that these are people selling their labor, rather, they are debtors, according to a special agreement (the text can be found in the "Russian truth") fall into a personal dependence on the so-called employer. The rights of procurement are strongly limited, but they are more protected than chopers who do not have any social rights. It is like a personal dependence on a specific agreement and distinguishes the purchase from ordinary proletarian times of capitalism, although he and the other sell their labor force. The social rights of the purchase include a very dubious right not to be convinced "not for business", but "just so." Purchase has the right to defend its rights in court and the opportunity to escape from the owner subject to certain conditions due to the signed contract. Purchases are also entitled to their own property, which they cannot be deprived of forcibly. In addition to rights, there are obligations. For example, purchases are obliged to fulfill all the terms of the contract and are responsible for the property, inventory and the owner's cattle. Only in this case they can expect to comply with all prescribed rights and freedoms.
Usually in purchases, or hiring, walked peasants who have no livelihood, and to make a dependence were their chance to survive and feed their family. Purchases made various work on the courtyard of feudal, they are divided into several subcategories on this basis. If the purchase escapes from the owner, he turns it into the cold.
The category of the dependent population of ancient Russia, which is very similar to the procurement - rowers. Until now, historians, studying written sources of the Old Russian state, have not defined who are such a number. According to one of the theories, confirmed by extracts from the "Russian truth", the rankings are part of the chelyadi, minor employees in the house of feudal. Another version says that this is a sought who concluded a special agreement with the feudal agreement ("row"), according to which they fell into some feudal dependence and served as the owner for a fee, food and shelter. This definition brings to the proclaims.
From all this we can conclude that the sought-to-the-world of Kiev, because they had personal freedom, unlike procurements and orders, who lost it to survive, and, especially since very dysfunny hills. Just the slaves - people whose position was actually slave and are the lowest social category of the Old Russian power.
The word "deathhold" is now considered to be a crustacean (due to consonance with "death"). In practice, until the XVI century, the term simply pointed to the public situation of a person and related rights and obligations.
Breakfast folly
The word "death" is known to historians from the "Russian truth" and the following legislative acts. Outstanding historians (M.N.Tichomirov, B.D. Grekov, B.A. Rybakov) tried to establish the place of this group in the ancient Russian public structure, and mostly they succeeded.
According to the generally accepted opinion, the deathholder is a capable peasant-land. Historians believe that it was originally called a full member of the rural peasant community, and as the feudal relations were developing, the concept was transferred to the peasant, whose Sisser was directly related to the state (represented by Prince or Boyar Republic, as in Novgorod). He was touched by the prince, carried in his favor of the duration and payments. Smerd was the owner of his property and passed him by inheritance, but exclusive sons. In the absence of such a heir, the prince became obliged from the inheritance to give the content to unmarried daughters of the deceased. But such a practice in the era of feudalism also existed for the highest classes - there, too, the heir could be a senory.
Features of criminal responsibility
However, it is possible to hear the assertion that the deathhold is a dependent person equal to the holope (personally dependent servant). Supporters of this point of view appealed to the phrase of "deaths of the Holopes" existing in the truth of Yaroslavichi. In the appropriate article for the murder, the same Colap and the "scenery" is prescribed the same virgin in 5 hryvnia.
However, most historians disagree with such interpretation. They are offered two alternative versions. The first one states that this article indicates that Sidda could also (along with feudal) to own hills, and compensation for damage was on a par with aware. The second argues that the term indicates the nature of the work performed by the hob for the owner. Usually the slave was a yard servant, but some were engaged in agriculture. Such and could be called "Dolopa deadfias", that is, those that are closer to death.
The fact that the responsibility for damage to the death or his murder in the legislation of the ancient Russia was lower than in relation to the "people", that is, unequivocally freely doubting personalities. But the work of the farmer then generally appreciated low.
Temporarily obliged
Smerd could also go to other categories temporarily. For such cases, there were separate terms. So, the deathbed, who took the duty from the feud, became "procurement" ("Kupa" - debt). If he agreed with the feudal about the fulfillment of some special work for him, he became "ordinary" ("row" - a contract). Procures and rankings were limited in rights, in particular, could not leave the place of residence or refuse to work. But it lasted until the debt was paid or work performed. Then the ordinary or purchase again became a sidder. The laws protected some of their rights (in particular, feudal did not have the right to demand more than indicated in the contract).
In the modern world, most people are well known the old word "death". In the majority, such a phrase is associated with a crustacean, however, that that meant the word "death" in antiquity knows not all. Meanwhile, about its origin, as well as questions regarding classes that received exactly such a name, the disputes do not subscribe so far. That is why today we will try to figure out the origin of the word "death", consider different, authoritative points of view, as well as touched upon the historical component.
So, according to a well-known periodic edition of "Russian True", Sadda in ancient Russia is the classes of peasants of the IX - XIV centuries, which were landowners and were originally free, unlike the Halds. Subsequently, as the landlord system is developed in Russia, they began to depend on the Lord and gradually fixed. However, the famous historian of Greeks gives a somewhat different interpretation the concept of "death." In his opinion, Sidda in ancient Russia was members of the rural community, but during the whole time depended directly from the prince of Kiev Rus. However, substantiation, however,, as well as the groundlessness of a similar point of view, to prove (to refute) is extremely difficult. The only authoritative opinion in opposition to the statement of Grekov is the text of "Russian truth", which does not give any reason to believe that souls depended solely from the prince of Kiev Rus. The fact is that in the publication, members of the community that belonged to the family were called "people." At the same time, Russian truth argued that the fraudous property of the scent was rejected by the prince. And in the event that this category of peasants would have belonged to the community, then the fraudous property would share between the members of this community. It is also worth mentioning that for the murder of a deathman, a fine was only 5 hryvnia, while for the killing of any free man (Lyuba) the guilty would have to pay 40 hryvnia.
In the Novgorod Republic, the deaths of centuries were subordinate to the state. The concept of death there was the whole category of the lower layers of the population, which were subordinate to Prince. They worked on their own land plots, paid a large tax in the treasury. But at any time the prince could relocate sobls, to give them church. In addition, Sadda in the Novgorod Republic was serving natural duties and were obliged to supply horses, feed soldiers in wartime. Unlike ordinary community peasants (they lived in the weighs), Sadda lived in the villages.
Curious is the term that appeared in the interval from the XI to the XIV century. "Oreze" meant to seize the village and the population of the enemy principality during the princely internecine warrior. After the XV century, the court category switched to the peasantry, but the term itself continued to be used and meant the informal appeal of the king to the lower segments of the population. Subsequently, the term "deathly" began to be used by the landowners to insult the sheltered servants or peasants. In conclusion, a few words would like to say about the etymology of the word. The fact is that in some parts of the European part of Russia, the houses were treated in black (i.e. without the use of pipes), so all the smoke and the GARN were displayed through the wicked windows. Therefore, to imagine how terriblely smelled from all the deaths, considering that this disgusting smell of Gary was mixed with then.
