IN historical science It is generally accepted that the history of any nation begins with the formation of a state. IN Russian Federation More than 100 peoples and nationalities live here. But the main state-forming people of our country are the Russian people (out of 149 million - 120 million are Russians). The Russian people - one of the largest peoples in the world - for many centuries played a leading role in the political, economic, and cultural development of the country. The first state of Russians, as well as Ukrainians and Belarusians, was formed in the 9th century around Kyiv by their common ancestors - the Eastern Slavs.
The first written evidence about the Slavs.
By the middle of the 2nd millennium BC. Slavs stand out from the Indo-European community. By the beginning of the 1st millennium BC. the Slavs became so significant in numbers and influence in the world around them that Greek, Roman, Arab, and Byzantine authors began to report on them (Roman writer Pliny the Elder), historian Tacitus - 1st century AD, geographer Ptolemy Claudius - 2nd century .BC ancient authors call the Slavs “Ants”, “Sclavins”, “Vends” and speak of them as “countless tribes”).
During the era of the great migration of peoples, the Slavs on the Danube began to be crowded out by other peoples. The Slavs began to split up.
Some of the Slavs remained in Europe. Later they will receive the name of the southern Slavs (later from them will come the Bulgarians, Serbs, Croats, Slovenes, Bosnians, Montenegrins).
Another part of the Slavs moved to the north - Western Slavs(Czechs, Poles, Slovaks). Western and southern Slavs were conquered by other peoples.
And the third part of the Slavs, according to scientists, did not want to submit to anyone and moved to the northeast, to the East European Plain. Later they will receive the name Eastern Slavs (Russians, Ukrainians, Belarusians).
It should be noted that most tribes strove to Central Europe, to the ruins of the Roman Empire. The Roman Empire soon fell (476 AD) under the attacks of alien barbarians. On this territory, the barbarians will create their own statehood, absorbing the cultural heritage of ancient Roman culture. The Eastern Slavs went to the northeast, into the dense forest wilds, where there was no cultural heritage there wasn't. Eastern Slavs left in two streams. One part of the Slavs went to Lake Ilmen. Later, the ancient Russian city of Novgorod will stand there. The other part - to the middle and lower reaches of the Dnieper - there will be another ancient city Kyiv.
In the VI - VIII centuries. The Eastern Slavs mainly settled across the East European Plain.
Neighbors of the Eastern Slavs. And other peoples already lived on the East European (Russian) Plain. Baltic (Lithuanians, Latvians) and Finno-Ugric (Finns, Estonians, Ugrians (Hungarians), Komi, Khanty, Mansi, etc.) tribes lived on the Baltic coast and in the north. The colonization of these places was peaceful, the Slavs got along with the local population.
In the east and southeast the situation was different. There the Steppe adjoined the Russian Plain. The neighbors of the Eastern Slavs were the steppe nomads - the Turks (Altai family of peoples, Turkic group). In those days, peoples leading different lifestyles - sedentary and nomadic - were constantly at enmity with each other. The nomads lived by raiding the settled population. And for almost 1000 years, one of the main phenomena in the life of the Eastern Slavs would be the struggle with the nomadic peoples of the Steppe.
The Turks on the eastern and southeastern borders of the settlement of the Eastern Slavs created their own state formations.
In the middle of the 6th century. in the lower reaches of the Volga there was a state of the Turks - the Avar Kaganate. In 625, the Avar Khaganate was defeated by Byzantium and ceased to exist.
In the 7th - 8th centuries. here the state of other Turks appears - the Bulgar (Bulgarian) kingdom. Then the Bulgarian kingdom collapsed. Part of the Bulgars went to the middle reaches of the Volga and formed Volga Bulgaria. Another part of the Bulgars migrated to the Danube, where they were formed Danube Bulgaria(later the newcomer Turks were assimilated by the southern Slavs. A new ethnic group arose, but it took the name of the newcomers - “Bulgars”).
Steppes southern Rus' After the departure of the Bulgars, new Turks - the Pechenegs - occupied the area.
On the lower Volga and in the steppes between the Caspian and Azov seas, semi-nomadic Turks created the Khazar Khaganate. The Khazars established their dominance over East Slavic tribes, many of whom paid them tribute until the 9th century.
In the south, the neighbor of the Eastern Slavs was the Byzantine Empire (395 - 1453) with its capital in Constantinople (in Rus' it was called Constantinople).
Territory of the Eastern Slavs. In the VI - VIII centuries. The Slavs were not yet one people.
They were divided into tribal unions, which included 120 - 150 separate tribes. By the 9th century there were about 15 tribal unions. Tribal unions were named either by the area in which they lived or by the names of the leaders. Information about the settlement of the Eastern Slavs is contained in the chronicle “The Tale of Bygone Years,” created by the monk of the Kiev-Pechersk Monastery Nestor in the second decade of the 12th century. (The chronicler Nestor is called the “father of Russian history”). According to the chronicle "The Tale of Bygone Years", the Eastern Slavs settled: the glades - along the banks of the Dnieper, not far from the mouth of the Desna; northerners - in the basin of the Desna and Seim rivers; Radimichi - on the upper tributaries of the Dnieper; Drevlyans - along Pripyat; Dregovichi - between Pripyat and Western Dvina; Polotsk residents - along Polota; Ilmen Slovenes - along the Volkhov, Shchelon, Lovat, Msta rivers; Krivichi - in the upper reaches of the Dnieper, Western Dvina and Volga; Vyatichi - in the upper reaches of the Oka; Buzhans - along the Western Bug; Tivertsy and Ulich - from the Dnieper to the Danube; white Croats - northern part western slopes Carpathians
The path "from the Varangians to the Greeks." The Eastern Slavs did not have a sea coast. Rivers became the main trade routes for the Slavs. They "huddled" to the banks of rivers, especially the most great river Russian antiquity - Dnieper. In the 9th century a great trade route arose - “from the Varangians to the Greeks.” It connected Novgorod and Kyiv, Northern and Southern Europe. From the Baltic Sea along the Neva River, caravans of merchants reached Lake Ladoga, from there along the Volkhov River and further along the Lovat River to the upper reaches of the Dnieper. From Lovat to the Dnieper in the area of Smolensk and on the Dnieper rapids they crossed by "portage routes". Further, along the western shore of the Black Sea they reached the capital of Byzantium, Constantinople (the Eastern Slavs called it Constantinople). This path became the core, the main trade road, the “red street” of the Eastern Slavs. The entire life of East Slavic society was concentrated around this trade route.
Occupations of the Eastern Slavs. The main occupation of the Eastern Slavs was agriculture. They cultivated wheat, rye, barley, millet, planted turnips, millet, cabbage, beets, carrots, radishes, garlic and other crops. They were engaged in cattle breeding (they raised pigs, cows, horses, small cattle), fishing, and beekeeping (collecting honey from wild bees). A significant part of the territory of the Eastern Slavs lay in a harsh climate zone, and farming required the exertion of all physical strength. Labor-intensive work had to be completed within a strictly defined time frame. Only a large team could do this. Therefore, from the very beginning of the appearance of the Slavs on the East European Plain vital role the collective began to play in their lives - the community and the role of the leader.
Cities. Among the Eastern Slavs in the V - VI centuries. cities arose, which was associated with the long-standing development of trade. The most ancient Russian cities are Kyiv, Novgorod, Smolensk, Suzdal, Murom, Pereyaslavl South. In the 9th century the Eastern Slavs had at least 24 major cities. Cities usually arose at the confluence of rivers, on a high hill. Central part The city was called the Kremlin, Detinets and was usually surrounded by a rampart. The Kremlin housed the dwellings of princes, nobility, temples, and monasteries. Behind the fortress wall, a ditch filled with water was built. Behind the moat there was a market. Adjacent to the Kremlin was a settlement where artisans settled. Separate areas of the settlement, inhabited by artisans of the same specialty, were called settlements.
Public relations. The Eastern Slavs lived in clans. Each clan had its own elder - the prince. The prince relied on the clan elite - the “best husbands”. The princes formed a special military organization - a squad, which included warriors and advisers to the prince. The squad was divided into senior and junior. The first included the most notable warriors (advisers). The younger squad lived with the prince and served his court and household. The warriors from the conquered tribes collected tribute (taxes). Trips to collect tribute were called "polyudye". Since time immemorial, the Eastern Slavs had a custom of resolving all the most important issues in the life of the clan at a worldly gathering - a veche.
Beliefs of the Eastern Slavs. The ancient Slavs were pagans. They worshiped the forces of nature and the spirits of their ancestors. In the pantheon of Slavic gods, a special place was occupied by: the sun god - Yarilo; Perun is the god of war and lightning, Svarog is the god of fire, Veles is the patron of livestock. The princes themselves acted as high priests, but the Slavs also had special priests - magicians and magicians.
References
The Tale of Bygone Years. - M.; L.; 1990.
Rybakov B.A. The first centuries of Russian history. - M., 1964.
Ministry of Agriculture of the Russian Federation
Kemerovo State Agricultural Institute
Department of History and Pedagogy
TEST
in discipline " Domestic history»
Completed by: Patrakova A. G.
1st year student
specialty "accounting"
analysis and audit"
Checked:
Kemerovo, 2010
Topic: Eastern Slavs in the pre-state period. Formation of the Old Russian state.
1. Social structure of the Eastern Slavs in the VI-VIII centuries. n. e.
2. Religious beliefs of the Slavs. Life, morals, customs.
3. Origin ancient Russian state. Political system of Kievan Rus.
4. The adoption of Christianity and its consequences.
1. Social structure of the Eastern Slavs in VI - VIII centuries n. e.
Eastern Slavs settled in the VI-VIII centuries. the vast territory of Eastern Europe from Lake Ilmen in the north to the Black Sea steppes in the south and from the Carpathian mountains in the west to the Volga in the east. Thus, they occupied most of the East European Plain.
This territory was home to 12 (according to some sources 15) East Slavic tribal unions. The most numerous were clearing, living along the banks of the Dnieper, near the mouth of the Desna, and Ilmen Slovenes who lived on the shores of Lake Ilmen and the Volkhov River. The names of East Slavic tribes were often associated with the area where they lived. For example, clearing- “living in the fields”, Drevlyans- "living in the forests" Dregovichi– from the word “dryagva” - swamp, quagmire, Polotsk residents- from the name of the river Polota, etc.
Initially, the Eastern Slavs lived “each in his own family and in his own place,” i.e. people united on the basis of blood kinship. At the head was a tribal elder who had great power. But as the Slavs settled over large areas, tribal ties began to disintegrate. The consanguineous community was replaced by a neighboring (territorial) community - rope. Vervi members jointly owned hayfields and forest lands, and arable lands were divided between individual family farms. The power of the tribal ruler ceased to operate. All households in the area now gathered for a general council - a veche. They elected elders to conduct common affairs. In case of military danger, the entire male population fought with the enemies - militia, which was built according to the decimal system (tens, hundreds, thousands). Individual communities united into tribes, and tribes formed tribal unions.
2.Religious beliefs of the Slavs. Life, morals, customs.
The settlements of the Eastern Slavs were scattered over vast areas, mainly along the banks of lakes and rivers. They lived as families in houses - semi-dugouts area 10 – 20 square meters. The walls of houses, benches, tables, and household utensils were made of wood. The roof was covered with branches coated with clay. The house was heated in a black way - an adobe or stone hearth was built, the smoke did not escape through the chimney, but directly into the hole in the roof. The Slavs had several exits in their houses, and they hid valuables in the ground, because enemies could attack at any moment.
The Slavs were tall, powerfully built, had extraordinary physical strength and extraordinary endurance. Neighboring peoples believed main feature Slavs love for freedom. The Slavs treated their parents with respect.
The main occupation of the Eastern Slavs was agriculture. But most of the territory they inhabited was covered with dense forests. Therefore, the trees had to be cut down first. The remaining stumps were uprooted and, like trees, burned, fertilizing the soil with ash. The land was cultivated for 2-3 years, and when it stopped producing a good harvest, it was abandoned and a new plot was prepared. This farming system was called slash-and-burn. More favorable conditions for farming were in the steppe and forest-steppe zones of the Dnieper region. There was a lot of fertile black soil here. Plots of land were used for several years until they were completely depleted, then they were transferred to new plots. The depleted land was not cultivated for approximately 20-30 years until its fertility was restored. This farming system was called transposed.
Agricultural work consisted of several cycles. At first the land was cultivated with a plow. Then the soil was leveled with a harrow - harrowed. The most important task was sowing.
Among agricultural crops, the Slavs were especially willing to sow wheat, millet, barley and buckwheat. Bread was the main food of the Slavs. Turnips, radishes, beets, cabbage, onions, and garlic were planted in the gardens.
In addition to farming, the Slavs were engaged in cattle breeding: they raised cows, goats, sheep, pigs, and horses.
Beekeeping (honey collection), fishing and hunting played a big role in the life of the Eastern Slavs. Hunting provided not only additional food, but also furs. Outerwear was made from fur. In addition, the skins of fur-bearing animals, mainly martens, served as the main means of exchange, i.e. acted as money. Crafts developed successfully - iron smelting, blacksmithing, and jewelry.
The Slavs were brave warriors. They fought until the last drop of blood. Cowardice was considered their greatest shame. The Slavs' weapons consisted of spears, bows and arrows smeared with poison, and round wooden shields. Swords and other iron weapons were rare.
The Eastern Slavs were pagans, i.e. worshiped many gods. They looked at nature as a living being and represented it in the form of various deities. The most revered were Yarilo - the god of the sun, Perun - the god of thunder and lightning (both war and weapons), Stribog - the lord of the wind, Mokosh - the deity of fertility, etc.
The Slavs believed in an afterlife and revered their ancestors, whose shadows allegedly remained in the house and protected their descendants from harm. The souls of dead children and drowned women appeared to them in the form of mermaids. The existence of various kinds of evil spirits was recognized. So, in the depths of every lake or river, according to the Slavs, there lived a water spirit, and in the thicket of a dark forest lived a forest spirit - the goblin.
The Slavs did not build temples to worship their gods. They performed their rituals in sacred groves, near sacred oak trees, where there were wooden and sometimes stone statues of pagan gods - idols. To appease an angry god or to gain his mercy, animals were sacrificed to him, and in especially important cases, even people.
The Slavs did not have a special class of priests. But they thought that there were people who could communicate with the gods, cast spells and predict the future. Such people were called Magi, magicians.
3. The origin of the ancient Russian state. Political system of Kievan Rus.
The question of the beginning of the state of Rus' gave rise to a long discussion between the so-called Normanists and anti-Normanists. The first defended the point of view about the creation of the Old Russian state by the Scandinavian-Normans, while the second denied this. However, both of them often identified the origin of the state with the origin of the ruling dynasty.
The problem of the origin of the name “Rus” is also debatable. The most developed is the “Scandinavian” version. She proceeds from the fact that the word “Rus” is based on the Old Scandinavian verb “row”, which initially meant warrior-oarsmen, and then princely warriors. Some researchers suggest an Iranian, Baltic or Slavic etymology of this word. Currently, domestic and foreign researchers have no doubt about both the local roots of East Slavic statehood and the active participation of immigrants from Scandinavia in the process of the formation of Kievan Rus.
Ruler of Rus' in the first half of the 9th century. accepted in addition to the pan-Slavic title prince eastern title "Kagan". This event had great value. Firstly, the title “Kagan” was used to refer to the ruler of Khazaria, a state created in the 7th century. in the region of the Lower Volga and Don by Turkic nomads - the Khazars. Some of the Eastern Slavs (Polyans, Sever, Radimichi and Vyatichi) were forced to pay tribute to the Khazar Kagan. The adoption of the title of Kagan by the Kyiv prince thus symbolized the independence of the new state - Rus' - from the Khazars. Secondly, it emphasized the supremacy of the Russian prince over the princes of other large Slavic communities, who at that time bore the titles bright prince And Grand Duke.
The 9th-10th centuries were a time of gradual involvement of East Slavic unions of tribal principalities into dependence on Kyiv. The leading role in this process was played by the military service nobility - squad Kyiv princes . For some of the unions of tribal principalities, subordination took place in two stages. At the first stage, they only paid taxes - tribute, while maintaining internal “autonomy”. Tribute was collected by polyudya - a tour of the territory of the subordinate union by Kyiv military detachments. In the 10th century tribute was levied in fixed amounts, in kind or in cash. The units of taxation were smoke (i.e., a peasant's yard), a ralo or a plow (in this case, a land area corresponding to the capabilities of one peasant farm).
At the second stage, the alliances of tribal principalities were directly subordinated. The local reign was liquidated and a representative of the Kyiv dynasty was appointed as prince-governor. In this case, as a rule, a new city was built, which became the center of the territory instead of the old “city” of the “tribal” center. The purpose of this change of center was to neutralize the separatist tendencies of the local nobility.
The formation of the territorial structure of the state of Rus' was completed at the end of the 10th century. By this time, the “autonomy” of all East Slavic unions of tribal principalities (except for the Vyatichi) had been eliminated. The form of collecting tribute also changed. Now there was no longer any need for polyudya - detours coming from Kyiv. The tribute was collected by the governors of the Kyiv prince. Two-thirds of the collected tribute was sent to Kyiv, the remaining part was distributed among the warriors of the prince-governor. The territories within the framework of a single early feudal state, ruled by princes-vassals of the Kyiv ruler, received the name parish In general, in the 10th century. the state was called “Rus”, “Russian land”. This name spread from the Middle Dnieper region to the entire territory subject to the Kyiv princes.
The structure of the state took shape under Prince Vladimir. He put him in charge at nine largest centers Rus' of its sons: in Novgorod (land of the Slovenes) - Vysheslav, later Yaroslav, in Polotsk (Krivichi) - Izyaslav, Turov (Dregovichi) - Svyatopolk, in the land of the Drevlyans - Svyatoslav, in Vladimir-Volynsky (Volynians) - Vsevolod, Smolensk (Krivichi) ) - Stanislav, Rostov (land of the Finnish-speaking Merya tribe) - Yaroslav, later Boris, in Murom (Finnish-speaking Muroma) - Gleb, Tmutarakania (Russian possession on the Taman Peninsula) - Mstislav. In addition to these lands of the East Slavic and partially Finnish-speaking peoples, constituting the territory of the Old Russian state, in the 9th-10th centuries. a wide non-Slavic periphery formed from Finnish-speaking and Baltic-speaking tribes, which were not directly part of Kievan Rus, but paid tribute to it.
Foreign policy Ancient Rus'.
4.The adoption of Christianity and its consequences.
Acceptance of Christianity Ancient Russia became a significant step in the development of East Slavic civilization. Its consequence was significant, although multi-temporal, changes in the socio-political, economic and cultural development of Rus'.
With the liquidation of the autonomy of the Slavic unions of tribal principalities, a structure emerged single state with a single dynasty at its head, with a single ruling stratum represented by the military-serving nobility. In the political-territorial sphere, these conditions turned out to be unsuitable for central government old centers of unions of tribal principalities and new ones were created, in which the princes - relatives of the Kyiv ruler - were located.
Immediately after Vladimir, who was the prince of Novgorod at the time of Svyatoslav’s death, took possession of the Kyiv throne in 980, eliminating his elder brother Yaropolk (972-980), he made an attempt to create an all-Russian pagan pantheon headed by Perun, the god of thunderstorms, to whom the princely warriors worshiped. But this did not bring the desired result, and after a few years Kyiv prince raises the question of a decisive break with the old tradition - the adoption of a monotheistic religion.
There were several possible options choice of such a religion: the eastern, Byzantine version of Christianity (Orthodoxy), the Western European version of Christianity (Catholicism), Islam, which dominates in Volga Bulgaria, which is territorially close to Rus', and finally, Judaism, which was the religion of the ruling elite of Khazaria (though it almost no longer existed as a state) . The choice was made in favor of Orthodoxy, already known in Rus' (the baptism of part of the Russian nobility in the 60s of the 9th century, the baptism of Princess Olga).
The act of adoption of Christianity by Vladimir Svyatoslavich was directly related to events in relations between Rus' and Byzantium. In 988, Emperors Vasily and Constantine turned to Vladimir for help against the rebellious commander Vardas Phocas, who ruled the Asia Minor part of the empire. Vladimir made the provision of assistance conditional on his marriage to the emperors’ sister Anna. A Russian detachment of six thousand took part in the defeat of the rebel troops. But Vasily and Konstantin violated their agreement by refusing to send their sister to Rus'. Then Vladimir marched on the center of the Crimean possessions of Byzantium - Chersonesus, took it and thereby forced the emperors to fulfill the agreement. Anna was sent to him in Chersonesos, Vladimir was baptized and married a Byzantine princess. After returning to Rus', he carried out a massive conversion of Kyiv residents to Christianity. Later, the new religion began to spread, partly peacefully, and in some places (for example, in Novgorod) and as a result of bloody clashes, throughout Rus'. The Russian metropolitanate was established, subordinate to the Patriarchate of Constantinople.
By the end of the X-XI centuries. refers to the emergence of several bishoprics created in the most important centers of the state - Novgorod, Polotsk, Chernigov, Pereyaslavl, Belgorod, Rostov. In Rus', an Orthodox clergy appeared, liturgical books and now books in the Slavic language, which came mainly from Bulgaria. Thus, the act of accepting Christianity introduced Rus' to the treasures of world culture - ancient Greek, early Christian, Byzantine, Slavic Christian.
The adoption of Christianity strengthened state power and territorial unity of Kievan Rus. It had great international significance, which consisted in the fact that Rus', having rejected “primitive” paganism, was now becoming equal to other Christian countries, connections with which were significantly
expanded.
The adoption of Christianity played a huge role in the development and formation of a unified ancient Russian culture. First of all, we are talking about the emergence, or rather the spread of writing and literature.
No later than the end of the 9th - beginning of the 10th century. Slavic alphabet - Cyrillic and Glagolitic - are spreading in Rus'. Created in the second half of the 9th century by the brothers Cyril (Constantine) and Methodius and initially spreading in the West Slavic state of Great Moravia, they soon penetrated into Bulgaria and Rus'. The first Russian monument of Slavic writing is Russian-Byzantine treaty 911
The adoption of Christianity in the Orthodox tradition has become one of the determining factors in our further historical development. Vladimir was canonized by the church as a saint and for his services in the baptism of Rus' is called Equal-to-the-Apostles
LIST OF REFERENCES USED
1. History of Russia from ancient times to the end of the 16th century. / Danilov A.A. – M., 2009. – 256 p.
2. History of Russia: a course of lectures on the history of Russia from ancient times to the present day / ed. B.V. Leachman. – Ekaterinburg: UPI, 1993. – 384 p.
3. History of Russia from ancient times to the end of the 17th century: training manual for students universities / A.P. Novoseltsev, A.N. Sakharov. – M.: AST, 1999.-576 p.
4. History of Russia: a textbook for universities, as well as colleges, lyceums, gymnasiums and schools.: In 2 volumes. T 1 / M.M. Gorinov, A.A. Gorky, A.A. Danilov and others; edited by S.V. Leonova. – M.: Knowledge, 1998.-256 p.
5. History of Russia from ancient times to the present day: a textbook for universities / A.S. Orlov, V.A. Georgiev, N.G. Georgieva, T.A Sivokhina; ed. 2nd, additional: - PBOYUL L.V. Rozhnikov, 2006. – 528 p.
6. How Rus' was baptized. – M.: Knowledge, 1988. – 124 p.
7. Platonov S.F. Textbook of Russian history. - St. Petersburg: Art-Press, 1999.- 429 p.
Eastern Slavs in the VI – IX centuries. occupied the territory from the Carpathian Mountains in the west to the Oka and the upper reaches of the Don in the east, from the Neva and Lake Ladoga in the north, to the Middle Dnieper region in the south. The Slavs, who developed the East European Plain, came into contact with a few Finno-Ugric and Baltic tribes. There was a process of assimilation of peoples. At this time, the Eastern Slavs united into tribal unions. From the "Initial Chronicle" we know about large East Slavic tribal groups: the glade on the Dnieper near Kyiv; Drevlyans in the forests on the right bank of the Dnieper; Ilmen Slavs around Lake Ilmen; Dregovichi between Pripyat and Western Dvina; Krivichi in the Smolensk region; Polotsk residents on the banks of the Polota River; streets between the Prut and Dnieper rivers; Tivertsy between the Dnieper and the Southern Bug; Vyatichi along the Moscow and Oka rivers.
The economy of the Eastern Slavs was complex. Their main occupation is agriculture. Agriculture played the leading role. The Slavs, who occupied the fertile forest-steppe regions of Eastern Europe, achieved significant success in it. At the same time, the southern territories were somewhat ahead of the northern ones. The best contributed to this natural conditions and more ancient farming traditions.
Slavic settlements of the second half of the first millennium AD reflect a sedentary lifestyle. They were located along the banks of rivers and lakes in places where there were areas suitable for farming. During excavations of settlements of this period, agricultural tools were discovered: iron tips, openers, hoes, as well as products of agricultural labor. In the economy of the Slavic tribes of the forest zone of Eastern Europe, slash-and-burn agriculture played a prominent role. However, the area, cleared of forest, soon became depleted and stopped producing crops after 3-4 years. This forced the Slavs to leave old ones and develop new areas. This farming system required a huge amount of land and forced people to settle in small villages. However, excavations show that the role of shifting agriculture is somewhat overestimated. Studies of the lower archaeological layers in Novgorod, Izborsk and other places indicate the cultivation of cereals and legumes, as well as fibrous plants, in the forest zone, which is possible only with arable farming. Obviously, slashing was used mainly to expand arable fields. In the forest-steppe zone there were large areas free from forests, so here, along with fallow land, a system of crop rotation arose: two-field and three-field. The Slavs sowed wheat (hard and soft), millet, oats, and barley.
Along with agriculture, livestock raising occupied a large place in the economy. The first place was given to cattle. During archaeological excavations, his bones account for about 50%. Herds of cattle were a measure of wealth. Hunting and fishing occupied a prominent place in the economy. However, they played an auxiliary role in the dominant role of agriculture and livestock raising.
Of particular note are metalworking and blacksmithing, which are characterized by complex technologies that required special knowledge. For these reasons, metallurgical crafts emerged quite early into separate branches of the economy. The raw materials were swamp ores, and the fuel was charcoal. Traces of iron production date back to the first half of the first millennium AD. Blacksmithing among the Slavs is clearly visible in archaeological excavations. First of all, agricultural tools and also weapons were made from iron. It should be noted that iron processing among the Eastern Slavs on the eve of the formation of the state was at high level development.
Ceramics are most widely represented in Slavic settlements and burial grounds. In the VI-VII centuries. In most East Slavic settlements, molded ceramics dominate. It existed until the 10th century, and on the outskirts - until the 11th century. The place of molded dishes is gradually taken by ceramics made on a pottery wheel. At the same time, the manufacture of dishes ceases to be the business of each family and is concentrated in the hands of master craftsmen.
It should be noted that Slavic blacksmiths, jewelers, and potters intended their products mainly for the rural population. Initially they worked to order. In the second half of the first millennium, along with work to order, artisans began to produce products for the market. This contributed to the emergence of specialized settlements where artisans worked and lived. This fact serves as an indicator of the growing division of labor and sales. Villages became the concentration of internal and foreign trade. They were fortified. One of such fortified craft centers of the Eastern Slavs was the ancient settlement of Zimno (VI–VII centuries).
The social structure of the Eastern Slavs in the pre-state period can be reconstructed on the basis of reports by Byzantine authors, as well as archaeological materials. Many researchers have tried to use the size and types of residential and public buildings to determine the level of social relations of the Slavs. Although, to determine social organization, burial structures serve as a more reliable indicator.
In the VI – VII centuries. Large patriarchal family groups still remain, for example, in the southern regions. On their existence among the Slavs in the 5th–7th centuries. indicate the small size of settlements, as well as the singularity of economic complexes. In general, the third quarter of the first millennium is a transition from the family community to the territorial community.
Appearance in the 6th – 7th centuries. settlements and craft centers shows that the patriarchal family in a number of places is beginning to disintegrate. Gradually, the rural community becomes the basis of the social organization of East Slavic society. It unites people not on the basis of family relations, but on a territorial basis. The community members were united not by kinship, but by a common territory and economic life. Each community owned a certain territory in which several families lived. There were two forms of ownership: personal (house, livestock, equipment) and public (arable land, meadows, reservoirs, industries).
Slavs VI–IX centuries. the social category of the tribal nobility was known. A prince was chosen from the clan, who was approved by the tribal assembly. The word “prince” is a common Slavic word, borrowed, according to linguists, from the ancient Germanic language. This word originally meant the head of a clan, an elder. Byzantine historians of the 6th–7th centuries. Slavic tribal leaders are repeatedly reported. With the growth of the population, the tribe, which was divided into several clans, split into a number of related tribes, which formed a tribal union. Such tribal unions were the Polans, Drevlyans, Dregovichi, etc., named by Nestor. At the head of these unions were leaders towering above the leaders of the individual tribes that were part of the union. Thus, in the Bertinian annals the kagan of the people “Ros” is reported, and the Gothic historian Jordan calls the ancient Slavic prince God. Thus, in addition to tribal leaders, there were leaders of tribal unions. The princes had various functions: military, foreign policy, religious, judicial. They were helped by a council of elders, or, as they are called in the chronicles, “city elders.” In chronicle reports, the city elders act as authorized leaders of society, with whom the princes were forced to reckon. Finally, the supreme power belonged to tribal assemblies, the veche. The entire population took part in them. The veche operated continuously throughout the 9th–11th centuries, but over time, as the princely power strengthened, their influence declined.
The pagan beliefs of the Eastern Slavs are a complex, multi-layered formation. The sources note that the Slavs worshiped mountains, springs, groves, and plants. This indicates the preservation of early, primitive religious beliefs. However, the most important attributes of both tribal and settlement sanctuaries were idols. Wooden statues became the most widespread. The most remarkable monument of Slavic paganism is the Zbruch Idol.
1. Eastern Slavs in the pre-state period. Prerequisites for the formation of the Old Russian state. General characteristics socio-economic development of Kievan Rus. Features of early feudalization
During the Great Migration of Peoples, Slavic tribes, fleeing the Huns, took refuge in the forests or headed west. But after the decline of the Huns, the Slavs returned to the banks of the Danube and Dnieper, to the forests along the Pripyat and Desna rivers, and to the upper reaches of the Oka. In the V – VI centuries. n. e. There was a demographic explosion of the Slavic population.
At this time, the importance of tribal leaders and elders strengthened in Slavic society, fighting squads were formed around them, the division of the population into rich and poor began, and trade between the inhabitants of the Danube and Dnieper with the Balkans and Greece began again.
In the 5th century n. e. In the basins of the Dnieper and Dniester, a strong alliance of East Slavic tribes, called Ants, was formed. At the same time, in the north of the Balkan Peninsula, a tribal union of Sklavins (Slavs), related to the union of the Antes, was formed. From the 5th century n. e. The Antes moved to the Balkan Peninsula, to the territory of the Byzantine Empire.
In the 5th century n. e. on the banks of the Dnieper by the Slavic leader Kiy was founded future capital Rus - the city of Kyiv. Kyiv became the center of one of the tribes of the Antes' union - the Polyans. At this time, attempts were made by the Byzantine state to establish peaceful relations with the leaders of the Antes, and the Antes sought to develop new territories in confrontation with the local Slavs. Slavic squads are developing the south, the Balkans, the west and the east. Later, another Slavic center appeared in the Ilmen region - the union of Novgorod (Ilmen) Slovenes.
During the VI – VII centuries. The Slavs waged a constant struggle against the Avars, who invaded Eastern Europe. At the end of the 8th century. The Slavs, in alliance with the Frankish king Charlemagne, inflicted a crushing defeat on the Avars.
At the same time, through the Lower Volga region to the Northern Black Sea region, occupying lands in the foothills of the Caucasus, a new Turkic horde - the Khazars - came to Eastern Europe. Some of the Slavic tribes became dependent on Khazar rule. The Slavs traded with the East through Khazaria. Since the Slavs tried to free themselves from the influence of the Khazars, peaceful relations often alternated with military conflicts.
In the VIII – IX centuries. After the defeat of the Khazars and the liberation of their lands from their pressure, a long period of peace began in the life of the Eastern Slavs. At least 15 Ant-like unions of Slavic tribes are formed. At the turn of the VIII - IX centuries. the Polans manage to get rid of the Khazars' control and pay tribute to them. Other tribes (northerners, Vyatichi, Radimichi) still remained Khazar tributaries.
The most developed among the Slavic tribes were the Polyans, as they lived in a favorable climate, on a trade route, and were in constant contact with their more developed southern neighbors. It was concentrated here greatest number population. Also, different tribes had their own characteristics of economic development. They had a great influence on the formation of society among the Eastern Slavs, on the emergence of their desire to create a state.
In ancient times, the concept of the state was combined with the power of the chief-leader. The Eastern Slavs became tribal princes with the help of their squads. The first signs of statehood appeared among those tribes whose economy developed faster than others. These were the Polyans and Novgorod Slovenes.
By the end of the 9th century. A fairly clear hierarchy of society was established. At its top was the prince. He completely controlled the entire tribe or union of tribes, relying on senior and junior warriors (personal guards). All the warriors were professional warriors. Over time, tribal nobility appeared - future boyars from among the heads of clans. The most numerous part of the tribe were people (smerds). But they were also divided into “men” (the most prosperous), “warriors”, i.e. those who had the right to participate in wars and could provide themselves with the necessary equipment. Women, children, and other family members were subordinate to their husbands. They were called "servants". At the lower levels of society there were the poor, who became dependent on rich people, and those without rights - orphans and slaves. At the lowest level of society were slaves - usually prisoners of war.
After the abolition of polyudye in Rus', regular collection of tribute from the population was introduced. Thus, people became somewhat dependent on the prince and the state. The princes were able to appropriate the most fertile and best lands for themselves. And free people, in addition to paying tribute to the prince, gradually became dependent on him. They were attracted to various jobs in the prince's household; This is how land dependence on the master appeared. The first princely domains appeared - complexes of lands on which people lived, dependent directly on the ruler of the state. At the same time, personal land holdings and farms emerged princely boyars and vigilantes. The princes provided them with the opportunity to manage their estates, and as payment, to appropriate part of the profits from these farms. This order was called “feeding”. Later, the princes transfer their possessions into hereditary ownership to their vassals. Such lands in Rus' were called patrimony. But the right of supreme power to these lands belonged to the Grand Duke. He could grant these lands, or he could take them away or give them to another person. In turn, large landowners transferred part of their possessions to their warriors so that they could live on them and have the opportunity to purchase military equipment - in the 11th century. in Rus' a system similar to that of Western Europe was developing. Such a plot of transferred land was called a feud, and the entire system of multi-level dependence was called feudal; owners of lands with peasants or cities inhabited by artisans and other inhabitants were called feudal lords.
The Slavs are one of the largest European ethnic groups. IN modern world it combines about 300 ml| people, of whom more than 125 million live in Russia. Slavic languages are divided into three large groups: western (Polish, Czech, Slovak, Lusatian), southern (Bulgarian, Serbo-Croatian, Slovenian and Macedonian) and eastern (Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian). All of them belong to Indo-European! language family, which also includes Indian, Iranian, Italian Romance, Celtic, Germanic, Baltic and other languages. It is assumed that the Indo-European community was once united for a long time and developed as one entity and on a certain level! did not begin to disintegrate. In this process, the co6d ancestors of the Slavs began to stand out, it’s hard to say with certainty. Most teachings agree that this could have happened somewhere in the 1st millennium! AD, most likely not earlier than its middle. I The processes of Slavic ethnogenesis are divided into a total of three stages: until the end of the 1st millennium AD. - Proto-Slavic from the turn of AD. 3rd-4th centuries - Proto-Slavic V-VII centuries. -Early Slavic. After this, the Slavs finally acquire their own ethnic identity, and their socio- and political genesis enters the active phase. 1 Currently, there are several theories about the Slavic ancestral home, which localize it either in the Carpathian-Danube region, or in the Vistula-Oder interfluve, or in the territory between the Dnieper and Vistula in the forest and forest-steppe natural areas. I In written sources, the Slavs first appear under the name of the Wends. At least, the large proto-ethnic image of the Wends/Veneti, known to the ancient authors Pliny the Elder, Tacitus, and Ptolemy, included the ancestors of the Slavs. The Gothic historian of the 6th century directly points to this. Jordan: “These (Vends. -D A.) come from the same root and are now known under three names: Veneti, Antes and Sklavins.” The Veneds settled over the vast territory of Eastern Europe from the borders of the Finno-Ugric tribes in the north to the Carpathian Mountains and the Dnieper region in the south, from the right tributaries of the Vistula in the west to the upper reaches of the Volga, Oka and Don in the east. Complex ethnic processes took place in this area, during which the Proto-Slavic ethnic group began to emerge. The consolidation of the Slavic tribes was accelerated by the invasion of Eastern Europe at the turn of the 2nd and 3rd centuries. AD Germans (Goths), who created a powerful early public education(the so-called power of Germanaric). The Goths were at enmity with the Slavs, tried to annex them and, obviously, achieved some success in this. However, at the end of the 4th century. The Gothic power was destroyed by a large-scale invasion of eastern nomads - the Huns. Carried away by the pursuit of the Goths retreating to the west and the plunder of the provinces of the Roman Empire, the Huns advanced into the Central and even Western Europe. The north of Germanarich's former possessions turned out to be sparsely populated, and Slavic tribes began to migrate here from the forest zone. After the collapse of the nomadic Hunnic power in the 6th century. The Slavs began to dominate Eastern Europe. From the 6th century The period of the most intensive settlement of the Slavs begins. They partially move to the north of the continent, displacing and assimilating local Baltic and Finno-Ugric tribes. But the main stream of migration rushes south, to the Danube borders of the rich Eastern Empire - Byzantium. It was then that numerous references to two early Slavic peoples - the Ants and the Sklavians - appeared on the pages of the works of Byzantine and other authors. The Slavs not only stage short-term raids, but also permanently move to new lands, moving to the Balkans, Greece and Asia Minor all the way to Syria. However, at the turn of the VI-VII centuries, they suffered a series of defeats from the southern European tribal unions, known as the Vlachs, which forced them to partially relocate to the central and return migration to the eastern part of the European continent. These events marked the beginning of the division of the Slavs into three branches - western, southern and eastern; their isolation was mainly completed by the 8th-9th centuries. During the migrations of Slavic tribes from Eastern Europe to the Danube region and back, the Sclavenians and Antes are mixed. At the beginning of the 7th century. (602) the Antes are mentioned by sources in last time, and from that moment on, the Byzantines and European authors write only about the Slavs/Slavs. Meanwhile, the invasions of nomadic peoples from the depths of Asia into the southern Russian steppes continued. In the middle of the 6th century, at the height of the Slavic invasions across the Danube, Turkic-speaking or Mongol-speaking Avars appeared here, which probably ultimately became the main reason for the decline of the Ant tribal community. A little later, in the middle of the 7th century, the Black Sea steppes attracted new Turks - the Bulgarians. The latter, led by Khan Asparukh, migrated to the Lower Danube and, having conquered the local tribes of the southern Slavs, laid the foundation Danube Bulgaria . Both Avars and Bulgarians smashed and plundered Slavic settlements from the Dnieper to the Danube region, enslaved the population, causing fierce resistance and provoking the Slavic tribes to a new consolidation in the face of a common enemy. By the end of the 7th - mid-8th century. to the south and southeast of the main territory of settlement of the Eastern Slavs, a new powerful state formation of nomads is gradually taking shape - the Khazar Kaganate. This process probably became the main incentive for the formation of East Slavic tribal unions of pre-Old Russian times. According to the chronicles, about a dozen such unions are known. In the Middle Dnieper region they localized the union of glades, the center of which was the city of Kyiv. The chronicler himself attributes its foundation to three legendary brothers - the first Polyansky princes Kiy, Shchek and Khoriv, the name of the eldest gave the name to the fortress. To the south and southwest of the glades there were unions of Tiverts (along the Dniester), White Croats (in the Carpathian region), Ulitsch (on the Lower Dnieper), Buzhans (along the Southern Bug) and Dulebs (on the Western Bug). The last two were in the 9th century. . form parts of the Volhynian tribal union. To the northwest of the glades, in Eastern Volyn, were the lands of the Drevlyans. To the north of the Drevlyans, deeper in the forest zone, in the area between the Pripyat and Dvina rivers, there was a tribal union of the Dregovichi. To the east of the glades, in the Dnieper Left Bank, tribes of northerners settled. To the north of them, the chronicle places unions of the Radimichi tribes (the Sozh River basin) and the Vyatichi (along the Oka). The most northern of the East Slavic tribal associations were the Krivichi and Slovenian Ilmen. The first settled in the Smolensk and Pskov regions, and later the Polochans separated from them. The latter lived in the area of Lake Ilmen. Their tribal center was first Ladoga, where already at the end of the 9th century. the oldest stone fortress in Rus' is being built, and later Novgorod. The picture of the settlement of Slavic tribes is complemented by the vast region of the Don Slavs, located in the upper and middle reaches of the river. Don. Its non-mentioning in the chronicles is apparently due to the fact that it was most dependent on the Khazars and ultimately never gained independence. The process of formation of Slavic statehood will be poorly understood if one does not turn to an analysis of the social system of the Slavs on the eve of the formation of the Kyiv state. The Slavs traditionally lived in communities, which can be correlated with individual settlements. A large patriarchal family settled in one village - patronymy, or lineage. Clusters of closely located settlements (the so-called “bush”), characteristic of the Eastern Slavs, reflect the structure of clan organizations. Several clans occupying a certain topographical territory formed a tribe. Thus, the size of the tribe could vary greatly, but it is unlikely to exceed several thousand people. Until a certain time, consanguinity played a decisive role in the tribe. Such a social structure is called rodotopeminal, or primitive (primitive-communal). However, over time, as a result of the progress of productive forces (mastery of metals, improvement of tools, etc.), the separation of individual paired (nukpear) families occurs and patronymy begins to disintegrate. This objective process also took place in the East Slavic lands, but obviously at a slower pace. The fact is that in the forest zone - the main natural environment habitat of the Slavs - the slash-and-burn farming system prevailed, which required significant labor costs. It was difficult for one married couple with children to clear a forest area of mature trees, and community ties continued to play a big role. The beginning of the active stage of decomposition of tribal relations among the Eastern Slavs should be associated primarily with the activation of their military activities, the formation of squads. It was the spoils of war that accumulated in the hands of leaders and the most successful warriors, and not the successes of individual families in agriculture caused property differentiation in the Slavic community. This obviously explains the contrast between the military stratum and the direct producers, led by their clan elders, which can be traced in a number of chronicle stories and some foreign sources. For example, some Arab authors write about two peoples, Rus and Slovenians, of which the latter are subordinate to the former. The formation of professional squads led by military leaders also accelerates the processes of politogenesis, since it is they who give rise to the need for the formation of tribal unions, which are the earliest form of military-political associations. The military elite played a dominant role in them, but the primitive democratic institutions of power were also preserved - the people's assembly, the council of clan elders, etc. Moreover, military leaders do not immediately gain primacy in resolving general tribal issues, gradually displacing the traditional governing bodies of the tribal community. The military leader - the leader of the squad among the Slavs receives the name prince. The union of tribes is a potestary, i.e. e. pre-state education. It already contains some elements of the actual political organization - the power of the military leader (prince), based on the strength of his squad, combining administrative, military, judicial and other functions. However, these functions do not yet have a solid foundation, they are not always enshrined even in customary law, the power of such a prince is not yet hereditary, its boundaries are unclear, the position of the ruler may be precarious due to the lack of a long tradition of his legitimacy. The Slavs had such tribal unions as the Polyans, Drevlyans, Krivichi and others. It should, however, be noted that these associations correspond, rather, not with tribal unions, but with “unions of unions” or “super-unions”, since their scale is very significant. The formation and development of large tribal associations represents the first stage in the formation of statehood of the Eastern Slavs. The second stage was the emergence of tribal kingdoms. The chronicle tradition has brought to us the names of some of the tribal princes - legendary (Kiy, Radim, Vyatko) and, probably, historical (Derevlyan prince Mal). The third stage is associated with the formation of the early states of the Eastern Slavs. One of them occurs in the Middle Dnieper region, on the territory of the glades and their neighbors. In some sources it appears as Cuiaba. Historians call it differently - Lower Rus', Russian Land, Russian Khaganate. Its center was Kyiv. The title of the ruler of this country - Kagan - in political significance correlates with the title of the rulers of the strong neighboring state of the Khazars. We have almost no reliable information about the history of the Dnieper East Slavic power, with the exception of data on several campaigns against Byzantium in the 9th century. (in 860) and the names of its last princes (khagans?) Askold and Dir. Another early state formation is formed in the north of Eastern Europe, around Ladoga and, later, Novgorod and correlates with Slavia mentioned in various sources. It is his story that is firmly linked with the invitation to the reign of Rurik in the middle of the 9th century. The very fact of such an invitation speaks to the unconditional existence of the institution of reign, otherwise on what basis would the relations of the visiting military leader with the local population develop? The practice of inviting a ruler from outside was not unusual in the early Middle Ages and was common in Europe. In this case, according to the chronicle, Rurik and his squad were needed as a neutral force to restore order among the tribes that called them, who, according to the chronicle, were at enmity with each other. Obviously, the Eastern Slavs had other early royal associations. For example, Arab sources also mention Arsu (Artania), the location of which is disputed by scientists. _ Finally, the last, fourth, stage of development of East Slavic statehood is associated with the unification of Kyiv, Novgorod and some other East Slavic lands into a single ancient Russian power - Kievan Rus. This will be discussed in the next section. 1.
