Libraries of Byzantium. B22.2 - Libraries of Byzantium. Legal culture of the Byzantine Empire

Description:
The Byzantine Library is a series of the Aletheia publishing house, which published books dedicated to the history of Byzantium. It published modern popular science and scientific books by contemporary Russian and foreign scientists involved in the history of Byzantium, as well as translations of traditional Byzantine works.
Here are 44 volumes of the series.

Alfeev I. Life and teaching of St. Gregory the Theologian. (fb2)
Bezobrazov P., Lyubarsky Y. Two books about Mikhail Psellus - 2001. (djvu)
Bibikov M. Byzantine sources on history ancient Rus' and Caucasus - 2001. (djvu)
Bibikov M. Historical literature Byzantium - 1998. (djvu)
Budanova V. Gorsky A. Ermolova I. Great Migration of Peoples. (fb2)
Budanova V. Goths in the era of the Great Migration - 2001. (djvu)
Vasiliev A. History of the Byzantine Empire in 2 volumes. T. 1. (rtf)
Vasiliev A. History of the Byzantine Empire in 2 volumes. T. 2. (rtf)
Byzantine historians about the fall of Constantinople in 1453. - 2006. (djvu)
Byzantine essays. Works of Russian scientists for the XXI International Congress of Byzantinists - 2006. (djvu)
Dionysius the Areopagite. Maxim the Confessor. Essays. Interpretations - 2002. (djvu)
Zanemonets A. John Eugenicus and Orthodox resistance to the Florentine Union - 2008. (pdf)
Hegumen Hilarion (Alfeev). Venerable Simeon the New Theologian and Orthodox Tradition- 2001. (doc)
Kazhdan A. Byzantine culture X-XII centuries - 2006. (djvu)
Kazhdan A. Two days in the life of Constantinople. (fb2)
Kazhdan A. History of Byzantine literature (850-1000) - 2012. (djvu)
Karpov S. History of the Trebizond Empire - 2007. (djvu)
Karpov S. Latin Romania - 200. (djvu)
Kekavmen - Tips and stories. 2nd ed. - 2003. (djvu)
Klimanov L. Byzantine reflections in sphragistics. (pdf)
Komnina A. Alexiad - 1996. (djvu)
Krivushin I. Early Byzantine church historiography - 1998. (djvu)
Kulakovsky Yu. History of Byzantium, vol. 1. - 2003. (djvu)
Kulakovsky Yu. History of Byzantium, vol. 2. - 1996. (djvu)
Kulakovsky Yu. History of Byzantium, vol. 3 - 1996. (djvu)
Kuchma V. Military organization Byzantine Empire- 2001. (pdf)
Lebedev A. Historical essays state of the Byzantine-Eastern Church - 1998. (djvu)
Lebedev A. History of the Councils of Constantinople of the 9th century. (fb2)
Medvedev I. Byzantine humanism XIV-XV centuries - 1997. (djvu)
Medvedev I. Petersburg Byzantine Studies - 2006. (djvu)
Medvedev I. Legal culture of the Byzantine Empire - 2001. (djvu)
About strategy. Byzantine military treatise VI century - 2007. (djvu)
Orosius P. History against the pagans. (rtf)
Easter Chronicle - 2004. (djvu)
Przhegorlinsky A. Byzantine church at the turn of the XIII-XIV centuries. - 2011. (pdf)
The successor of Feofan. Lives of Byzantine kings - 2009. (djvu)
Prokhorov G. Rus' and Byzantium in the era of the Battle of Kulikovo. Articles - 2000. (djvu)
Rudakov A. Essays on Byzantine culture according to hagiography - 1997. (djvu)
Skrzhinskaya E.Ch. Rus', Italy and Byzantium in the Middle Ages. - 2000. (djvu)
Strategikon Mauritius - 2004. (djvu)
Taft R. Byzantine Church Rite - 2000. (djvu)
Khvostova K. Byzantine civilization as a historical paradigm - 2009. (djvu)
Chichurov I.S. (ed.) Avtibwpov. To the 75th anniversary of Academician of the Russian Academy of Sciences Gennady Grigorievich Litavrin - 2003. (djvu)
Shukurov R. Great Komnenos and the East (1204-1461) - 2001. (pdf)

Less abrupt transition from ancient world by the Middle Ages he was in Byzantium - a state with a thousand-year history (IV-XV centuries), formed during the collapse of the Roman Empire in its eastern part (Balkan Peninsula, Asia Minor, south-eastern Mediterranean). The culture of Byzantium was a synthesis of ancient, eastern and early Christian cultures. The Christian rulers of Byzantium were tolerant of pagan culture and did not completely abandon the heritage of antiquity. Greek was the official and most widespread language of the empire, therefore the works of the great Greeks of antiquity were publicly available, enjoyed honor and were the basis of education. All this contributed to the creation of favorable conditions for the development of culture.

Literacy was widespread in the empire. There were numerous primary and secondary schools. Already from the 4th century, universities were opened, not only in the capital, but also in the provinces.

An important role in intellectual life Byzantium played libraries. One of the most famous was the imperial library, created in the 4th century by Emperor Constantine I the Great. His descendants continued to take care of the library and by the end of the 5th century it represented a significant collection of about 120 thousand books. Among book rarities there were lists of Homer's poems written in gold letters on snake skin. Scientists were invited to rewrite books and generally maintain the library's collections at a high level. This state of affairs was consistent with ancient tradition.

In the middle of the 4th century, the son of Constantine the Great, Constantius II, founded a state scriptorium in the capital. “ Scriptor" in Latin means “ scribe”, and the word itself “ scriptorium” means a workshop for creating handwritten books. The emperor appointed the head of the scriptorium - a special official - the archon, under whose command there were many calligraphers.

Constantius II was the creator of the Constantinople Public Library, the first public library of the Middle Ages. It was famous for its rich funds and, according to some sources, existed until the fall of the Byzantine Empire.

Along with the imperial and public libraries, there were libraries of religious institutions, educational institutions and individuals.

There were book collections in all churches and monasteries. We have received information about the library of the Patriarchate of Constantinople, the libraries of the Studite and Athos monasteries. The Patriarchal Library existed at least since the 7th century. Its collection was predominantly of a religious nature, but in addition to books consecrated by the church, there were also works of “heretical” content. They were stored in special boxes, separate from the works of orthodox authors. It is known that some monasteries in the capital practiced issuing books to the laity.

Unlike Western Europe in Byzantium, where the monarchy was strong, the church did not have a monopoly on education. Numerous secular educational institutions had their own libraries, since teaching was inextricably linked with books. But of all these libraries, the library of the University of Constantinople, created at the beginning of the 5th century, stands out. It was in charge of a special servant, who was called “ bibliophile"  .

Byzantium was also famous for its private book collections. Not only emperors, nobles and church hierarchs had personal libraries, but also scientists, professors, and teachers. The richest book lovers often, when ordering a book from a copyist, specifically specified the elements of its design. The main attention was paid to ornamentation and binding, for the manufacture of which ivory, gold, enamel and precious stones were used.

Among the Byzantine book collectors, the first attempt in the Middle Ages to provide a bibliographic description of the collection was made. One of the most educated Byzantines of the 9th century, Patriarch Photius, wrote the essay “ Myriobiblion”, which means “ Books of a thousand" This was a description of more than 300 books - ancient and Christian. The writer briefly outlined the contents of the book and provided information about the author. Sometimes Photius did not limit himself to a simple retelling and included his own reflections and critical notes in the annotation.

Little is known about the structure of Byzantine libraries. In the early Middle Ages, following the ancient tradition, the library was placed in the open porticoes of buildings, and even the owners of private collections, following fashion, willingly displayed their book wealth. Gradually, this tradition of openly storing books began to be replaced by the practice of secretly “saving” them from readers. These changes were caused by circumstances of a different nature. Firstly, in the Middle Ages the cost of books increased significantly. Secondly, there was the influence of Christianity, which was initially a persecuted and persecuted religion and therefore religious books were kept in secret, hidden places - chests and chests. In large libraries, books were provided with a code and arranged in accordance with it. On some manuscripts that have come down to us, marks have been preserved indicating the closet (or shelf) and the place of the book on the shelf.

The fate of Byzantine libraries is unenviable. Irreversible damage was caused to them by the crusaders who invaded the territory of the empire. At the beginning of the 13th century, they captured Constantinople by storm and plundered the city. There is evidence that the crusaders mercilessly destroyed books and carried writing materials on spears through the entire city. Entire transports loaded with crusader war trophies - richly decorated Byzantine manuscripts - were sent to Western Europe.

In the second half of the 14th century, Constantinople was restored and again became the capital of the empire. Along with the destroyed city, the libraries were also restored, but this calm was short-lived. In the middle of the 15th century, the Byzantine Empire fell under the onslaught of the Ottoman Turks, and again this was accompanied by destruction, burning and plundering of book depositories. Historians wrote about ships carrying books, about carts loaded with manuscripts, and about how the gold and silver that decorated the bindings were mercilessly torn off and sold.

The importance of Constantinople for Western civilization great. The activities of Byzantine bibliophiles, the work of scriptoria, and the very fact of the existence of many libraries helped preserve a significant part of the heritage of Hellas, which was lost at that time to the West.

This work is devoted to a complex, little-studied and underestimated era: the reign of Emperor Theodosius II (401-450), the longest in the history of Byzantium. At this time, the empire was experiencing contradictory processes: the decline and instability in the West corresponded to the rise and prosperity in the East, in which historians, paradoxically, for a long time did not see any merit of the reigning emperor. The work attempts to look at the results of his reign in a new way, taking into account modern research. The wife of Theodosius II, Empress Athenaida-Eudokia (c. 405-460) - the daughter of an Athenian professor, a pagan who became a Christian, ruler, poetess and ascetic - is one of the symbolic figures of this era. Her name is surrounded by legends, not all of which are reliable, but their emergence in itself is significant and has its own reasons, which the author seeks to understand. The author of the book is a candidate of philological sciences, associate professor of the department of ancient languages and ancient Christian literature at PSTGU. The book is intended both for specialists in the history and literature of this period, and for a wide range of people interested in the history of late antiquity and Byzantium.

Senina Tatyana Anatolyevna 2018

Hellenism in Byzantium in the 9th century

Cultural studies , Story

The book is dedicated to Byzantine Hellenism of the 9th century. In Byzantium, interest in ancient culture sharply increased. At the origins of this revival was the famous iconoclast John the Grammar, and his nephew Leo the Philosopher raised a circle of students and followers, thanks to whom a collection of manuscripts of Plato and the Neoplatonists was created. The Hellenistic humanism of this era, approaching Platonism and secularism, is most clearly reflected in the work of Leo the Philosopher and his student Leo Chirosfactos. The Byzantine Hellenists were fascinated by ancient culture, balancing on the edge beyond which, from the point of view of a pious Christian, “wickedness” began. The secular poetry of the nun Cassia, in whose gnomic epigrams Hellenistic motifs sound, is an example of a more moderate Hellenism. Patriarch Photius of Constantinople, despite his keen interest in ancient culture, looked at it from a strictly Orthodox position and played a negative role in spreading the ideal of enlightened Hellenism. Particularly interesting is the worldview of Leo Chirosfakt, whose writings contain not only neoplatonic, but also iconoclastic motifs. The work of Chirosfact is a kind of synthesis of Hellenism of the 9th century. and testifies to the spread of Platonism and the survival of iconoclastic ideas among the educated Byzantines of that era.

Kyzlasova Irina 2018

Academician Nikodim Pavlovich Kondakov. Searches and accomplishments

Biographies and memoirs

This collection is dedicated to the scientific work of the great scientist, one of the main creators of the new discipline “Byzantine and Old Russian art” N.P. Kondakov (1844–1925), as well as a number of his colleagues. It includes both newly written essays and materials previously published in various publications, but specially revised again. The texts are based on documents stored in the archives of different cities: these are epistolary complexes important for the history of science and especially valuable fragments from the diary of N.P. Kondakov (including pages full of deep tragedy about his forced emigration from Odessa in early 1920, which in many ways complement the famous book “Through the Mouths of the Bunins”). The main milestones in the life of N.P. Kondakov and a complete bibliography of his works are given. The book is intended for both specialists and everyone interested in the history of Russian Byzantine studies.

Krivov Mikhail Vasilievich 2018

Story

The book by the famous Russian researcher gives a detailed description of Byzantine and Arab societies during the era of the emergence of Islam, showing the history of military-political relations between Byzantium and the Arab Caliphate in the 7th–8th centuries. and mutual cultural influences until the 11th century. The book is written on the basis of medieval Greek (Theophanes, Nikephoros, etc.), Arabic (Balazuri, Tabari, etc.), Armenian (Sebeos, Ghevond, etc.), Latin and Syriac sources, used partly in the originals, partly in translations.

Kuchma Vladimir 2017

Military organization of the Byzantine Empire

Military affairs, weapons, intelligence services , Story

The book is the first thematic collection of articles in Russian historiography devoted to the problems of the military organization of the Byzantine Empire. The main sources of the study are monuments of Byzantine military scientific literature, based on centuries-old ancient tradition. Principles military theory are considered in inextricable connection with combat practice, against the general background of the socio-economic, political and state-legal development of the Empire. For specialist historians and a wide range of readers interested in the history of wars and military art.

Litavrin G. G. 2017

Byzantium, Bulgaria, Ancient Rus' (IX - beginning of the 12th century)

Story

The book by the outstanding Russian Byzantinist G.G. Litavrin talks about the formation of Ancient Rus' as a powerful cultural power and the influence of Byzantium and Bulgaria on this process. As the author himself writes, " main goal This book is not to trace the very process and circumstances of the baptism of Rus', but to show how, despite all the vicissitudes and difficulties in relations with the Byzantine Empire, the adoption of Christianity by Russia from it became inevitable... The entire course of formation and development Old Russian state and its very geopolitical position determined the historical pattern that made Byzantium the “godmother” of Ancient Rus'..."

Litavrin G. G. 2017

Byzantium and the Slavs

Story , Ethnography

The collection of the outstanding Byzantine scholar, Academician of the Russian Academy of Sciences G.G. Litavrin has four sections. The first contains articles on the most controversial problems of the socio-economic history of Byzantium (about small and large land ownership and the rights of its inheritance, about the tax system of the empire, the conditions of craft and trade activity in the Byzantine city and about its relations with Latins and Ottomans). The second section is devoted to the history of the First and Second Bulgarian Kingdoms. Social problems here they also prevail, but special attention is paid to the issues of relations between the Slavs and the Proto-Bulgarians and Byzantium. The third section includes articles on Russian-Byzantine relations in the 9th–12th centuries. and, finally, the fourth reveals a number of controversial or little-known episodes from the history of relations between the ancient Slavs and the Avars and the Byzantine Empire in the 7th–9th centuries. The book will be of interest not only to specialists, but also to a wide range of readers.

Budanova Vera , Gorsky Anton Anatolievich , Ermolova Irina Evgenevna 2017

The Great Migration of Peoples. Ethnopolitical and social aspects

Ethnography , Story

The book is dedicated to a unique stage in world history - the Great Migration of Peoples, when, in the conditions of extinction Ancient civilization and the emergence of the civilization of the Middle Ages, the interaction between the barbarian world and the Roman Empire reached its most intense phase. The authors focus on the three leaders of the Great Migration - the Germans, the Huns and the Slavs, their role in the European civilizational processes of the 2nd-7th centuries, their transformation during migrations from tribal unions to the first state entities, the evolution of military, trade, diplomatic, cultural contacts, which constitute the essence of the interaction and mutual influence of two polar worlds - Barbaricum and the Empire. The book is addressed not only to specialist historians, archaeologists, ethnologists, linguists, but also to all readers interested in the history of Europe at the turn of Antiquity and the Middle Ages .

Vasilik Vladimir Vladimirovich 2017

Church and empire in Byzantine ecclesiastical and poetic monuments

Story , Christianity

The book is dedicated to reflecting life Universal Church and the Byzantine (Roman) Empire in Byzantine church-poetic, or hymnographic, monuments. For the first time in the monograph the problem of historicism in Byzantine hymnography is raised. The book examines church-poetic texts from the end of the 1st to the end of the 10th century. - hymns of the Apocalypse, Great Doxology, hymn to the Trinity, troparia of Auxentius, kontakion of St. Roman the Sweet Singer, canons of St. Andrew of Crete, John of Damascus, Cosmas of Maium, Joseph the Songwriter. Are being researched different sides life of the Church and Empire, including martyrdom, dogmatic disputes, wars, riots, earthquakes, legal conflicts. Based on hymnographic monuments, the book covers in a new way the Nika uprising and the life of St. The Romance of the Sweet Singer, wars with the Persians and Avars, ideas about society and culture, etc. The appendix publishes a number of unpublished monuments that have not been translated into Russian.

Krivov Mikhail Vasilievich 2017

Byzantium and the Arabs in the early Middle Ages

Story

The book by the famous Russian researcher gives a detailed description of Byzantine and Arab societies during the era of the emergence of Islam, showing the history of military-political relations between Byzantium and the Arab Caliphate in the 7th-8th centuries. and mutual cultural influences until the 11th century. The book is written on the basis of medieval Greek (Theophanes, Nikephoros, etc.), Arabic (Balazuri, Tabari, etc.), Armenian (Sebeos, Ghevond, etc.), Latin and Syriac sources, used partly in the originals, partly in translations. For a wide range of readers.

2017

Story

2017

Byzantine essays. Works of Russian scientists for the XXIII International Congress of Byzantinists

Story

Since 1961, Byzantine essays have traditionally been published by Russian scholars for the International Congresses of Byzantine Studies. This issue was prepared for the XXIII International Congress in Belgrade. It includes articles reflecting the results of the latest research by Russian scientists on problems of social, political, ethnic and cultural history Byzantium, as well as problems of source study and historiography. In accordance with the principle adopted in this series, most of the articles are profiled taking into account the main theme of the upcoming congress and are devoted to the history of Byzantine civilization as a living organism, appearing united in its development.

Krivov Mikhail Vasilievich 2017

Byzantine culture

Story

This publication is devoted to a subject that is relatively little covered in educational and popular science literature - Byzantine culture of the 4th-15th centuries. At the same time, the study of this subject is very relevant for our country, since domestic culture after the baptism of Rus' developed primarily under the influence of the culture of Byzantium. The book shows the features of Byzantine philosophy and theology, legal and historical thought, hagiographical, fiction and other literature, scientific knowledge and systems of education, architecture and art, as well as the life and customs of the population. Much attention is paid to the connections of Byzantine culture with the cultures of other peoples, especially Russian. The book is intended not only for students of higher educational institutions, but also for a wide range of readers.

Medvedev I. P. 2017

Legal culture of the Byzantine Empire

Story , Jurisprudence

The Byzantine Empire was a state that created a brilliant, advanced culture throughout the Middle Ages, the most important integral part which was the legal culture. I.P. Medvedev’s book develops the concept of Byzantinism as a cultural system based on the principles of law, and civilized, written law, which presupposed a high level of legal thinking and general education. The controversial issues of the legal foundations of Byzantine statehood, individual stages in the development of Byzantine legislation and jurisprudence, the system of legal education, the history of Byzantine legal proceedings, notaries, etc. are considered. The basis of the book consists of materials previously published by the author in various publications, appropriately supplemented, revised and combined into a single system. The publication is intended for a wide range of readers interested in the history of law.

Karpov Sergey 2017

History of the Trebizond Empire

Story

The monograph of the prominent Russian Byzantine and medievalist, corresponding member of the Russian Academy of Sciences S.P. Karpov, for the first time in world historiography, comprehensively examines all aspects of the political, economic and cultural history of the Trebizond Empire (1204-1461). The Empire of Trebizond was the cradle of Pontic Hellenism, the last Byzantine stronghold, for many years the connecting link between the West and the East, the crossroads of world civilizations. The very survival of this state in the era Crusades, Tatar-Mongol conquests, the rise of the powerful powers of the East (Seljukids Rum, Ilkhans, Emir Timur, Ak-Kuyunlu, Ottoman Sultanate, etc.) needs an explanation, which is offered by the author of the book. A prominent and ancient metropolis of the Ecumenical Patriarchate, the Empire of Trebizond left a noticeable mark on the history of the Orthodox East, maintaining diverse ties with Palaiologan Byzantium, the principalities of Ancient Rus', Crimea and Transcaucasia. From the end of the 13th century. Genoese and Venetian trading posts emerged on its territory, which played an important role in the economy of the Middle Ages. To study the topic, the author involved big circle archival, manuscript and published sources in many European and Oriental languages. The book is intended for Byzantinists, orientalists, Slavists, for undergraduate and graduate students of humanities universities, as well as for a wide range of readers interested in history.

Vasiliev Alexander Alexandrovich 2017

History of the Byzantine Empire. From the beginning of the Crusades to the fall of Constantinople

Story

In the scientific heritage of the outstanding Russian Byzantinist and Arabist A.A. Vasiliev, general works covering the entire history of Byzantium up to the fall of Constantinople in 1453 occupy a special place. His following works were published in Russian in the first quarter of the 20th century in Petrograd - Petersburg - Leningrad: 1) Lectures on the history of Byzantium. Time before the Crusades (before 1081); 2) History of Byzantium and the Crusaders. The Age of the Comneni (1081-1184) and Angels (1185-1204); 3) History of Byzantium. Latin rule in the East. The era of the Nicene and Latin empires (1204-1261); 4) History of Byzantium. Fall of Byzantium. The Age of Palaiologos (1261-1453). After the emigration of A.A. Vasilyev, these works were repeatedly republished by him on foreign languages, with additions and changes, found in the second American edition - History of the Byzantine Empire, 324-1453. Madison, 1952 - the quality of a comprehensive monographic study, one of the most important in world Byzantine studies. This determines the relevance of publishing the work in full in Russian at the present time. “The History of the Byzantine Empire” by A.A. Vasiliev is characterized by two main qualities - brightness, picturesqueness, imagery of presentation, allowing each reader to be a living witness of the events described, to be fully and completely present in that infinitely distant and at the same time inconceivably close era, as well as the most scrupulous scientific accuracy , almost pedantry (but without scientific tediousness) in characterization historical facts, events and processes. The increase in the number of comments and notes from edition to edition speaks of the author’s extremely serious attitude to his work, of A.A. Vasiliev’s desire for an ever higher scientific ideal, and of taking into account the latest achievements of Byzantine studies. All additions by A.A. Vasiliev are translated from English . All notes missing from the Russian text, bibliography and indexes were also taken from the second American edition. The new Russian edition is preceded by an introductory article about life and scientific path A.A. Vasilyeva. The text of the book has been newly edited for the widest range of readers.

Alfeev I. Life and teaching of St. Gregory the Theologian. (fb2)
Bezobrazov P., Lyubarsky Y. Two books about Mikhail Psellus - 2001. (djvu)
Bibikov M. Byzantine sources on the history of ancient Rus' and the Caucasus - 2001. (djvu)
Bibikov M. Historical literature of Byzantium - 1998. (djvu)
Budanova V. Gorsky A. Ermolova I. Great Migration of Peoples. (fb2)
Budanova V. Goths in the era of the Great Migration - 2001. (djvu)
Vasiliev A. History of the Byzantine Empire in 2 volumes. T. 1. (rtf)
Vasiliev A. History of the Byzantine Empire in 2 volumes. T. 2. (rtf)
Byzantine historians about the fall of Constantinople in 1453. - 2006. (djvu)
Byzantine essays. Works of Russian scientists for the XXI International Congress of Byzantinists - 2006. (djvu)
Dionysius the Areopagite. Maxim the Confessor. Essays. Interpretations - 2002. (djvu)
Zanemonets A. John Eugenicus and Orthodox resistance to the Florentine Union - 2008. (pdf)
Hegumen Hilarion (Alfeev). Venerable Simeon the New Theologian and Orthodox Tradition - 2001. (doc)
Kazhdan A. Byzantine culture X-XII centuries - 2006. (djvu)
Kazhdan A. Two days in the life of Constantinople. (fb2)
Kazhdan A. History of Byzantine literature (850-1000) - 2012. (djvu)
Karpov S. History of the Trebizond Empire - 2007. (djvu)
Karpov S. Latin Romania - 200. (djvu)
Kekavmen - Tips and stories. 2nd ed. - 2003. (djvu)
Klimanov L. Byzantine reflections in sphragistics. (pdf)
Komnina A. Alexiad - 1996. (djvu)
Krivushin I. Early Byzantine church historiography - 1998. (djvu)
Kulakovsky Yu. History of Byzantium, vol. 1. - 2003. (djvu)
Kulakovsky Yu. History of Byzantium, vol. 2. - 1996. (djvu)
Kulakovsky Yu. History of Byzantium, vol. 3 - 1996. (djvu)
Kuchma V. Military organization of the Byzantine Empire - 2001. (pdf)
Lebedev A. Historical sketches of the state of the Byzantine-Eastern Church - 1998. (djvu)
Lebedev A. History of the Councils of Constantinople of the 9th century. (fb2)
Medvedev I. Byzantine humanism XIV-XV centuries - 1997. (djvu)
Medvedev I. Petersburg Byzantine Studies - 2006. (djvu)
Medvedev I. Legal culture of the Byzantine Empire - 2001. (djvu)
About strategy. Byzantine military treatise VI century - 2007. (djvu)
Orosius P. History against the pagans. (rtf)
Easter Chronicle - 2004. (djvu)
Przhegorlinsky A. Byzantine church at the turn of the XIII-XIV centuries. - 2011. (pdf)
The successor of Feofan. Lives of Byzantine kings - 2009. (djvu)
Prokhorov G. Rus' and Byzantium in the era of the Battle of Kulikovo. Articles - 2000. (djvu)
Rudakov A. Essays on Byzantine culture according to hagiography - 1997. (djvu)
Skrzhinskaya E.Ch. Rus', Italy and Byzantium in the Middle Ages. - 2000. (djvu)
Strategikon Mauritius - 2004. (djvu)
Taft R. Byzantine Church Rite - 2000. (djvu)
Khvostova K. Byzantine civilization as a historical paradigm - 2009. (djvu)
Chichurov I.S. (ed.) Avtibwpov. To the 75th anniversary of Academician of the Russian Academy of Sciences Gennady Grigorievich Litavrin - 2003. (djvu)
Shukurov R. Great Komnenos and the East (1204-1461) - 2001. (pdf)

IN THE MIDDLE AGES

1. Libraries of Byzantium

The transition from the ancient world to the Middle Ages was less dramatic in Byzantium, a state with a thousand-year history (IV-XV centuries), formed during the collapse of the Roman Empire in its eastern part (Balkan Peninsula, Asia Minor, southeastern Mediterranean). The culture of Byzantium was a synthesis of ancient, eastern and early Christian cultures. The Christian rulers of Byzantium were tolerant of pagan culture and did not completely abandon the heritage of antiquity. Greek was the official and most widespread language of the empire, therefore the works of the great Greeks of antiquity were publicly available, enjoyed honor and were the basis of education. All this contributed to the creation of favorable conditions for the development of culture.

Literacy was widespread in the empire. There were numerous primary and secondary schools. Already from the 4th century, universities were opened, not only in the capital, but also in the provinces.

Libraries played an important role in the intellectual life of Byzantium. One of the most famous was the imperial library, created in the 4th century by Emperor Constantine I the Great. His descendants continued to take care of the library and by the end of the 5th century it represented a significant collection of about 120 thousand books. Among the book rarities were lists of Homer's poems, written in gold letters on snakeskin. Scientists were invited to rewrite books and generally maintain the library's collections at a high level. This state of affairs was consistent with ancient tradition.

Along with the imperial and public libraries, there were libraries of religious institutions, educational institutions and private individuals.

Unlike Western Europe, in Byzantium, where the monarchy was strong, the church did not have a monopoly on education. Numerous secular educational institutions had their own libraries, since teaching was inextricably linked with books. But of all these libraries, the library of the University of Constantinople, created at the beginning of the 5th century, stands out. It was in charge of a special servant, who was called “ bibliophile"  .

Little is known about the structure of Byzantine libraries. In the early Middle Ages, following the ancient tradition, the library was placed in the open porticoes of buildings, and even the owners of private collections, following fashion, willingly displayed their book wealth. Gradually, this tradition of openly storing books began to be replaced by the practice of secretly “saving” them from readers. These changes were caused by circumstances of different nature. Firstly, in the Middle Ages the cost of books increased significantly. Secondly, there was the influence of Christianity, which was initially a persecuted and persecuted religion and therefore religious books were kept in secret, hidden places - chests and chests. In large libraries, books were provided with a code and arranged in accordance with it. On some manuscripts that have come down to us, marks have been preserved indicating the closet (or shelf) and the place of the book on the shelf.

The importance of Constantinople for Western civilization is great. The activities of Byzantine bibliophiles, the work of scriptoria, and the very fact of the existence of many libraries helped preserve a significant part of the heritage of Hellas, which was lost at that time to the West.

2. Libraries of the Arab Caliphate

During the Middle Ages, Constantinople was not the only cultural center of the Eastern Mediterranean. At the beginning of the 7th century, the era of Islam began. Islam covered most of the Arab world - from Persia to Morocco, and over the 800 years of its existence, the Arab Caliphate became a powerful power.

Formation of Arabic literary language, the improvement of written culture, great reverence and respect for knowledge in general and for books in particular were characteristic of this region.

Arab culture reached its peak in the 7th-9th centuries. Arab scientists achieved exceptional success in mathematics, astronomy, medicine, geography, and history. In mathematics, many terms of Arabic origin are still preserved - for example, the words “algebra”, “algorithm”, “digit” and others. The Arabs introduced digital symbols that were so convenient that they spread throughout the world, and we still use them today. Thrived fiction. It is not for nothing that today we read the poems of Saadi, Omar Khayyam, Rudaki and Hafiz.

Arab science and culture relied heavily on the ancient heritage. While in medieval Europe the works of ancient scientists were lost due to religious wars, in the Arab Caliphate the great Greeks - Plato, Aristotle, Hippocrates, Archimedes, Ptolemy - were translated. Many of these works have come to us precisely because they were translated into Arabic during the Middle Ages.

In the 8th-9th centuries, the caliphate became a world center for paper production. Paper was very convenient and, compared to parchment, a cheap material. The development of the paper industry in Samarkand, Cairo, Damascus and other Arab cities created conditions for an unprecedented flourishing of book publishing. In the Spanish city of Cordoba alone, 16–18 thousand books were produced annually. In the city of Tripoli, where about 20 thousand inhabitants lived, almost half of the population was employed in paper factories or scriptoriums. Some scriptoria in Tripoli had up to 180 scribes. At the end of the 10th century, there were 100 booksellers in Baghdad alone.

Naturally, with such an abundance of scriptoria and bookstores, the country also had an extensive network of libraries.

The libraries of the caliph rulers and their dignitaries were especially distinguished by their wealth. All the most significant rulers of Baghdad, Cairo, Cordoba, and Damascus were book lovers.

The founder of the dynasty and the first Umayyad caliph, Muawiya I (?-680), laid the foundations of one of the first Arab palace libraries. In Damascus he founded “ House of Wisdom” (“Bayt al-Hikmah”) is an institution that is both a library and a state repository archival documents. Since 689, the archive and the library began to exist separately. The basis of Mu'awiya I's library (like most Arab libraries) was Koranic literature, but there was also a rich collection of books on medicine, philosophy, astrology, mathematics, and history. After the capital was transferred from Damascus to Baghdad, the library was also transferred to the new capital.

Arab historians write that the grandson of Muawiyah I, Khalid ibn Yazid ibn Muawiyah, allowed educated Muslims to use the library, copy necessary books from her fund. Thus, the library gradually turned from a palace library into a public one.

The founder of the famous Baghdad Palace Library was the no less famous caliph Harun al-Rashid (766-809), whose image is captured in fairy tales “ Thousand and One Nights". He replenished it throughout his life. Many manuscripts were received from Byzantium and other countries as tribute or gifts. Harun's son, Caliph Al-Mamun, significantly expanded this book collection. The library's collection consisted of hundreds of books. It was headed by three Persian scientists. Al-Mamun turned the closed palace library into a public one, allowing access not only to famous scholars, but also to any educated readers.

Caliph Al-Hakim II (961-977), who ruled in Cordoba, united the three palace libraries that existed before him. The stock of the united library amounted to 400 thousand volumes. The volume of the catalog of this book collection, containing book titles and names of authors, was 44 notebooks of 90 sheets each.

Al-Hakim II had agents who conducted bibliographic searches for books all over the world, informing the caliph about all the new items and rarities. The library in Cordoba itself was replenished by a large staff of scribes, bookbinders, and illustrators. The library had departments divided into sections. The library had a cataloging librarian on staff.

Imitating their rulers, Arab aristocrats compiled rich private libraries. The library of the vizier Ibn Abbad, who was obsessed with books, is famous. He gathered around him the best representatives of the art of words, corresponded with famous writers and scientists. His library consisted of 117 thousand books. The library catalog consisted of 10 volumes. Being statesman and a warrior, Ibn Abbad traveled a lot and was accompanied by a library everywhere on his campaigns. The camels in the book caravan carried books in alphabetical order, so that the caravan librarians could always quickly and easily find the desired manuscript.

Bibliophilia in the Arab Caliphate was considered a manifestation of good manners not only among aristocrats. There were book collectors among people of simple class and low income. For example, the teacher Ibn Khazi had a beautiful, carefully selected collection that was widely known. The will of the Arab translator Ibn Tibbon to his son has been preserved: “I have collected a large library. Keep her in order. Prepare lists of books from each cabinet and place each book in its proper cabinet. Cover the books with beautiful curtains, protect them from water from the ceiling, from mice, from any harm, for they– the best is yours treasure".

In the 9th century, replaced “ Houses of Wisdom”, in which library functions were combined with archival ones, began to arrive “ Houses of Science” (“Dar al-ilm”), within the walls of which reading was closely connected with learning. During this period in major cities Higher educational institutions - madrasahs - are opened in the Arab Caliphate. Some of them eventually became universities, where, along with theology, exact and natural sciences, philosophy, medicine. The first institution of this type was the library of the University of Baghdad (993), a large scientific and religious center. But perhaps the library that became most famous was “ Houses of Science” in Tripoli. The literature provides a truly astronomical figure characterizing the size of the book collection of this library - 3 million volumes! Moreover, there were 50 thousand copies of the Koran alone and 80 thousand copies of commentaries on it. The library staff consisted of 180 employees. It is surprising that such a large library existed for only 30 years and was destroyed by fire during the Crusader invasion.

A distinctive feature of libraries of this type was educational and pedagogical work. For the first time in the history of librarianship, they became centers for the dissemination of various ideas and teachings. In Europe, similar libraries appeared much later.

In the Arab Caliphate there were also so-called “ linked libraries”: they were created at some institutions - mosques, mausoleums, hospitals. The library at the An-Nuri mosque and the Mustansiriya library are well known. The collections of affiliated libraries were usually profiled. The profile depended on the specialization of the institution to which it was attached.

Attached libraries are a prototype of special libraries. Some of them, developing and expanding, gradually acquired independence. Some of the annexed libraries located in the capitals of the emirates eventually turned into national special libraries.

In addition to the libraries typical of all medieval states (palace, private, educational institutions and scientific institutions), a specific type of library became widespread in the Arab Caliphate - the waqf library. Waqf is a special form of feudal property, in which the library was not the private property of the sovereign or feudal lord, but was located in the “ eternal use” of the Islamic community. The main feature of waqf libraries was their accessibility to the public. The social and charitable nature of waqf libraries required maximum circulation of books among readers, so the library collections were used not only by eminent citizens and scientists, but by everyone. Moreover, in many libraries, regular readers, especially visitors and poor people, not only had books at their service, but were also provided with writing materials and paper, and even found overnight accommodation and material support with the assistance of library staff.

Interior of a medieval Arabic library

There were no fundamental restrictions on the transfer to the library and storage of certain books for ideological, religious, or censorship reasons, so the collections contained a wide variety of literature in all fields of knowledge. Although librarians were inspired by religious zeal, it did not limit their love of learning. Therefore, the collections of waqf libraries contained, in addition to the Koran and Koranic literature, fiction, poetry, books on medicine, law, astronomy, philosophy, mathematics, magic, and alchemy. In their liberalism, Arab librarians were much more tolerant of heretical opinions than their Christian colleagues and contemporaries. Although individual reactionary theologians and zealous officials sometimes removed from the collections works that were odious from their point of view, such “purges” were in the nature of local outbreaks.

Literature was transferred to waqf libraries according to a special legal procedure, which provided for the mandatory compilation of a list of transferred books. This list served as both a legal document and a catalogue.

The collections were obviously organized according to subject matter, and in the largest libraries they were arranged according to branches of knowledge.

The working hours of the waqf library were different: some libraries worked daily, others 1-2 days a week. But a constant operating schedule was established for all libraries: mandatory days and hours for serving readers.

Library books were used not only locally, but also at home. There is an interesting testimony from the Arab encyclopedist Yaqut al-Hamawi that the rules for lending books were so liberal that in one Madrid library he was allowed to take home 200 volumes at a time.

The staff of libraries, even the largest ones, was small - 3-6 people. Typically, a trustee (often the founder of the waqf), a custodian (librarian), an assistant librarian and several servants were appointed. IN large libraries From the 9th to the 12th centuries, the managers were, as a rule, well-educated writers and scientists; from the 13th century, libraries were managed almost exclusively by theologians. The duties of the library keeper, his assistant and servants were to keep the books in order and issue them to readers. Issues of financing the library, purchasing and ordering new books, registering new receipts and maintaining a catalogue, hiring and dismissing employees - all this was the prerogative of the waqf manager.

Studying the history of Arab libraries provides rich material indicating the development of library thought. There are numerous references to library catalogues. IN in some cases catalogs were replaced by lists of books placed directly in the collection. Bibliography was known in such forms as lists of works of individual authors in works of a historical and biographical nature, and thematic lists in dictionaries. Literature in the collection and descriptions of books in catalogs and book lists were usually arranged according to a thematic principle. This is confirmed, for example, by the words of Avicenna, who wrote about one of the libraries of Samarkand: “I entered a house with many rooms, in each room there were chests with books laid one on top of the other. In one room there were books of Arabic and poetry, in another on law. Each room contains one of the sciences. I read the list of ancient authors and asked what I needed...”

Thus, the level of library practice in the Arab Caliphate was very high for the Middle Ages. The accessibility of Arab libraries, especially those belonging to waqfs, is noteworthy. Arab librarians have accumulated rich professional traditions.

Unfortunately, Islamic libraries suffered the same fate as the libraries of the Mediterranean. They died not only as a result of numerous wars and frequent fires, but also due to the fact that from the 12th century a decline in interest in knowledge began. But the greatest damage to Arab libraries was caused by the campaigns of Christian crusaders in XI-XIII centuries. However, the Muslim world, like Byzantium, was the forerunner of the Renaissance and revived the culture of Europe in the late Middle Ages.

3. European libraries in the Middle Ages

We have even more scanty information about medieval libraries in Europe than about ancient book collections.

Europe in the Middle Ages was no different high level librarianship. Even what was accumulated in the previous era was lost. Two or three centuries after the fall of Rome, in most provincial cities, where there used to be many books, bookstores and libraries, not a single manuscript of secular content remained.

It is known from various sources that for several centuries medieval libraries were a very pitiful phenomenon, inferior to their Greco-Roman predecessors. They were very modest collections of jealously guarded manuscripts. However, if these islands of knowledge and writing had not survived, the history of Western civilization might have been completely different.

3.1 Monastic libraries of medieval Europe

The centers of book culture in the early Middle Ages were monasteries. IN different countries the spread of Christianity and the creation of monasteries occurred in different times, but in Europe as a whole in V-VI centuries appeared, and in the 9th-10th centuries monasteries, churches, monastic schools and libraries attached to them became widespread. At this time, even a saying appeared: “ A monastery without a library is like a camp without weapons." The famous philosopher and theologian Thomas Aquinas wrote: “ The real treasury of the monastery–a library, without it he is like a kitchen without a boiler, a table without food, a well without water, a river without fish, a cloak without other clothes, a garden without flowers, a wallet without money, a vine without grapes, a court without sentries...”

One of the first monasteries in Europe was Vivarium. It owes its creation to the greatest cultural figure of the medieval West - Cassiodorus Senator (487-578). Coming from a noble Roman family, a writer, philosopher, he was secretary and adviser to the King of Italy, then became minister of the court, consul, and governor. Cassiodorus dreamed of creating a powerful Italo-Gothic state and nurtured the idea of organizing the first Christian university in Rome. It was impossible to carry out these plans and, apparently realizing this, Cassiodor left public service and founded Vivarium in the south of Italy in 550, which means in Latin “ Shelter of thought”.

It was a genuine, although not typical for Europe of the mid-6th century, cultural center. It was in Vivarium that Cassiodorus wanted to preserve for posterity those literary and scientific values of the ancient world that had not yet perished. He organized a school for young men in the monastery with a traditionally ancient set of subjects: grammar, rhetoric, logic, music, mathematics, cosmography. A library and scriptorium were created. The vivarium was a place not only for storing and copying texts, but also for fruitful literary work: editing, proofreading, translating texts, and even creating original works.

Cassiodorus took care of high quality copying books, clear order in the scriptorium and library. For this he created a special “ A Guide to the Study of Divine and Secular Literature”(in some translations the title of the book sounds like “Introduction to Spiritual and Secular Reading”). The two-volume work of Cassiodorus is considered one of the first major manuals on the formation of library collections; it formulated some rules for managing the library and scriptorium. This book, among other things, contained extensive information about literature, that is, it was a kind of bibliographical guide. Later researchers using this “Guides...” were able to establish the repertoire of Vivarium books. These were theological and legal treatises, works of Christian writers, ancient books on cosmography, medicine, and philosophy.

Cassiodorus lived 100 years, 50 of which he dedicated to Vivarium. The vivarium, along with the library and scriptorium, did not survive its organizer for long - it ceased to exist at the end of the 6th - beginning of the 7th century.

The activities of Cassiodorus and the rich library of the Vivarium were unique in early Middle Ages Europe. Typically, monastery libraries were so small that their entire collection fit into one chest. The few books they contained were exclusively religious in nature: they were copies of biblical texts, writings of the church fathers and missals necessary for church rituals.

Monastic scriptorium.

Portrait of a scribe. France.XYV.

Books were diligently copied in the monastic scriptoria, which were an integral part of the library. Excellent calligraphers, experienced artists, and skilled bookbinders have created many magnificent monuments of book art. Copying church books was equated with an apostolic feat, and the names of some copyists after their death were surrounded by a legendary aura. Not every monk was allowed to take on such a godly task. Copying books was carried out not only by young, literate monks, but also by venerable members of monastic orders, often even by the abbots themselves.

Manuscripts coming from the scriptorium made up the bulk of the new acquisitions of the monastery book depositories. Sometimes, however, there were other sources of recruitment. Thus, English and Irish monks specially traveled to the continent to obtain books for monastic libraries. The funds were also replenished through donations. Noble parishioners brought books as gifts with the condition that they be remembered in prayer services for the repose of their souls. Children from noble and wealthy families, who were sent to study in monastery schools, brought books with them. Books were also donated by feudal lords who decided to become monks in the hope of gaining "heavenly peace"

The bulk of the funds were usually scripture, lives of saints, writings of the church fathers, liturgical literature. Books by ancient authors were less common in monastery libraries. Ancient texts, as a rule, were inaccessible even to most monks. Umberto Eco in the novel “ Rose's name” not only recreates a wonderfully vivid picture of the life and structure of a medieval monastery library, he also tells that the storage of Aristotle’s works in the library’s collection was surrounded by a dark secret, carefully guarded by the librarian.

Hierarchs catholic church, who took upon themselves the right of strict regulation and strict censorship, carefully ensured that pagan and heretical writings did not penetrate the walls of monasteries. Back in 325, the infamous “ Index...” (“Index librorum prohibitorum Document

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