Methods for the formation of the main parts of speech. Methods for the formation of independent parts of speech. At a meeting of the Department of Humanitarian and Artistic and Aesthetic Disciplines of Kripkipro

E. I. Litnevskaya

Noun

In the formation of nouns in the Russian language, all of the above methods of word formation are used: the formation of words by adding affixes, reduction, addition, substantivation, connection of addition with affixation.

Affix ways of forming nouns

1. In a prefixed way, nouns can be formed only from nouns, since the addition of only one prefix cannot change the part-of-speech affiliation of the word.

For the formation of nouns are used the following prefixes: not- (luck

2. The most active in the formation of nouns is suffixation. By means of suffixes, nouns can be formed from nouns, adjectives, verbs, numerals, adverbs.

The formation of nouns from nouns occurs using the suffixes -ik (key

From adjectives, nouns are formed using the suffixes -ost (strict

For the suffixal word formation of nouns from verbs, the following suffixes are characteristic: -nyj (to sing

When forming nouns from numerals, for example, the suffix -н (one hundred

From adverbs, nouns are formed using the suffixes -nik (together

3. Many nouns are formed in the prefix-suffix way.

When forming such nouns from other nouns, the following combinations of prefix and suffix are used: under -...- nick (snow

When forming nouns from adjectives, combinations of affixes for -...- j (polar

Sometimes, in a prefixed-suffix way, nouns are formed from verbs, for example: co -...- (v) ets (to serve

Non-affix ways of forming nouns

1. Many nouns are formed by addition, including abbreviation: forest + steppe

2. Nouns can be formed by contraction: specialist

3. In the formation of nouns, substantivation is active, in which there is a transition into nouns of adjectives and participles: ice cream, manager, tip (we are talking about those words that are recognized by the speakers as nouns in the language, and not only in a specific text - compare with the participle, used in the function of a noun: Everyone looked at the newcomer).

Mixed ways

Nouns are formed by addition with a suffix. The most common suffixes are -ets (earth + do

Adjective

Adjectives in the Russian language are formed by prefix, suffix, prefix-suffix methods, addition, including splicing.

Affixal ways of forming adjectives

2. The suffix method is used to form adjectives from adjectives, nouns, verbs, numbers and adverbs.

When forming adjectives from adjectives, the suffixes -onk - / - enk- (blue

When forming adjectives from nouns, the suffixes -н- (autumn

From verbs, adjectives are formed using the suffixes -н- (cut

When forming adjectives from numerals and adverbs, the suffixes -н- and -enn- (two

3. In a prefixed-suffix way, adjectives are formed from nouns and verbs.

When forming adjectives from nouns, the following combinations of prefix and suffix are used: without -...- n- (ticket

The same prefixes can be combined with suffixes -enn- (foliage

When forming from verbs, combinations of not -...- n- (break

Non-affix ways of word formation

1. Of the non-affix ways of forming an adjective, addition is especially productive, for example: lyric + epic

2. Only in the formation of adjectives is such a method of word formation used as fusion: fast + soluble

Mixed ways

When forming adjectives, addition with a suffix is possible, while the suffixes -н- and - are used more often than others (-: railway

Numeral

Numbers are formed from numerals in the following ways:

1) suffix: two

2) addition: three + one hundred

Pronoun

Pronouns are formed from pronouns by prefixes no-, no-, some- and postfixes -no, -or, -no: who

Verb

Verbs are formed mainly by affix methods (the most productive are prefix and prefix-suffix); addition for verbs is uncommon.

Affixal ways of verb formation

2. In a suffix way, verbs are formed from verbs, nouns, adjectives, numerals, pronouns, interjections, onomatopoeic words.

From the perfective verbs, imperfective verbs are formed using the suffixes -iva / -yva, -va and -a: reread

When forming verbs from nouns, the suffixes - (salt

To form verbs from adjectives, the suffixes - (white

From numerals, verbs are formed using the suffix - (two

From pronouns, interjections and onomatopoeia, verbs are formed with the suffix -, moreover, if the producing stem ends in a vowel, an interfix-consonant is used: you

3. In a postfix way, verbs with the meaning of reflexivity are formed from verbs: wash

4. The prefix-suffix method is used to form verbs from verbs, nouns, adjectives and numbers.

From nouns, verbs are formed by a suffix and in combination with prefixes for- (shadow

From adjectives, verbs are formed using the suffix -i- and the prefixes -y- (dense

From numerals, verbs are formed using the suffix -i- and the prefixes у- (three

5. Verbs can be formed by the prefix-postfix method from verbs. The postfix -sya / -с is combined with the prefixes в- (think

6. In a suffix-postfix way, verbs are formed from nouns and adjectives using the suffixes - (crowd

7. Verbs can be formed by the prefix-suffix-postfix method: bankrupt

Non-affix methods are rarely used when forming verbs. So, for example, the following words are formed by addition: labor + arrange

Mixed ways when truncating a verb are also not very common and are represented by addition with affixation, for example: world + create

Adverb

The adverb is formed mainly by affix methods, among which the prefix-suffix is the most productive.

Affixal ways of forming adverbs

1. In a prefixed way, adverbs are formed from adverbs. Most often, prefixes are used short (long

2. In a suffix way, adverbs are formed from nouns, adjectives, numerals, verbs, adverbs.

Adverbs with the suffixes -o / -e are regularly formed from adjectives (funny

To form adverbs from numerals, use the suffix -times and its modifications (two

When forming adverbs from verbs, suffixes are used (stand

Adverbs can be formed by suffixing and from adverbs, while suffixes are used: -owato (early

3. When forming indefinite pronominal adverbs, the postfix method is used, in which postfixes -to are added to pronominal adverbs (where

4. The prefix-suffix method is most actively used in the formation of adverbs from nouns and adjectives.

When forming an adverb from a noun, the following combinations of prefixes and suffixes are presented: в -...- у (dry water

The largest number of combinations is presented in the formation of adverbs from adjectives. These are the following combinations of affixes: in -...- oh / -mu (new

Adverbs can be formed in a prefix-suffix way from numbers, while the following prefixes and suffixes are used: в- / в -...

From verbs, adverbs are formed by affixes in -...- ((jump

Non-affix ways of forming adverbs are not represented.

Mixed methods are presented insignificantly. So, some adverbs are formed by addition with a suffix, for example: by + walk

Formation of words by transition from one part of speech to another

The words of some parts of speech were historically formed by the transition of words from one part of speech to another.

We have already called the formation of nouns through the transition of adjectives and participles (ice cream, manager) into them - substantiation. If a noun formed by substantivating an adjective does not have any differences in morphemic structure from these adjectives, then a noun formed by substantivating a participle, from the point of view of its morphemic composition differ from the corresponding participle: in the noun the suffix -usch / -ych, -asch / -ych is not formative (the noun is not a form of the verb) and is included in the stem. Therefore, in linguistics, the formation of such words is considered as a suffixation: head-nd (head, head - "the one who is in charge").

Many adverbs were formed by the transition from other parts of speech. So, we can note the adverbs formed by rethinking

Nouns (at home, in spring),

Adjectives (in vain, openly),

Gerunds (sitting, lying),

Numerals (twice).

The transition of a word from one part of speech to another is a historical process. From the point of view of the modern state of the language, all these words are formed with the help of a suffix or a prefix and a suffix homonymous with the ending of a noun, adjective or numeral, as well as the formative suffix of the adverbial form of the verb, for example: winter / winter, lie-a / lie, empty / empty. The transition process is active during the formation of service words. So, for example, you can name the following groups of prepositions formed by the transition from other parts of speech:

Named: in view of, in the form, during, at the expense, in occasion,

Verbal: thanks, including, excluding, starting, later,

Adverbial: up close, around, on the contrary, into the distance.

At the same time, the distinction between a preposition and an adverb is possible only in context and depends on the real presence or absence of the noun following it: I looked around (adverb) - I walked around the house (preposition). The distinction between a derivative preposition and an adverbial participle is based on the difference in their meaning - a derivative verbal preposition expresses the meaning of an attitude, not an action, for example: Thanks to the hosts, the evening was a success (preposition) - We left, thanks to the hosts for the hospitality (adverb).

As for aboriginal prepositions, the degree of their departure from independent words different. In a number of cases, prepositions have completely isolated themselves and have lost their semantic connection with the basic noun, for example: in view of, during, by, about, in measure; v modern language these prepositions should be considered non-derivative. In other cases, semantic connections are alive: in quality, in the sphere, with help, in favor. Such prepositions are called prepositional combinations, since they retain some of the syntactic properties of the noun: selective compatibility (in the role of someone - in the function of something), the ability to accept a definition (to act in the dubious role of a peacemaker). In these cases, we are dealing with a living process of "proposing" nominal combinations.

From point of view state of the art language, the following ways of forming prepositions can be distinguished:

1) suffixal - from verbs: ex-i> exclude,

2) prefix-suffixal - from nouns: in-time-i> time,

3) addition - from prepositions: because of> because of + for.

Bibliography

For the preparation of this work were used materials from the site portal-slovo.ru/

Morphological	Non-morphological
Prefixal: city → suburb, huge → pre-huge, who → no-who, no-who , run → pro-run, long → not for long, how → somehow.	Transition from one part of speech to another: A) adj. → noun Ice cream defrost meat before cooking. - Children ate delicious ice cream. B) participle → n. Departing passengers are asked to take their seats. - Departures are asked to take their seats. C) adverb → preposition I looked around(adverb) - I walked around the house(pretext). D) gerunds → preposition Thanks to the hosts, the evening was a success(preposition) - We left thanks to the hosts for the hospitality(gerunds).
Suffixal: table → table-ik, blue → sin-enk-iy, inside → interior, two → twenty, five → fifteen ,
Prefix-suffix: serve → colleague, window → windowsill, polar → for-polar-j-e, shore → pri-breezh-n-th, shadow → for-ten-and-th , bankrupt → go bankrupt, call → re-call-willow-t-Xia; new → in a new way, long-standing → from a long time ago
Nonfix: Blue → blue-Ø, Run / run → run-Ø,
Addition:
A) whole words: Sofa + bed → Sofa bed three + one hundred → three hundred;
B) addition with a connecting vowel: Forest + steppe → forest (o) steppe,Russian + English → Russian-English;
C) addition with suffix: land + make → land (e) del-ets.
D) addition of a part of a word and a whole word: Honey icing + institute → medical institute
E) parts of a word and parts of a word: Young naturalist → yunnat
E) truncation: specialist → specialist,
G) addition of letters: Moskovsky State University → MSU,
H) addition of sounds: Higher educational institution→ university

Morpheme parsing

How to make out a word by composition without missing anything

1. Define part of speech:

1. Determine whether a variable or unchangeable part of speech

and if unchangeable, then there is no ending

Walked toying keys.

(gerunds) unchangeable parts of speech, which means

He looked at us sadno ending.

b) mutable(there is an ending)

v) change the word form

His expression was sad).(what is it? - cr. adj.) sad (s), sad (s), sad.

2. Highlight prefixes and suffixes(sequentially, one after another, "remove" morphemes, defining their meaning):

Running away- participle formed with a formative suffix -usch- from the verb run away(in Russian, the formation of such forms using this suffix is natural: playing - to play, shooting - to shoot); so let's select the suffix -usch-. Let's select the prefix y-, which in Russian has one of the meanings "directed action of removal" (cf .: to fly away - to fly; to run away -run) and verb suffix -a-(found in the infinitive before -ty: trog-a-t ;:sn-a-t).
Intransigence - prefixes not-(with a negation value) and at-(meaning "bringing to effective completion"); suffixes -ost-(the meaning of an abstract feature or state); formative (passive participle) -them-.

Dreamy - no prefixes, suffixes -n(feature value), tel-(meaning "name of a person characterized by certain actions"), verbal suffix -a-.

3. Select the root. Remember:

Alternations are possible in the roots of words: friend - friend (me) - friendship (a) (r / s / f);spread - covered (y) - spread (e / and / -);

Suffix -l- stands out only in past tense verbs: loved, lepila, saved up, fed. But in words love, accumulation,a drop, I will stick,feeding and other similar letter l is part of the root.

How to determine the way a word is formed and not be mistaken

Remember: in order to correctly determine the way a word is formed, it is necessary to determine which part of speech it belongs to, and work with the initial form of the word, and not with its grammatical variant.

I. If the word has one root:

1. Remove the attachment (if available in word two or more set-top boxes work only with the first set-top box). If, even in the absence of a prefix, a whole word remains with the same general semantic meaning, then the way of forming the word is priestinocular.

- safe- dangerous(general semantic meaning- "(not) able to cause, cause grief, any misfortune");

- grind- grind(the general semantic meaning is “to make small”);

- incomprehensible- understandable(the general semantic meaning is “(not) understandable”). BUT:

- building- construction(different semantic meaning: "building" - construction; "construction" - a process); therefore, the formation method is not prefixed - I use the 2nd position of the algorithm: building- build (suffix);

- announcement is a phenomenon(different semantic meaning: "announcement" is a specific paper containing certain information; "phenomenon" is an abstract process); therefore, the formation method is not prefixed - I use the 2nd position of the algorithm: announcement- declare (suffix).

2. Remove the suffix (if there are two or more suffixes in a word, work only with the last suffix). If, when "removing" the suffix, a part of the word remains, to which you can add the endings of a noun, adjective or verb suffix -t, then the way the word is formed is suffixal.

- whiteness - white;

- assignment - to instruct (it);

- outgoing- leave).

Remember:

Is always suffix are formed in a way (regardless of the presence of a prefix, except for the prefix not-) the following parts of speech:

Communion: surrounded- surround); fleeing- run away); read -read (тъ); fried- fever (it);

Gerunds: playing- play); having read- read (t); having come running - comeMs (th); going- send (s) smiling;

Adverbs ending in -o, -e,without prefixes: slow - slow; sorrowcho - hot (s); melodiously- melodious);

Verbal nouns (denoting an object as an action): buildka- build (тъ); whitewash- turned white (it); respect- respect); spell- perwedge (s); tester - test (s);

Imperfective verbs from perfective verbs: be late -be late; shoot - shoot; write down - write down.
3. Remove the first prefix and the last suffix at the same time - part of the derived word should remain. Method of education - prefix-suffix.

- the bridge of the nose - the nose;

- in German- Deutsch).

4. Non-accessory nouns, denoting an action / feature as an object, are usually formed in a way, by "cutting off" the suffixes from the derived stem (verb, adjective) or by adding a zero suffix: review- revoke; selection- select; sigh- sigh; arrival- come; blue - siniy; width - wide; explosion- explode; signature- to sign.

In Russian, the following main methods of forming independent parts of speech are presented:

Noun

1.pluginal, in which the formation of nouns from nouns occurs: town® suburban,
2.suffixal, in which the formation of nouns occurs from
- nouns: table® table-ik,
- adjectives: blue® syn-ev-a, blue- Æ ,
- verbs: run away® running-rel-i , run- Æ ,
- numerals: one hundred® sot-n-i , two ® twins,
- adverbs: together ® accomplice, why® why-chk-a,
3.prefixal-suffixal, in which nouns are formed from
- nouns: window® sub-window-nick,
- verbs: serve® co-servant,
- adjectives: polar ® for-polar-j-e,
4.addition, including reduction: Forest + steppe ® forest (o) steppe, Moscow State University ® MSU,
5.truncation: specialist ® specialist,
6. Substantiation, in which there is a transition to nouns of adjectives and participles: ice cream, manager(substantivated participles, as already mentioned, can be considered suffixed derivatives of verbs),
7.addition with suffix: land + make® land (e) del-ets.

Adjective

1.additional, in which adjectives are formed from adjectives: huge® pre-huge,
2.suffixal, forming adjectives from
- adjectives: blue® blue-enk-y,
- nouns: autumn® autumn-n-i,
- verbs: read® read-flax,
- numerals: two ® double,
- adverbs: inside ® interior,
3. prefix-suffix: shore® pri-breezh-n-th,
4.addition: Russian + English ® Russian-English;
5.addition with suffix: crooked+ side ® crooked (about) side- Æ - ui

Numeral

Numbers are formed from numerals in the following ways:
1.suffixal: two® twelve, five® fifteen , two ® dv-oj-e,
2.addition: three + one hundred ® three hundred;

Pronoun

Pronouns are formed from pronouns by prefixes no-, no-, something- and suffixes - then, - or, -:who® no-who, no-who , somebody, somebody, somebody;

1. platformer - from verbs: run away® pro-run,
2.suffixal, in which verbs are formed from
- verbs: re-read® re-read, wash® wash ,
- adjectives: Red® red, prominent® is visible,
- nouns: partisan® partisan-and-t, crowd® crowd-and-t-Xia,
- numerals: two® two-and-th (‘split in two”),
- interjections: Oh® ah-ah,
3.Prefixed suffix, which verbs are derived from
- nouns: shadow ® for-ten-and-th , bankrupt® about-bankrupt-and-t-Xia,
- adjectives: straight ® you-straight-and-th ,
- numerals: three® u-tro-and-th,
- verbs: be in love® under-love-willow, jump® ra-jump-Xia, to call® re-call-iva-t-Xia;
4.addition: work+ arrange ® labor (o) arrange,
5.addition with the addition of a word-forming morpheme: peace + to create® y-world (o) create;

1. platformer - from adverbs: for a long time® not long, how® somehow,
2.suffixal, with which adverbs are derived from
- nouns: winter® winter-oh,
- adjectives: good® good-oh,
- numerals: three® three times,
- verbs: lie® lie,
- adverbs: Okay® good, very good, how® somehow ,
3.prefixal-suffixal, with which adverbs are formed from
- adjectives: new® in a new way, long-standing® from a long time ago,
- nouns: top® in-top,
- numerals: two® in two,
- verbs: catching up® in-dogon-ku, to gallop¬ in-jump- Æ
- adverbs: for a long time® in debt,
4.addition with suffix: by+ walk® in passing.

E. I. Litnevskaya

Noun

Affix ways of forming nouns

1. In a prefixed way, nouns can be formed only from nouns, since the addition of only one prefix cannot change the part-of-speech affiliation of the word.

The following prefixes are used to form nouns: un- (luck< неудача), при- (город < пригород), под- класс < подкласс), сверх- (прибыль < сверхприбыль), супер- (игра < суперигра), ультра- (звук < ультразвук), анти- (частица < античастица), контр- (удар < контрудар), противо- (действие < противодействие) и некоторые другие.

2. The most active in the formation of nouns is suffixation. By means of suffixes, nouns can be formed from nouns, adjectives, verbs, numerals, adverbs.

The formation of nouns from nouns occurs using the suffixes -ik (key< ключик), -ек (замок < замочек), -к (книга < книжка), -чик/-щик (барабан < барабанчик, газета < газетчик), -ник (школа < школьник, чай < чайник), -ин (горох < горошина), -онок (тигр < тигренок), -иц (тигр < тигрица) и многих других.

From adjectives, nouns are formed using the suffixes -ost (strict< строгость), -изн (белый < белизна), -ин (глубокий < глубина), -от (добрый < доброта), -# (тихий < тишь), -ец (беглый < беглец), -ик (умный < умник), -ак (бедный < бедняк) и некоторых других.

For the suffixal word formation of nouns from verbs, the following suffixes are characteristic: -nyj (to sing< пение), -к (строить < стройка), -тельств (строить < строительство), -# (входить < вход), -тель (читать < читатель, включать < включатель), -чик / -щик (перевозить < перевозчик, выдумать < выдумщик), -ец (бороться < борец), -ун (врать < врун) и другие.

When forming nouns from numerals, for example, the suffix -н (one hundred< сотня).

From adverbs, nouns are formed using the suffixes -nik (together< сообщник) и -чк (почему < почемучка).

3. Many nouns are formed in the prefix-suffix way.

When forming such nouns from other nouns, the following combinations of prefix and suffix are used: under -...- nick (snow< подснежник), на-...-ник (колено < наколенник), при-...-j (море < приморье), за-...-j (река < заречье), меж-...-j (гора < межгорье), без-...-j (деньги < безденежье), без-...-иц (работа < безработица).

When forming nouns from adjectives, combinations of affixes for -...- j (polar< заполярье), про-...-# (седой < проседь).

Sometimes, in a prefixed-suffix way, nouns are formed from verbs, for example: co -...- (v) ets (to serve< сослуживец).

Non-affix ways of forming nouns

1. Many nouns are formed by addition, including abbreviation: forest + steppe< лесостепь, сберегательный банк < сбербанк, Московский государственный университет < МГУ.

2. Nouns can be formed by contraction: specialist< спец, заместитель < зам.

Mixed ways

Nouns are formed by addition with a suffix. The most common suffixes are -ets (earth + do< земледел-ец), -ник (тепло + обменивать < теплообменник), -тель (море + плавать < мореплаватель), -# (вино + делать < винодел).

Adjective

Adjectives in the Russian language are formed by prefix, suffix, prefix-suffix methods, addition, including splicing.

Affixal ways of forming adjectives

1. In a prefixed way, adjectives are formed from adjectives; this method is one of the most productive in the formation of words in this part of speech. In this case, the following prefixes are used: non- (funny< невеселый), пре- (огромный < преогромный), раз- (веселый < развеселый), анти- (научный < антинаучный), противо- (естественный < противоестественный), сверх- (быстрый < сверхбыстрый), архи- (сложный < архисложный), супер- (модный < супермодный).

2. The suffix method is used to form adjectives from adjectives, nouns, verbs, numbers and adverbs.

When forming adjectives from adjectives, the suffixes -onk - / - enk- (blue< син-еньк-ий, плохой < плохонький), -ущ- (большой < большущий), -енн- (высокий < высоченный), -оват-/-еват- (белый < беловатый, синий < синеватый).

When forming adjectives from nouns, the suffixes -н- (autumn< осенний), -ан- (песок < песчаный), -ин- (тополь < тополиный, мама < мамин), -ий (лиса < лисий), -ов (отец < отцов), -ск- (море < морской), -ист- (лес < лесистый), -чат- (пузырь < пузырчатый), -лив- (дождь < дождливый).

From verbs, adjectives are formed using the suffixes -н- (cut< резной), -чив- (улыбаться < улыбчивый), -лив- (въедаться < въедливый), -ист- (поджарить < поджаристый), -к- (пылать < пылкий), -л- (гнить < гнилой).

When forming adjectives from numerals and adverbs, the suffixes -н- and -enn- (two< двойной, вчера < вчерашний, внутри < внутренний).

3. In a prefixed-suffix way, adjectives are formed from nouns and verbs.

When forming adjectives from nouns, the following combinations of prefix and suffix are used: without -...- n- (ticket< безбилетный), внутри-...-н- (школа < внутришкольный), вне-...-н- (класс < внеклассный), на-...-н- (стол < настольный), после-...-н- (война < послевоенный), до-...-н- (война < довоенный), противо-...-н- (удар < противоударный), без-...-(- (усы < безусый).

The same prefixes can be combined with suffixes -enn- (foliage< безлиственный), -ов- (сеть < внутрисетевой), -ск- (завод < внутризаводской).

When forming from verbs, combinations of not -...- n- (break< неразрывный), без-...-н- (возвратить < безвозвратный), не-...-м- (исцелить < неисцелимый).

Non-affix ways of word formation

1. Of the non-affix ways of forming an adjective, addition is especially productive, for example: lyric + epic< лир(о)-эпический, засуха + устойчивый < засух(о)устойчивый. При образовании прилагательных сложением обязательно используется интерфикс.

2. Only in the formation of adjectives is such a method of word formation used as fusion: fast + soluble< быстрорастворимый, с ума сшедший < сумасшедший. Отличие сращения от сложения заключается в том, что словосочетание при объединении в одно слово не претерпевает никаких изменений, за исключением того, что в производном прилагательном может быть установлено единое ударение (о возможной интерпретации этого способа см. примечание в разделе "Средства и способы словообразования").

Mixed ways

When forming adjectives, addition with a suffix is possible, while the suffixes -н- and - are used more often than others (-: railway< железн(о)дорож-н-ый, кривой + бок < крив(о)бокий.

Numeral

Numbers are formed from numerals in the following ways:

1) suffix: two< дв-адцать, пять < пят-надцать, три < тр-оj-е,

2) addition: three + one hundred< триста, двести + пятьдесят< двести пятьдесят.

Pronoun

Pronouns are formed from pronouns by prefixes no-, no-, some- and postfixes -no, -or, -no: who< никто, некто, кое-кто, кто-то, кто-либо, кто-нибудь.

Verb

Verbs are formed mainly by affix methods (the most productive are prefix and prefix-suffix); addition for verbs is uncommon.

Affixal ways of verb formation

1. In a prefixed way, verbs are formed from verbs. The number of verbal prefixes is very large, which is associated with the expression of the values of the result (specific meaning), direction, quantitative-temporal modifications and the nature of the course of action. Let's list the main verb prefixes: c- (do< сделать), на- (писать < написать), про- (читать < прочитать), о- (слепить < ослепить), в- (нести < внести), вы- (бежать < выбежать), от- (прыгнуть < отпрыгнуть), у- (лететь < улететь), за- (петь < запеть), до- (есть < доесть), про- (жить < прожить), при- (бежать < прибежать), недо- (выполнить < недовыполнить).

2. In a suffix way, verbs are formed from verbs, nouns, adjectives, numerals, pronouns, interjections, onomatopoeic words.

From the perfective verbs, imperfective verbs are formed using the suffixes -iva / -yva, -va and -a: reread< перечитывать, подкормить < подкармливать, напеть < напевать, решить < решать.

When forming verbs from nouns, the suffixes - (salt< солить), -а- (плотник < плотничать), -е- (пот < потеть), -нича- (лентяй < лентяйничать), -ова- (форма < формовать), -ствова- (адвокат < вокатствовать).

To form verbs from adjectives, the suffixes - (white< белить), -е- (белый < белеть), -ова- (пустой < пустовать), -ича- (подлый < подличать).

From numerals, verbs are formed using the suffix - (two< двоить "разделять надвое").

From pronouns, interjections and onomatopoeia, verbs are formed with the suffix -, moreover, if the producing stem ends in a vowel, an interfix-consonant is used: you< вы(к)ать, ах < ахать, мяу < мяу(к)ать.

3. In a postfix way, verbs with the meaning of reflexivity are formed from verbs: wash< мыться, встречать< встречаться.

4. The prefix-suffix method is used to form verbs from verbs, nouns, adjectives and numbers.

Verbs formed from verbs receive the meaning of the imperfect form along with the designation of the intensity of the action. For this, the following combination of the species suffix -iva - / - iva- with the prefixes po (crackle< потрескивать), при- (петь < припевать), на- (свистеть < насвистывать), под- (петь < подпевать), недо- (любить < недолюбливать).

From nouns, verbs are formed by a suffix and in combination with prefixes for- (shadow< затенить), об- (лес < облесить), при- (земля < приземлить). Приставка обез- употребляется в сочетании с суффиксами -и- (рыба < обезрыбить "лишить рыбы") и -е- (рыба < обезрыбеть "лишиться рыбы").

From adjectives, verbs are formed using the suffix -i- and the prefixes -y- (dense< уплотнить), о- (благородный < облагородить), вы- (прямой < выпрямить) и некоторых других.

From numerals, verbs are formed using the suffix -i- and the prefixes у- (three< утроить), с- (двое < сдвоить).

5. Verbs can be formed by the prefix-postfix method from verbs. The postfix -sya / -с is combined with the prefixes в- (think< вдуматься), за- (думать < задуматься), на- (гулять < нагуляться), рас- (прыгать < распрыгаться), до- (звонить < дозвониться) и некоторыми другими.

6. In a suffix-postfix way, verbs are formed from nouns and adjectives using the suffixes - (crowd< толпиться) и -е- (видный < виднеться).

7. Verbs can be formed by the prefix-suffix-postfix method: bankrupt< о-банкрот-и-ть-ся, звонить < пере-зван-ива-ть-ся.

Non-affix methods are rarely used when forming verbs. So, for example, the following words are formed by addition: labor + arrange< труд(о)устроить, сам + воспламениться < сам(о)воспламениться.

Mixed ways when truncating a verb are also not very common and are represented by addition with affixation, for example: world + create< у-мир(о)творить.

Adverb

The adverb is formed mainly by affix methods, among which the prefix-suffix is the most productive.

Affixal ways of forming adverbs

1. In a prefixed way, adverbs are formed from adverbs. Most often, prefixes are used short (long< недолго), во- (вне < вовне), за- (темно < затемно), до- (ныне < доныне), на- (всегда < навсегда), по- (ныне < поныне), от- (ныне < отныне), кое- (как < кое-как), ни- (где < нигде).

2. In a suffix way, adverbs are formed from nouns, adjectives, numerals, verbs, adverbs.

Adverbs formed from nouns contain suffixes homonymous with the endings of a noun (see the section "Formation of words by transition from one part of speech to another"). These are the suffixes -om (evening< вечером, -ой/-ою (весна < весной / весною), -ами (времена < временами).

Adverbs with the suffixes -o / -e are regularly formed from adjectives (funny< весело, неуклюжий < неуклюже), -и (дружеский < дружески), -ком (пеший < пешком).

To form adverbs from numerals, use the suffix -times and its modifications (two< дважды, три < трижды).

When forming adverbs from verbs, suffixes are used (stand< стоймя), -ом (волочь < волоком), -ю (ощупать < ощупью).

Adverbs can be formed by suffixing and from adverbs, while suffixes are used: -owato (early< рановато), -енько/-онько (часто < частенько) и некоторые другие.

3. When forming indefinite pronominal adverbs, the postfix method is used, in which postfixes -to are added to pronominal adverbs (where< где-то), -либо (куда < куда-либо), -нибудь (зачем < зачем-нибудь).

4. The prefix-suffix method is most actively used in the formation of adverbs from nouns and adjectives.

When forming an adverb from a noun, the following combinations of prefixes and suffixes are presented: в -...- у (dry water< всухомятку), в-...-((даль < вдаль), на-...-у (встеча < навстречу), на-...- (показ < напоказ), в-...-у (верх < вверху), в-...-е (начало < вначале), в-...-и (даль < вдали), на-...-у (верх < наверху), с-...-у (бок < сбоку) и другие.

The largest number of combinations is presented in the formation of adverbs from adjectives. These are the following combinations of affixes: in -...- oh / -mu (new< по-новому, прежний < по-прежнему), по-...-и (охотничий < по-охотничьи), из-...-а (давний < издавна), до-...-а (белый < добела), с-...-а (новый < снова), в-...-о (правый < вправо), на-...-о (белый < набело), по-...-у (пустой < попусту), в-...-ую (пустой < впустую), в-...-и (близкий < вблизи), с-...-у (молодой < молоду).

Adverbs can be formed in a prefix-suffix way from numbers, while the following prefixes and suffixes are used: в- / в -...< в-третьих, второй < во-вторых), в-...-ом/-ем (двое < вдвоем, пятеро < впятером), в-...-о/-е (десятеро < вдесятеро), на-...-о/-е (двое < надвое).

From verbs, adverbs are formed by affixes in -...- ((jump< вскачь), в-...-ку (догонять < вдогонку).От наречий наречия образуются при помощи по-...-у (долго < подолгу), по-...-ку (нарочно < понарошку).

Non-affix ways of forming adverbs are not represented.

Mixed methods are presented insignificantly. So, some adverbs are formed by addition with a suffix, for example: by + walk< мимоходом.

Formation of words by transition from one part of speech to another

The words of some parts of speech were historically formed by the transition of words from one part of speech to another.

We have already called the formation of nouns through the transition of adjectives and participles (ice cream, manager) into them - substantiation. If a noun formed by substantivating an adjective does not have any differences in morphemic structure from these adjectives, then a noun formed by substantivating a participle, from the point of view of its morphemic composition, differ from the corresponding participle: in the noun the suffix -usch / -yusch, -asch / -ych is not formative (the noun is not a verb form) and is included in the stem. Therefore, in linguistics, the formation of such words is considered as a suffixation: head-nd (head, head - "the one who is in charge").

Many adverbs were formed by the transition from other parts of speech. So, we can note the adverbs formed by rethinking

Nouns (at home, in spring),

Adjectives (in vain, openly),

Gerunds (sitting, lying),

Numerals (twice).

Named: in view of, in the form, during, at the expense, in occasion,

Verbal: thanks, including, excluding, starting, later,

Adverbial: up close, around, on the contrary, into the distance.

As for the abortive prepositions, the degree of their departure from independent words is different. In a number of cases, prepositions have completely isolated themselves and have lost their semantic connection with the basic noun, for example: in view of, during, by, about, in measure; in modern language, these prepositions should be considered non-derivative. In other cases, semantic connections are alive: in quality, in the sphere, with help, in favor. Such prepositions are called prepositional combinations, since they retain some of the syntactic properties of the noun: selective compatibility (in the role of someone - in the function of something), the ability to accept a definition (to act in the dubious role of a peacemaker). In these cases, we are dealing with a living process of "proposing" nominal combinations.

From the point of view of the current state of the language, the following ways of forming prepositions can be distinguished:

1) suffixal - from verbs: ex-i> exclude,

2) prefix-suffixal - from nouns: in-time-i> time,

3) addition - from prepositions: because of> because of + for.

From experience practical teaching and learning languages, we know that some languages are easier to learn and others more difficult. Meanwhile, the concept of simplicity / complexity of a language has not yet found its reflection in science.

The current state of the Russian language is characterized by an unusually active processes borrowing vast layers of vocabulary related to various areas of our life: economics, politics, sports, art, etc.

The subject of our research was the adjectives denoting a person in appearance in connection with his physical characteristics, recorded in the Yaroslavl Regional Dictionary (1981-1991).

Scheme of word-formation parsing of a word.

Normalization of the sound side of speech creates conditions for its further improvement. The formation of morphological generalizations is essential element this process. On this basis, the most essential tasks are solved

We would like to remind you that the rule itself essentially consists of two: you can talk about writing one or two letters "n" in adjectives formed from nouns (this is one rule), and you can check verbal adjectives and participles.

Typological restructuring in English led to a change in the information coding technique - the analytical technique became dominant. As a result, the analytical way of creating nominative units is firmly entrenched in lexeme formation.

Experienced array of texts. Processing technique.

When inflection in the stems of nouns and verbs, there are regular and irregular changes associated with fluent vowels in the stems of nouns and verbs.

Morphological causatives, i.e. causative verbs formed by affixing non-causative stems are found in many natural languages. Of course, the primacy in this respect belongs to the languages of the agglutinating type.

Adjective. Endings of adjectives. Suffixes of adjectives. Spelling complex adjectives. Categories of adjectives. Coordination of adjectives with nouns.

It is no coincidence that these notes on parts of speech begin with the above lines belonging to the English mathematician and writer Lewis Carroll (translated by Dina Orlovskaya) and the Russian linguist Academician L.V. Shcherba, respectively.

The word-formation model, according to which masculine nouns are formed in our modern language with the help of the suffix -ist-, is very productive.

In this article, we would like to clarify both for ourselves and for other translators the question of how the idea of what and how should be translated from culture to culture develops in culture and in the individual person of the translator.

The state and development of Russian word formation is manifested in the rate of replenishment of the lexical system with the help of new derivative words, in the ratio of one's own and borrowed, in linguistic creativity.

Deictic adverbs in Spanish represent a very ramified and peculiar system of means of spatial localization of objects and actions.

Word formation is called both the process of formation of derivative words and the branch of linguistics in which the derivation, means and methods of word formation are studied.

The spelling code of 1956, eliminating the inconsistency in a number of spellings, made certain clarifications and changes to the spelling rules, left unchanged such rules that could be simplified and streamlined.

What do we mean by "declension". Substantive declension. Features of the change in the singular. Substantive declension. Features of the change in the plural.

In language, there is no one-to-one correspondence between meaning and the way it is expressed. The process of word formation (the formation of words) is only a part of the process of the formation of derivative nominations, which are not only one-word. "

Methods for the formation of independent parts of speech

In Russian, the following main methods of forming independent parts of speech are presented:

Noun

1. prefixal, at which the formation of nouns from nouns occurs: city → suburb,

2. suffix, at which the formation of nouns from

Nouns: table → table-ik,

Adjectives: blue → sin-ev-a, blue-Ø,

Verbs: run away → running-rel-i , run-Ø,

Numerals: one hundred → a hundred , two → twins,

Adverbs: together → accomplice, why → why-chk-a,

3. prefix-suffix, in which nouns are formed from

Nouns: window → windowsill,

Verbs: serve → colleague,

Adjectives: polar → for-polar-j-e,

4. addition, including abbreviations: Forest + steppe → forest (o) steppe, Moscow State University → MSU,

5. truncation: specialist → specialist,

6. substantiation, at which there is a transition to nouns of adjectives and participles: ice cream, manager(substantivated participles, as already mentioned, can be considered suffixed derivatives of verbs),

7. suffix addition: land + make → land (e) del-ets.

Adjective

1. prefixal, in which adjectives are formed from adjectives: huge → pre-huge,

2. suffix forming adjectives from

Adjectives: blue → sin-enk-iy,

Nouns: autumn → autumn,

Numerals: two → double,

Adverbs: inside → interior,

3. prefix-suffix: shore → pri-breezh-n-th,

4. addition: Russian + English → Russian-English;

5. suffix addition: crooked+ side → curve (about) side-Ø- ui

Numeral

Numbers are formed from numerals in the following ways:

1. suffix: two → twenty, five → fifteen , two → dv-oj-e,

2. addition: three + one hundred → three hundred;

Pronoun

Pronouns are formed from pronouns by prefixes no-, no-, some- and suffixes - then, - or, -: who → no-who, no-who , somebody, somebody, somebody;

Verb

1. prefixal- from verbs: run → pro-run,

2. suffix, in which verbs are formed from

Adjectives: Red → blush, prominent → visible,

Nouns: partisan → partisan-and-th, crowd → crowd,

Numerals: two → two-and-th ("split in two"),

Interjections: ah → ah-ah,

3. prefix-suffix, by which verbs are formed from

Nouns: shadow → for-ten-and-th , bankrupt → go bankrupt,

Adjectives: straight → you-straight-and-th ,

Numerals: three → u-th-th,

Verbs: be in love → dislike, jump → ra-jump-Xia, call → re-call-willow-t-Xia;

4.addition: work+ arrange → labor (o) arrange,

5.addition with the addition of a word-forming morpheme: peace + to create → u-world (o) create;

Adverb

1. prefixal- from adverbs: long → not for long, how → somehow,

2. suffix

Nouns: winter → winter-oh,

Adjectives: good → Okay,

Numerals: three → three times,

Verbs: lie down → lie-a,

Adverbs: Okay → okay, how → somehow ,

3. prefix-suffix, which adverbs are formed from

Adjectives: new → in a new way, long-standing → from a long time ago,

Nouns: top → up,

Numerals: two → in two,

Verbs: catching up → in-catch-up, jump → in-jump-Ø

Adverbs: long → in debt,

4. suffix addition: by+ walk → in passing.

Formation of words by transition from one part of speech to another

The words of some parts of speech were historically formed by the transition of words from one part of speech to another.

We have already called education nouns by passing adjectives and participles into them ( ice cream, manager) - substantiation. If a noun formed by substantivating an adjective does not have any differences in morphemic structure from these adjectives, then a noun formed by substantivating a participle, from the point of view of its morphemic composition, differ from the corresponding participle: in the noun the suffix - uch / -ych, -asch / -ych is not formative (the noun is not a verb form) and is included in the stem. Therefore, in linguistics there is a description of the formation of such words by suffixing: head of ← to be in charge, manager - "the one who is in charge."

The transition from other parts of speech formed many adverbs... So, we can note the adverbs formed by rethinking

Nouns ( at home, in spring),

Adjectives ( in vain, in the open),

Gerunds ( sitting, lying),

Numerals ( twice).

It is necessary to understand that the transition of a word from one part of speech to another is a historical process. From the point of view of the modern state of the language (from a synchronic point of view), all these words are formed using a suffix or prefix and a suffix homonymous with the ending of a noun, adjective or numeral, as well as the formative suffix of the adverbial form of the verb, for example:

winter-oh ← winter, lying down ← lying down, empty ← empty.

The transition process is active during the formation of service words. So, for example, the following groups can be called prepositions formed by the transition from other parts of speech:

Otmennye: in view of the form, during, at the expense, in the occasion,

Verbal: thanks, including, excluding, starting, later,

Adverbs: close, around, on the contrary, into the distance.

At the same time, the distinction between a preposition and an adverb is possible only in context and depends on the real presence or absence of the following noun: I looked around(adverb) - I walked around the house(pretext). The distinction between a derived preposition and an adverbial participle is based on the difference in their meaning - a derived verbal preposition expresses the meaning of a relation, for example: Thanks to the hosts, the evening was a success(preposition) - We left thanks to the hosts for the hospitality(gerunds). As for the abortive prepositions, the degree of their departure from independent words is different. In a number of cases, prepositions have completely isolated themselves and have lost their semantic connection with the basic noun, for example: in view of, in, in, in, in, in measure; in modern language, these prepositions should be considered non-derivative. In other cases, semantic connections are alive: as, in the field, with the help, in favor... Such prepositions are called prepositional combinations, since they retain some of the syntactic properties of the noun: selective compatibility ( in the role of whom - in the function of what), the ability to accept the definition ( play the dubious role of appeasement). In these cases, we are dealing with a living process of "proposing" nominal combinations.

From the point of view of the current state of the language, the following ways of forming prepositions can be distinguished:

1) suffixal - from verbs: excluding ← exclude,

2) prefix-suffix - from nouns: at-time-i ← time,

3) addition - from prepositions: because of ← because of + for.

The material concerning the formation of words of one part of speech from words of another part of speech clearly shows the need for and ways of differentiating between historical and synchronic production.

Word-formation parsing of a word

Word-formation analysis is performed according to the following scheme:

1. Put the word under study in its initial form (for participles and gerunds - infinitive).

2. For the investigated word, select a motivating word (words), the closest in form and related in meaning to the investigated word; explain the meaning of a derived word through the meaning of the generating word (s); to highlight the investigated and producing (producing) bases.

3. In the word under study, select a means of word formation, if the word is formed by a prefix and / or a suffix.

4. Indicate the way of word formation.

5. Indicate the processes accompanying word formation, if any:

Alternating vowels and consonants

Truncation of the generating base,

Interfix,

When parsing words, you should pay attention to the following.

Firstly, word formation and shaping should not be confused. So, you cannot describe the past tense of a verb, participle or participle as words formed from an infinitive (for example, was reading, reading, reading from read). In this case, we are dealing with forms of the same verb, that is, with the same word. It is to avoid mistakes of this kind that the word under study is preliminarily put in its initial form.

The producing base must also be in the initial form (for example, windowsill← window, but not * under window), the only exceptions are cases of splicing ( crazy ← crazy) and substantiation ( student noun ← student pr.).

Secondly, in word-formation analysis, it is necessary to correctly determine the generating basis - the closest motivating basis in form. It will be erroneous to parse, in which the initial non-derivative word of the word-formation chain will be indicated as the generating basis, and not the direct generating word of the word under study. So, for example, for the word steamship its generating basis will be the word steamer, not words steam and walk... Word education tool steamship- suffix - n-, way - suffixation.

Thirdly, one should not clutter the derivational parsing with a complete morphemic parsing of the word under study. Superfluous operations indicate a misunderstanding of the task of word-formation analysis and its difference from morpheme parsing... In the word under study, only the stem and that morpheme (morphemes) that are directly involved in word formation should be highlighted.

In rare cases, the word under study may be at the same level of derivation from two different stems, for example: sadly ← fun / unhappy... In these cases, they talk about double motivation. of this word... It can also be described as a prefixed derivative of the word fun, and as a suffix derivative of the word unhappy.

Here are a few examples word-formation parsing:

1) excess

excess ← unnecessary ; excess - "something superfluous" ;

the process accompanying word formation is the truncation of the PS of the stem.

2) rushed about- verb form sweep

to rush ← to rush; to rush - "start to rush",

word formation method - prefix.

3) leaving

leaving- noun form care

leaving-Ø ← to leave; leaving - "when they leave, the same as leaving,"

word formation method - suffixation,

Truncation of the PS of the base,

Alternation d '/ d.

4) snow scooters- noun form snow scooter

snow (o) katØ ← snow + ride, snow-scooter - "something that is used to ride in the snow",

word formation method - addition with suffixation,

processes accompanying word formation:

Interfix

Truncation of the PS of the verb stem.

Reflection of the morphemic composition of a word and its derivational relations in dictionaries

There are special private (aspect) dictionaries that reflect the morphemic composition of a word and its derivational derivation. These dictionaries are classified as private (aspect) linguistic dictionaries.

To work with the morphemic composition of a word, there are dictionaries describing the compatibility and meaning by the sea (A. I. Kuznetsova, T. F. Efremova "Dictionary of morphemes of the Russian language", T. F. Efremova "Explanatory dictionary of derivational units of the Russian language").

Word-formation relations between words are reflected in word-formation dictionaries, the most complete of which is the "Word-formation dictionary of the Russian language" by A. N. Tikhonov in 2 volumes.

In these dictionaries, non-derivative words are arranged alphabetically, to which word-formation chains are built, taking into account all derivatives of this non-derivative stem. A non-derivative word with all its derivatives is called a word-formation nest. As an example, let's take a word-formative nest of the word happy:

Complex information about the word is contained, for example, in the "Dictionary-reference book on the Russian language: spelling, pronunciation, stress, word formation, morphemics, grammar, frequency of word use" A. N. Tikhonov, E. N. Tikhonova, S. A. Tikhonova ...

There are also versions of morphemic and derivational dictionaries adapted specifically for schoolchildren, for example, "School Dictionary of the Russian Language" by A. N. Tikhonov, "School Dictionary of Formation of Words in the Russian Language" by M. T. Baranov, "School Dictionary of the Structure of Words in the Russian Language" by Z. A. Potikhi, dictionaries presented in school textbooks.

Part 3. Lexicology and lexicography

Lexicology and lexicography

Lexicology - a branch of linguistics that studies the word as a unit of the vocabulary of the language (vocabulary) and the entire lexical system (vocabulary) of the language.

Lexicography- theory and practice of compiling dictionaries.

Word as a unit of vocabulary. Meaning of the word

Word is a linguistic unit that serves to designate (name) objects and attributes (actions, relationships, qualities, quantities).

Under value words understand the reflection in the word of the realities of reality (objects, signs, relationships, processes, etc.). The main function of the word is to name the realities of reality (the so-called nominative function). But the word not only names, but also generalizes: calling table items of different sizes, shapes, purposes, we are distracted from individual characteristics specific objects and focus on their main features, reflecting not all, but only essential features of reality, which make it possible to distinguish one phenomenon from another (for example, objects called the word table, from things called by the word stool). The meaning of the word may include emotional and evaluative components. So, for example, the words book and little book call the same object, but the second word also has an additional emotional-evaluative component of meaning - it expresses a dismissive assessment of the speaker.

The meanings of words are recorded in explanatory dictionaries.

Dictionary- a book containing a list of words or other linguistic units (morphemes, phrases, phraseological units), placed in a certain order, most often alphabetical. There are encyclopedic and linguistic dictionaries.

Encyclopedic dictionaries describe the object of extra-linguistic reality itself and try to present the maximum number of features of this object.

Linguistic dictionaries describe language units. Linguistic dictionaries can be divided into two groups: explanatory, describing lexical meaning words (along the way also reflecting its spelling, stress, part of speech, individual grammatical forms), and aspect, describing words in terms of their spelling (spelling), pronunciation (orthoepic), morphemic composition (morphemic), derivational derivation (derivational), grammatical forms(grammatical), origin (etymological, foreign words), as well as in terms of their relationship with other words (dictionaries of synonyms, antonyms, compatibility, etc.).

Unambiguous and ambiguous words. Direct and figurative meanings of the word. Types of portable values

Words are unambiguous(having the same lexical meaning) and ambiguous(having multiple meanings).

Unambiguous words are most terms, some names of tools, professions, varieties of trees, etc. Unambiguous, for example, words stool, sugar bowl, huge, suffix.

A large number of words have several (two or more) meanings. So, for example, for the word head v Explanatory dictionary S. I. Ozhegova gives 6 values:

1) part of the body of a person or animal,

2) mind, reason ( He's a man with a head),

3) a person as a bearer of ideas ( He's the head!),

4) the front of something ( column head, train),

5) livestock counting unit ( herd of 100 heads),

6) food product in the form of a ball, cone ( head of cheese, sugar).

All meanings of a polysemantic word are related (although sometimes not all at once).

In a polysemantic word, the main (original, primary) meaning of the word and its derived meanings are highlighted. New meanings arise for a word as a result of the transfer of the name (the outer shell of the word - sound and letter sequences) from one object of reality to other objects.

There are two types of transfer of the name: 1) by similarity (metaphor), 2) by contiguity - the real connection of objects (metonymy).

Let us characterize these types of transfer.

Similarity carry(metaphor).

Something similar to each other objects begin to be called one word.

The similarities between items can be

1) external:

a) form: road tape, pot-bellied kettle;

b) color: copper hair, collect chanterelles,;

c) location: gulf throat, mountain range;

d) size, quantity: sea of tears, mountain of things;

e) the degree of density: rain wall, road jelly;

f) degree of mobility: quick mind, the car is crawling;

g) the nature of the sound: rain drumming, raspy voice;

2) functional: car wipers, marriage shackles;

3) in human perception: cold view, sour expression

Adjacency carry(metonymy).

Two phenomena that are actually connected with each other (spatially, situationally, logically, etc.), receive one name, are called one word. The connection of phenomena is:

1) spatial - a room and people in it: class was late, the audience applauded;

2) temporal - an action and an object - the result of this action: deluxe edition, set of tools;

3) logical:

a) action and place of this action: entrance, stop;

b) the action and the people performing it: defense, attack(defenders, attackers);

c) material and product made of this material: wear gold, fur; win gold, silver, bronze;

A variation of this type of transfer is the transfer of the name from part to whole and from whole to part (synecdoche):

1) from part to whole: an extra mouth has been added to the family(= person), a herd of one hundred cattle(= animals), hotel room(= room), first violin, first racket;

2) from whole to part: neighbors bought a car(= car); but by car a whole class of mechanisms is also called: washing, sewing and other machines.

The degree of imagery and prevalence in the language for different meanings, figurative by origin, is different.

Some of the figurative uses are not used by us in speech and exist only in the text of a certain author. These are individual (author's) metaphors and metonyms: copper gut car(I. Ilf and E. Petrov), apple cheekbone(Yu. Olesha). Their imagery is maximal, their use is associated only with the author's text; these figurative meanings are not reflected in dictionaries.

Other metaphors and metonyms are common, they are not "tied" to a specific text and are used by native speakers in different situations(usually colloquially): forest wall, sea of tears, screen star, saw(scold). Their imagery is less than that of the author's, but is clearly felt by native speakers; they are reflected in the dictionary and are labeled portable.

The third type of meaning, figurative by origin, is characterized by the fact that their imagery is not felt (in linguistics they are called "dry"): chair leg, mushroom cap, tractor caterpillars, the sun has set, the clock is ticking... These meanings are the main, dictionary names of a certain object, feature or action: they are portable in origin, they are direct from the point of view of functioning in a modern language and do not have labels in the dictionary portable.

Thus, a word can have several direct meanings - initial and without figurativeness, figurative in origin ("dry").

Consider as an example the meaning structure of the above word head: 1) part of the body of a person or animal, 2) mind, reason ( He's a man with a head), 3) a person as a bearer of ideas ( He's the head!), 4) the front of something ( column head, train), 5) livestock counting unit ( herd of 100 heads), 6) food product in the form of a ball, cone ( head of cheese, sugar).

The original and direct meaning of this word is the meaning of ‘part of the body of a person or animal’ (in linguistics, the sign ‘’ denotes the meaning of a linguistic unit).

On the basis of similarity (metaphorical transfer), the meanings 4 and 6 are formed: "the front of something" (similarity in location) and "food product in the form of a ball, cone" (similarity in shape). Moreover, both of these meanings are also direct and are used in a neutral style of speech. On the basis of contiguity (metonymic transfer), on the basis of the initial value, the figurative meaning 2 "mind, reason" is formed. On the basis of meaning 2, the figurative meaning 3 "person as a bearer of ideas" is formed - the name of the whole by part (synecdoche). On the basis of 1 of the initial value, a direct value of 5 "cattle counting unit" is formed - also a transfer from part to whole (synecdoche). Thus, the word head tongue: brieftheoreticalwellforschoolchildren "(phonetics, lexicology, morphology, syntax). Litnevskaya I.E. For example, here's the detail ...

With pis about to scientific and scientific-methodical works of elena ivanovna litnevskaya

Lesson

About K scientific and scientific-methodical works Litnevskaya Elena Ivanovna Several exercises for linguistic flair development ... 31.3 pp. (co-author V.A. Bagryantsev) Russian language: Brieftheoreticalwellforschoolchildren: Tutorial... (Recommended by the Council on ...

At a meeting of the Department of Humanitarian and Artistic and Aesthetic Disciplines KRIPKiPRO

Dissertation abstract

Galaktionova and E.I. Litnevskaya... - M., 2004.Savchenko, A.N. Comparative Indo-European Grammar languages... - M., ... schoolchildren in russian language"SVETOZAR" Portal "Culture written speech" Russian language: brieftheoreticalwellforschoolchildren ...

Moscow businessmeridian 2011 table of contents

Dissertation abstract

Possibility is envisaged for personal development, self-control and self-realization schoolchildrenfor active participation ... Vowels and letters E.I. Litnevskaya... Russian language: brieftheoreticalwellforschoolchildren... Section ｫ Vowel sounds and vowels ...