Paleolithic(Stone Age) is a historical period of the cultural (technological) development of man, in “absolute” figures of evolutionary chronology, lasting from 2.6 million years ago to 5-10 thousand years ago, and in relation to the relative geochronological scale, approximately coinciding with the Pleistocene era. In terms of supporters of the biblical Creation, the Paleolithic is not a period of formation, but rather the restoration of humanity after global catastrophe, the terms of which are much shorter than those accepted in the evolutionary version.
Conventionally, the Paleolithic is divided into three periods - lower (early), middle and upper (late). Supporters of evolutionary anthropogenesis sometimes divide the Early Paleolithic into two periods, including the so-called Olduvai period in its initial stage. This is due to the fact that the technology for creating the first most primitive tools, according to the evolutionary hypothesis, does not belong to man, but to his hypothetical evolutionary predecessor, whose role until recently was played by a representative of the ape taxon Au.(H.) habilis . We do not consider this option due to the lack of evidence in its favor and the presence of direct evidence that all tools, including the earliest and most primitive Olduvai ones, were made by representatives of the human race Homo , (by which we mean, Homo ergaster/erectus Homo heidelbergensis Homo neanderthalensisAnd
Homo sapiens .). Moreover, today's paleoanthropology is much more cautious about its old thesis about the connection between the level of instrumental technologies and the stages of evolutionary anthropogenesis. In the above list, any artificially processed stones are considered as evidence of human activity - even if the direct remains
there are none nearby. The list below was created based on materials from the site
– Africa
– East Asia (Pakistan, India, China)
– Southeast Asia (Indonesia, Australia)
- Russia Siberia)
– Europe
- South America
Early Paleolithic
The period officially characterized by the appearance Homo ergaster And Homo erectus , as well as the invention of instrumental technology called Acheulean. In reality, the picture is much more dramatic - traces of a higher level of weapons, and, apparently, traces of Homo sapiens
Kanapoi, Kenya 4.5 million years – KP 271, Homo sapiens (?) Fragment of the humerus, anatomically indistinguishable from that of modern humans, formally attributed Au. anamensis[link] .
Laetoli, Kenya 3.6–3.8 million years – fossilized footprints in volcanic ash, anatomically close to footprints Homo sapiens , are formally attributed Au. afarensis or an unknown creature with humanoid anatomy of the foot [link].
Kastenedolo,Italy 3–4 million years – fragments of skeletons of several individuals Homo sapiens , found in reliably Pliocene layers in the period 1860–1880. (G. Ragazzoni) with an undisturbed structure, which excludes the possibility of a later burial. After numerous years of attempts to discredit the findings by representatives official science these findings are not mentioned in the scientific press [link].
Savona,Italy 3–4 million years – skeleton fragments Homo sapiens , discovered in the 1850s in Pliocene strata. The blue clay of the surrounding layer filled the bone cavities, and the overlying layer of quartzite sand was not disturbed, which excludes the possibility of late burial. Official anthropology also remains silent regarding this find [link].
Yuanmou Basin, China, 3 million years– “In the eastern sector of South Asia, the most numerous traces of the ancient Paleolithic are known in China. [...] In Yuanmou... several stone tools were collected, the layers are dated back to 3 million years [Olsen, 1997]" (Laukhin, 2005). Here, in layers 700 thousand years old (or 1.8 million years old; see below), teeth were found Homo erectus (Drobyshevsky, 2004) and traces of the use of fire 1.2–1.3 million years old (Gowlett, 1994).
Olmo,Italy 2–4 million years - a skull cap of almost modern morphology, discovered in 1863 near Tuscany in Italy, while digging a trench for laying a railway, at a depth of more than 15 meters, in a layer dating back to the late Pliocene - early Pleistocene. In this case, it is also unlikely that we are talking about a late burial, since the find was made in sediments formed by an ancient lake, and the skull was filled with blue clay, which makes up the entire sediment. The find is sometimes mentioned in official scientific literature on the rights of the Upper Pleistocene, having an age of no more than 50–60 thousand years. Radiocarbon analysis, which is unsuitable in this case, and a subjective assessment “based on morphology” are taken into account, and geological evidence is ignored.
Makapansgat, Northern Transvaal 2.6–3.3 million years - a famous South African cave, in the sediments of which in 1936 numerous traces of the use of fire were discovered in the form of layers of soot and ash. Due to the fact that researcher R. Dart tried to attribute the use of fire to australopithecines (Dart, 1948), the very presence of such traces was sharply criticized and forgotten. To this day, official anthropology still hesitates to attribute such an early use of fire to any of the “hominids.” And although a pebble culture was found in the same sediments, which by definition belongs to humans, traces of fire are still interpreted today as soil oxidation, or as traces of natural fires, or as bat droppings (Oakley, 1954; Drobyshevsky, 2004).
Yiron Israel, 2.5–2.8 million years – here, in the clays under the basalt, whose Ka/Ar age is 2.51 million years, there are lenses of pebbles. In one of the lenses 30 m below the base of the basalt, artifacts - stone tools - were repeatedly collected. For clays above the artifacts, a date of 2800 ± 700 thousand years (RTL-717) was obtained, which confirms the exceptional antiquity of the site (Laukhin et al., 2005).
Kada Gona Ethiopia, 2.4–2.6 million years – pebble tools made from pre-selected raw materials, as well as traces of tools on animal bones. It is clear that finds of this age in the evolutionary community cause serious difficulties in terms of identifying their manufacturer.
Marimar, Argentina, South America, 2–3 million years– numerous stone tools, flint points, throwing hunting bolo balls, traces of fireplaces, burnt slag (Amegino, 1912, 1921 after: Cremo and Thompson, 1999). The anomaly of the find lies in the fact that, according to modern ideas, the first people in America appeared no earlier than several tens of thousands of years ago. Numerous attempts to discredit the finds, additional studies and commissions of competent specialists of that time (Boule, Romero, Bohmann, etc.) could not refute the discovery of Amegino, but for today’s official science the Miramar finds are a figure of silence [link].
Foxhall,England, 2.5 or more million years – jaw, anatomically close to Homo sapiens , found in 1855 (R. Collyer) in the Upper Pliocene formation; and 2–2.5 million years – stone tools, traces of fire (R. Collyer, 1867, J.R. Moir, 1927 after: Cremo and Thompson, 1999). Leading scientists of the time (Lyell, Huxley, Owen, Busk, etc.), having studied the jaw, did not accept the find in principle. No one went to the place where the find(s) were discovered. The jaw itself disappeared after some time [link].
Red Crag,England, 2.0–2.5 million years – drilled shark teeth (E. Charlesworth, 1872; references here are from Cremo and Thompson, 1999), a carved shell depicting a stylized human face (H. Stopes, c. 1912), numerous bone tools (J.R. Moir, c. 1912) [link].
Bouri, ethopia, 2.5 million years– traces of tools on animal bones.
Omo, Shungura, Ethiopia:
area D, 2.4–2.5 million years – Homo sp. indet. .(i.e. gender .» , species not identified. The remains found may theoretically not belong to a true person (since such a formal classification of remains according to the old tradition can extend to “/Au. habilis .).
), but stone tools in any case mark the presence of true section E, 2.3–2.4 million years Homo sp. indet.
– stone tools and Lokalalei 1 , 2C, West Turkana, Kenya, 2.34 million years
- stone tools. Ethiopia, Kada Hadar 2.2–2.33 million years – stone tools and.
Homo sp. indet Senge 5 Zaire, 2.0–2.3 million years
– stone tools with double-sided processing. Renzidong 2.0–2.5 million years , China, – numerous stone tools. The presence of stone tools outside Africa (Israel, China, Pakistan, Georgia, etc.) during the period of simultaneous and even earlier existence than Au. habilis. It also poses serious problems to the hypothesis of the African origin of humanity [link].
Pabbi Hills, Rawalpindi, Pakistan, 1.9–2.5 million years – stone tools, more than 350 items.
Riwat, Rawalpindi, Pakistan, 1.9 million years or more - stone tools.
Xiaochangliang, Nihewan Basin, north China, 1.9–2.0 million years or more (old dating – 1.36–1.7 million years) – stone tools, including scrapers, awls, etc.
Longgupo, China, 1.78–1.96 million years – stone tools, jaw fragment Homo ergaster (?) [link] .
Koobi Fora, East Turkana, Kenya. The total thickness of the Koobi Fora sediments is 650 m. The rich fauna indicates the existence here in ancient times of all possible types of landscape, including both forest and savanna.
plot KBS , 1.88–3.18 million years – Homo ergaster (ER 1593, 2598, 3228, 3734) etc., as well as stone tools. Two femurs ER 1481 (with fragments a-d ) and ER 1472, which in their anatomy are closest to . Homo sapiens“The old dating of this group of finds: 2.7-3 million, the new one is 1.6–3.18 million.” Homo ergaster, writes S. Drobyshevsky. In this case, the KBS tuff is a marker for the human remains found underneath it, whose age is too ancient for the reason that. evolutionism is unacceptable. Drobyshevsky himself believes that the most likely age of the finds is 1.89–1.95 million years (Drobyshevsky, 2004), however, it seems that in this case the average figure was taken taking into account the Australopithecus/Habilis skull ER 1470 found here, which is older than that
plot , according to evolutionism, there simply shouldn’t be; [link 1 and , 1,6 –2,42 Okote Homo ergaster million years – ER 1593 (fragment of the skull), ER 2598 (fragment of the occipital bone), ER 1476 (fragment of the tibia of modern morphology), ER 1823 (fragment of the femur), ER 3733 (the most complete skull of Homo ergaster), ER 3883 (fragment of the skull), ER 1466 (fragment of the skull), ER 3892 (fragment of the skull), ER 820 and ER 992 (mandibles from different individuals, in which the shape of the alveolar arch is almost identical to the modern one), ER 730 (mandible with some semblance of a mental protuberance!), ER 1507 (lower jaw), ER 819 (massive lower jaw), ER 731 (gracile lower jaw, showing traces of severe periodontal disease), ER 803 a-t (dated 1.53 million years, parts of the skeleton of one individual), ER 1808 (fragments skeleton adult woman
plot . , All bones are deformed due to severe hypervitaminosis), ER 1809 (fragment of the femur, 1.6–1.77 million years old) and ER 737 (fragment of the femur, 1.5 million years old); Chari-Karari– developed industry for the production of stone tools, controlled use of fire;
the tools bear traces of cutting soft tissues of animals, plants, cleaning tree bark and sawing trees (Keeley and Toth 1981). Olduvai ,Tanzania. It is located in the southeastern part of the Serengeti plateau, near the Ngorongoro volcanic crater. The location is a gorge several tens of kilometers long, cutting through a layer of lacustrine and continental sediments about a hundred meters thick, intersected by many layers of volcanic tuffs and ash. The geological layers are composed of five main layers, of which the lower two contain the remains of australopithecines and. Homo First layer , lying on basaltic lava, has a thickness of about 12 m at the site of hominid finds, the fauna of the layer is archaic, more than half of the mammal species are extinct. Habitats were a mosaic, from open steppes and swamps to riverine forest-steppes and copses, there was no dense tree cover in Olduvai, the habitats were more open than in Koobi Fora, the climate was colder and drier than at present, temperature and humidity decreased towards the end time of formation of the first layer. Bottom part second layer
in terms of fauna and archaeological context it is close to the upper part of the first layer; the climate was relatively humid. The area at the time of formation of the second layer was a grassy forest-steppe (Drobyshevsky, 2002). Olduvai horizon I, 1.75–2.0 million years – numerous stone tools.(level where it was found OH 7, in the evolutionary scenario “first toolmaker”), found: Olduvai tools, hunting bolo throwing stones, a bone tool (presumably a flare for processing leather), stone circular structures for strengthening the perimeter of the dwelling, as well as stone with artificial ornaments and engravings , known as "baboon head" (M. Leakey, 1971). Despite the fact that Louis Leakey tried to connect the remains of the habilis with tools found nearby, a number of tools, stone buildings and a piece of art from the I-th horizon do not correspond to the possibilities
Au. habilis. lower level of the second horizon, 1.6–1.75 million years
– Olduvai tools of the most advanced technology (“advanced Olduvai”). Sterkfontein , South Africa, horizon 5: – Homo ergaster 1.7–2.0 million years, stone tools, traces of the use of fire, processed animal bones (Loy, 1998); tools made from animal horns for digging up termite mounds; Paranthropus skull with traces of damage from a stone tool; in the horizon 6 years old – Homo ergaster more than 2 million years Stw 84 Homo sapiens, which, based on definable characteristics, can even be attributed to
(Drobyshevsky, 2004). Swartkrans ,South Africa, 1.2–2.0 million years – in layers 1–3: ground animal horns for digging out termite mounds; in layers 1 and 2: Chari-Karari Homo ergaster
SK 80 (upper jaw), SK 846 (fragment of the skull), SK 847 (fragment of the facial part of the skull), SK 74 (lower jaw), SK 15 (lower jaw), SK 45 (fragment of the lower jaw), etc. In layer 3 dated, 270 animal bones were found, burned at a temperature of 400–800 ° C, which corresponds to the flame of the hearth (Bower, 1998; Brian, 2004). Erqel-Ahmar, Israel
1.78-1.96 million years- pebble tools. Karahatch , Armenia, Homo erectus>1.8–1.94 million years
- Early Acheulean tools. Finds made by the Russian-Armenian expedition led by S.A. Aslanyan, are not inferior in age to or even precede the appearance of the earliest Acheulean in Africa. For the evolutionary model, they raise new questions - both about the time and place of the origin of the Acheulean proper, and about the fact of the existence of a technologically advanced outside of Africa. Chilhac I,France, 1.8 million – Chari-Karari years and area
Chilhac III– on both – stone tools of the Olduvai type. Diring Yuriah , Siberia, Russia, 2.9–1.8 million years–260,000 years– a site 480 km from the Arctic Circle with numerous Olduvai-type tools made of quartzite pebbles, discovered in 1982. The author of the discovery, Yuri Mochanov, makes a convincing case for the age of Diring-Yuryakh to be at least 1.8 million years old, which is comparable to the earliest African sites, but most scientists do not accept this date because of its extraordinary nature. Based on thermoluminescent analysis of quartzite samples, American researchers (M. Waters et al RTL, obtaining the age of the Deering order artifacts 2.9 million years, which poses a serious challenge to the so-called African model of the origin of humanity.
Ulalinka (Ulalinka), Siberia, Russia, 2.3–1.8 million years or Chari-Karari according to TL analysis (old dating - 700 thousand years or more) - tools made of quartzite pebbles. Choppers predominate; there are scrapers, points, and cores with a spout (Okladnikov and Ragozin, 1982; Klyagin, 1996).
Xihoudu, Ruicheng county, China, 1.6–1.8 million years – stones with traces of processing, chopped bones and traces of the use of fire.
Dmanisi,Georgia, 1.77 million years – Homo ergaster D2700, D2280, D2282 etc., stone tool production industry.
Altruistic relationships within a group - using the example of caring for a helpless old man (D3444). Ain Hanech and El-Kherba Algeria OK. 1.8 million years
- Olduvai type guns. Peninj , West Natron, Tanzania, 1.4–1.7 million years 2.9–1.8 million years–260,000 years– tools of the Olduvai and Acheulian type;
traces of working with wood - sharpening the sharp ends of sticks, cutting down bushes for building houses; in this case, the tools are used at a considerable distance from the home (Dominguez-Rodrigo., 2001).
The site is one of the earliest examples of the technological strategy of pattern making of Acheulean bifaces (symmetrical double-sided handaxes). Melka Conture , Eritrea: local location – Homo ergaster (Homo sapiens?) Gombore I(Gombore I),
The site is one of the earliest examples of the technological strategy of pattern making of Acheulean bifaces (symmetrical double-sided handaxes). 1.6-1.7 million years IB-7594 , distal fragment of the humerus. Pebble tools of the Olduvai type have been discovered in sediments containing Pleistocene fauna. – Homo ergaster Interestingly, the artefacts were concentrated on a raised earthen platform 2.4 m in diameter (Gowlett, 1993), likely to have been the base of a dwelling; There are also indications of the use of fire in Melka Kontur (Drobyshevsky, 2004). [link] Garba IV
(Garba IV), 1.4-1.5 million years IVE, the right half of the lower jaw, belonging to a child aged 3 to 5 years. Mojokerto ,Java, Homo erectus 1.81 million years
(by Ar/Ar)/– 1.1 million years (palaeomagnetic analysis) – skull(1–MJ 1 ). The maximum date is 2.3 million years (Gulotta, 1995). –1,1 Sangiran Homo erectus ,Java, – 1.66 million years
(by Ar/Ar)/(palaeomagnetic analysis) – remains of more than 40 individuals (the most famous Sangiran-17 skull). Homo erectus Nihewan
, Nord China,, West Turkana, Kenya, 1.6 million years – Homo ergaster WT 15000. Paleontological materials allow the reconstruction of forested and edaphic steppes, as well as damp, swampy lowlands covered with swampy vegetation (Reed 1997). An almost complete skeleton of a teenager was found here H. ergaster
, dubbed Turkana Boy. [link] Ubeidiya , Israel, lower horizons – Homo ergaster 1.6 million years , Olduvai tools of the most advanced technology, in the upper layers of age 1.4 million years
- one of the earliest examples of Acheulean culture, bifaces (tools with symmetrical bilateral processing). It is worth paying attention to this early Middle Eastern Acheulian, which is actually contemporaneous with the African one. Orce Ravine
, Spain, Andalusia. The locations are located along the shores of an ancient lake. The rich faunal remains include both large animals (southern elephant, fossil hippopotamus, Etruscan rhinoceros, bear) and small ones. Barranco León BL5 . The Barranco Leon site is dated faunally and paleomagnetically to the same time as Fuentinueva 3, 1.07–1.78 million years, or even 1.6–1.8 million years 2.9–1.8 million years–260,000 years(Oms ., 2000). More than 60 artifacts of the Olduvai and advanced Olduvai types, as well as a fragment of a molar BL5-0 were found here
Homo sp. indet. , Venta Micena 1.07–1.78 million years. The location is of an open type, lake sediments form 7 layers here, in the 3rd of which hominid remains were discovered Homo sp.
indet. (Gibert et Palmqvist, 1995). Found: VM-0 (fragment of a skull, 1.6-1.65 million years), VM 1960 and VM 3961 (fragments of humerus bones, 1.2-1.4 million years) (Gibert et Palmqvist, 1995). Although all three finds may be human, stone tools were also found alongside them. Fuente Nueva FN3, The location is of an open type, lake sediments form 7 layers here, in the 3rd of which hominid remains were discovered 1.07–1.78 million years, 2.9–1.8 million years–260,000 years most likely 1.4 million years (Drobyshevsky, 2004) - the third location of hominids in Orsay, unlike the previous two, is located in a karst cave. Here were discovered: a fragment of the humerus CV-1 and a phalanx CV-2, identified as belonging to 2.9–1.8 million years–260,000 years(Palmqvist 2.9–1.8 million years–260,000 years., 1997).
., 1996; Gibert., 1999). However, about 100 artifacts were found here, classified as products of advanced Oldowan (Navarro Konso-Gardula, – Homo ergaster South Africa,
1.4-1.9 million years(KGA10-1, lower jaw), early Acheulean stone tools. , Olduvai tools of the most advanced technology, in the upper layers of age Gadeb
Ethiopia,– controlled use of fire. Chari-Karari– the cave has 10 layers belonging to different stages of the Lower and Middle Paleolithic. In the lowest layers (1.5–1.8(?) million years old) a pebble culture reminiscent of Olduvai was discovered - more than 300 stone products, incl. choppers, choppers, scrapers, gigantolites - rough tools weighing 3-5 kg, etc. Below the 6th layer, the remains of large fire pits were found, at least 700 thousand years old. A fragment of a jaw was discovered in the Middle Acheulean layer Homo heidelbergensis (the so-called “Azykhanthropus”, 350-400 thousand years), and in the Mousterian - a cache of Neanderthals with the skulls of cave bears, which is believed to have had cult significance.
Kozarnika, Bulgaria, 1.2–1.4 million years - symbols carved on a stone tool.
Lantien, China, 1.15 million years – Homo erectus (RA 1051-6).
Hazorea, Esdraelon, Israel, 1.3–1.5 million years– 5 fragments of skulls were found from 5 individuals, formally assigned to Homo erectus(Hazorea 1-5). The upper cultural layer contains tools from the early Acheulean to the present; the layer in which human remains were found is synchronous with Olduvai layer II. The problem is that the Hazorea 1 and 3 skull fragments are morphologically archaic Homo sapiens
(comparable to, but much older than, specimens such as Swanscombe and Fonteshevad), they are therefore sometimes referred to in the literature as “progressive paleoanthropes.” Olduvai Gorge
,Tanzania: Upper and middle part of layer II Homo erectus 1.3–1.5 million years – 2.9–1.8 million years–260,000 years OH 9 (cranium, dates vary from 360 thousand years to 1.48 million years, with the most probable limit of 0.9-1 million years (Pilbeam, 1975) or 1.3-1.5 million years . – paleomagnetic and 40Аr/39Аr methods (Tamrat
., 1995), the layer contains steppe fauna - giant herbivores and horses; in the same layer, tools of the most developed Oldowan were found - cleavers and hand axes (early Acheulian?). Bed III, , Homo erectus 0.8–1.2 million years OH 34
(fragments of the femur and tibia), OH 51 (lower jaw), tools of the developed Oldowan (or early Acheulian) - cleavers and hand axes. Bed IV, , Homo erectus 0.8–1.2 million years OH 28 , (pelvic and femur bones) – OH 22 (lower jaw), OH 12 (skull fragment), Middle Acheulian tools. Some levels of layer IV are believed to have been deposited in the Lower Neopleistocene, and their dates have been from 370 to 780 thousand years (McBrarty et Brooks, 2000). The stone tools are diagnosed as Acheulian and "Middle Stone Age". Finds come from these layers
Homo erectus, Kenya, sections 1-5, 950,000–1.0 million years and sections 9-14, 500,000–750,000 years – Acheulean tools.
Le Vallonet outside of Africa. 0.99–1.07 million years - stone tools.
Soleihac, France, Jaramillo 900–970,000 years 2.34 million years
Bose, China, 803.000±3000 years– tools for which there is an evolutionary formulation "similar to Acheulean bifaces", because it is believed that there was no Acheulean in East Asia.
Job Jannine II, Israel , 800–900,000 years, Acheulean tools.
Evron-Quarry Israel, 600,000 years–1 million years , Acheulean tools.
Gesher Benot Ya"aqov Israel, 780,000 years – Homo erectus (2 fragments of two femurs), Acheulean tools.
Latamne,Syria, 500.000 to 700.000 years .
Acheulean tools. Sierra de Atapuerca , Spain. Here, many artifacts and anthropological remains have been discovered in huge caves. The most ancient of the caves is Gran Dolina. In it, out of 11 levels, 7 are rich in fossils, and of the latter, layer TD 6 contains stone tools of the Olduvai appearance (about 200) and the remains of more than 80 people, some of which have almost modern anatomy (skull fragments ATD6-15 and ATD6-69) [link ] . The find received a new taxonomic name
Homo antecessor . , Spain. Here, many artifacts and anthropological remains have been discovered in huge caves. The most ancient of the caves is Gran Dolina. In it, out of 11 levels, 7 are rich in fossils, and of the latter, layer TD 6 contains stone tools of the Olduvai appearance (about 200) and the remains of more than 80 people, some of which have almost modern anatomy (skull fragments ATD6-15 and ATD6-69) [link ] . Some evolutionary scientists consider this form to be ancestral for two lines - sapiens and Neanderthals, others - only for Neanderthals.
A problem for evolutionary anthropology is the fact that Atapuerca people are more sapiens than even later African forms. Gran Dolina (TD 6), - stone tools.
780,000–990,000 years –, stone tools.
Gran Dolina (TD 4), - stone tools.
750,000–1.6 million years - stone tools.
Isernia la Pineta,Italy: 780,000–990,000 years 2.34 million years
500,000–800,000 years,Italy Dorn-Dürkheim Homo erectus , Germany, DD31, more
800,000 years Ceprano , 840.000 800–900,000 years –(Ceprano-1). Along with the finds from Atapuerca, he is among the first known Europeans. Homo erectus Flores
Yuanmou Basin, China, , Indonesia, Mata Menge, years - Homo erectus [link] . “...The Danawu site...is a small hill, the numerous layers of which are inverted so that the older fauna is in the upper layers, and the younger fauna is in the lower (Liu et Ding, 1984). [...] The dating of the layer containing hominid remains has not been reliably determined. Based on paleomagnetic studies and analysis of fauna, dates of 500-600 thousand years were assumed. (Liu et Ding, 1984), 700 thousand l. or 1.8 million l. (Pan et al., 1991), 1.7 million l. (Qian, 1985) and others. It has now been shown that hominids lived here no later than 780 thousand and no earlier than 1.1 million years ago. (Hyodo 2.9–1.8 million years–260,000 years., 2002)" (Drobyshevsky, 2004). However, it is worth recalling that stone tools were discovered in layers dating back 3 million years (see above, Laukhin, 2005).
Also, according to J. Gowlett (1994), traces of the use of fire 1.2–1.3 million years ago were found here. Karama 550–800.000 , Anui river valley, Altai, Russia, years
- in the red-colored deposits of the Lower Pleistocene, large pebbles with an unevenly chipped sharp edge were found, which served as primitive stone tools - scrapers, choppers and choppers, making up the pebble-type industry characteristic of the Early Paleolithic era. Misovaya (Cape) (Urta-Tube), Southern Urals , Russia, 700,000. years -
multi-layered settlement of the Acheulean and Mousterian cultures. Traces of a dwelling in a rocky crevice date back to the Early Paleolithic. Pebble choppers and Acheulean bifaces were found at the bottom of the dwelling (G. Matyushin, 1959, 1961). The latest period (10-12 thousand years) includes numerous microliths and composite (wood plus stone) tools. Nanjing , Tangshan Cave, China, – 580,000 or 620,000 years .
Homo erectus Bodo, Ethiopia 550–640,000 years – Late Acheulean tools; ; Homo heidelbergensis 2.9–1.8 million years–260,000 years Dating of the Bodo layers was carried out repeatedly and gave figures from 70–125 thousand years ago. (Conroy 2.9–1.8 million years–260,000 years., 1978) up to 500–740 thousand liters. (McBrearty et Brooks, 2000). The accepted date today is 640 thousand years. (Clark
., 1994). A variety of tools have been discovered at Bodo, classified as Acheulian or Oldowan and Levallois. Found: 2 fragments of skulls (Bodo 1 and Bodo 2) and a fragment of a humerus. 200 Ndutu , Tanzania, from – . before 900,000 years (600,000?)
heidelbergensis(Ndutu 1); Acheulean tools. Mauer , ,Germany, 500–700,000 years
Homo heidelbergensis; tools from Oldowan to advanced Acheulean. Kent's Cavern – Acheulian tools, Abbeville bifaces (“Abbeville culture” is an archaeological culture of the Early (Lower) Paleolithic in Europe, named after the city of Abbeville, France; the old name is Chelles culture).
Abbeville, Somme River, France, level III, 600,000 years– Acheulian, Abbeville bifaces.
Fordwich, Kent, England, Cromerian, 600,000 years– Acheulian tools, Abbeville bifaces.
Boxgrove, Cromerian, England, 474–528,000 years, Homo heidelbergensis ; Acheulean tools.
Fontana Ranuccio, Italy, layer 10, K-Ar analysis 458.000±5700 years – Acheulean bifaces.
Zhoukoudian, China, sections 2-4: 400–500,000 years – Homo erectus (so-called Sinanthropus), areas 5-10: 500–800,000 years – Homo erectus [link] .
Daraki-Chattan Cave,India, 400–500,000 years– engraving; more than 500 bowl-shaped depressions on a quartzite rock surface (Kumar, 2003).
Auditorium Cave,India, 400–500,000 years – petroglyphs (bowl-shaped depression and sinuous line) on the surface of a quartzite boulder (Bednarik, 2002).
Sima de los Huesos, Atapuerca, Spain, 350–500,000 years – Homo heidelbergensis ; the first known intentional burial, the remains of more than 30 people (the most famous specimen is Atapuerca 5), a stone tool was inserted into the burial, which has not a practical, but an aesthetic value.
Chichibu, north of Tokyo, Japan, 500,000 years– the remains of two huts and 30 stone tools of the Acheulean culture.
Swanscombe, Kent, England, 500,000 years – Homo heidelbergensis ; 360–400.000 Middle Gravels site,
– Acheulean tools; Upper Loam site – stone hand ax of high artistic level. Caune de l'Arago , Tautavel, France, Homo heidelbergensis 320–470,000 years, – , the remains of at least 60 people (the most famous of which
so-called Tautavel Man, Arago XXI), as well as microliths and large pebble tools. Terra Amata , Nice, France, 400,000 years
– hut, hearth, Acheulian tools, 73 pieces of hematite (mineral) paint. Bilzingsleben ,Germany, Homo erectus 320–412,000 years,
, remains of three huts, a paved area of 9 m2, traces of the use of fire, geometric designs on bone plates, microliths, a wooden spear, large pebble tools. Tan Tan ,Morocco, 300–500,000 years
– Middle Acheulian tools, a female stone figurine made of quartzite, the so-called. "Venus from Morocco." Ambrona Upper Level and Torralba Spain, 300–400,000 years
- Acheulean tools. Tabun Cave – , Israel, lowest layer E, dated. ESR (electron spin resonance method) and U-series (uranium series) 387,000 thousand years orTL (thermoluminescent) – Acheulean-Dzhabrudian tools (“Dzhabrudian” layers are Mousterian layers, distinguished mainly by the abundance of so-called angular side scrapers).
Human remains were found in the upper layer C (see below). Hoxne , England, lower level AAR: 300–350,000 years
– a sharpened stone hand axe. Furze Platt , England, lower level AAR:, Stoke Newington, Cuxton, Baker's Farm sites, England,
– large sharpened hand jibs (cleavers) made of stone. Wolvercote Channel , England, lower level AAR: , England, Hoxnian,
– sharpened stone axes with a convex profile. Gaily Hill , England, no less 330 thousand years Homo neanderthalensis – skeleton fragment
, found in 1888 in the suburbs of London, at a depth of 2.5 m, in undisturbed sediments of the Holstein Formation. The instance is included in the so-called group. anomalous European finds, also including specimens from Moulin Quinon, Clichy, La Denise and Ipswich (see below). It is curious that these finds, if classified as archaic sapiens, according to modern paleoanthropological criteria may well be considered consistent with the official scheme, but once removed from scientific consideration, they continue “by tradition” to remain figures of silence [link] Moulin Quignon , Homo sapiens , Abbeville, France – no less
330 thousand years- an anatomically modern jaw, found in 1863 near the city of Abbeville in France, in sandstone of the same Holstein formation. [link] Clichy, France, no less Homo sapiens 330 thousand years
– skeleton fragment, found in 1868 in the Clichy quarry in Paris, equal in age to the two previous mentioned finds. Homo sapiens [link]
La Denise, France – fragments of the skull , found in the 1840s between two volcanic deposits, Upper Pleistocene and Pliocene, i.e. the find has an age ranging from several thousand/tens of thousand years to 2 million years. [link] Homo sapiens Ipswich
,East England, 330–600 thousand years – skeleton fragment, found in 1911 in ice age deposits. [link]
Repolusthöhle,Austria, 300,000 years– decoration made of a wolf tooth with a drilled hole.
Isimila Israel, Tanzania 260,000 years
, Late Acheulean tools in Africa.,India, Berekhat Ram 230,000–470,000 years
– Late Acheulean tools, female figurine. Hungsi Valley 200–300,000 or >350,000 years– Acheulian, red ocher.
Yabrud I, Oumm Qatafa, Levant, 200,000 years – end of Acheulian = so-called. “Acheulean-Jabroudian” style of tools.
Qesem Cave, Israel, Users 200,000–382,000 years– “Acheulian-Jabrudian” style of tools.
Holon Israel, 200,000 years- Paleolithic art.
Kalambo Falls,Zambia, OK. 180,000 years(U-series) – late Acheulian.
Cys-la-Comune, Aisne, France, 70,000–126,000 years
– Late Acheulian.
Middle Paleolithic
The Middle Paleolithic period (“Middle Paleolithic” or MR ) in evolutionary anthropology is associated with the appearance Homo sapiens archaic (Homo heidelbergensis) and a new type of tool series of higher technology (in Europe, the tool culture of the Middle Paleolithic (Mousterian) is also associated with Homo neanderthalensis). The Middle Paleolithic of Africa stands out in a separate category and is called the “Middle Stone Age” or M.S.A. ), and representatives of African archaic sapiens ( or Homo heidelbergensis) that are associated with this culture are sometimes called H. rhodesiensis or H. helmei
Ethiopia, Central Kenya, 400,000–120,000 years – MSA tools.
Elandsfontein, Saldhania, South Africa, OK. 350,000 years – – Late Acheulean tools; (Hopefield 1).
Eyasi Tanzania more 130,000 years – – Late Acheulean tools; , tools of the Sangoen type (so-called. “Sangoen bifaces” - extremely elongated, dagger-shaped or long-pointed weapon pikes; the base is practically absent, the cross-section is diamond-shaped, triangular, parallelogram-shaped or biconvex; name named after the city of Sango Bay, Uganda), blades, pikes.
Kapthurin Formation, Kenya OK. 280,000 years– tools of the African Middle Paleolithic (hereinafter MSA), blades; 75 pieces of red ocher.
Guomde, Kenya, Chari Form., 270–300,000 years – – Late Acheulean tools; .
Malewa Gorge, Kenya 240,000 years– MSA tools.
Valsequillo, Mexico, South America, 250,000 years– tools of the Aurignacian type. The find is considered anomalous, since the appearance of people in America dates back to a period no earlier than 50 thousand years ago [link]
La Cotte de St. Brelade,France, 238,000 years– Middle Paleolithic tools from non-African regions, hereinafter referred to as MR technology.
Maastricht–Belvedere,Netherlands, 238,000 years– MR guns.
Gademotta, Ethiopia, c . 235.000 ±5000 years– MSA, blades.
Bir Tarfawi Ambrona Upper Level Bir Sahara East Egypt, OK. 230,000 years– MSA tools.
Weimar–Ehringsdorf,Germany , 200–230,000 years– “early” Homo ergaster/erectus , MR guns.
Various MP sites in Levant, 210 –24 0.000 years– MR guns.
Kabwe, Broken Hill, Zambia. 200,000 years – Sangoen tools; 30.000–300.000 , Anui river valley, Altai, Russia, (?) – skull and skeletal fragments of archaic Homo sapiens (3 individuals), the stratigraphic position of which is unclear, as well as the connection with them of the found tools is unclear. Based on its "archaic" morphology, as well as the interests of resolving the problem of missing African forms in the Middle Pleistocene, skull BH-1 is now assigned an age of 150-300 thousand years.
Twin Rivers, Zambia, more 200,000–382,000 years– “Lupemban” MSA tools, 300 variants of various mineral dyes (hematite (red iron ore), specularite, etc.).
Omo Kibish I, Ethiopia, about or 200,000 years – Homo sapiens (Omo I). After the original dating of 130 thousand years (1967) was refined by new methods (2005), Omo I is considered one of the first anatomically modern people Homo erectus . Interestingly, another skull found nearby (and also dated in 2005 to 200 thousand years) has clearly defined features (Omo II), which may indicate joint temporary and territorial residence And H. sapiens H. erectus – . On the other hand, the increasing age of humans poses new problems for evolutionary anthropogenesis. Homo erectus Why did anatomically modern man not show his intellectual abilities for so long? And this despite the fact that
Kalambo Falls, according to a recognized point of view, was already a navigator more than 800 thousand years ago. , Zambia, U-series: 180,000 years
– “Lupemban” MSA -guns, red ocher. Border Cave , South Africa, > 195,000 years , upper limit for Ox7 238,000 years
– MSA tools. Vertesszollös 185 –, Hungary, 350,000 years – Late Acheulean tools; - so-called "Buda" industry, - with features
Homo erectus. outside of Africa. Bau de l'Aubesier – Late Acheulean tools; 170,000–190,000 years –
, an example of caring for helpless individuals in one's community. Florisbad ,South Africa, (?) – Homo sapiens 160,000 years
(Florisbad), MSA-guns. Herto , Ethiopia, Ar/Ar 154–160,000 years – Homo sapiens idaltu
; finale of Acheulean culture and MSA; the skulls bear traces of post-mortem scalping (perhaps for ritual purposes). Singa , Sudan, Homo heidelbergensis ; 130–190,000 years –
MSA(?)., China, 150.000 Dali Homo sapiens – early
, MR guns. outside of Africa. La Chaise 151,000 years – “ » Homo ergaster/erectus early
; MR guns. Krapina ,Croatia, 130,000 years Homo ergaster/erectus – burials . It is believed that from this time people began to bury their dead, based on their formed ideas about the afterlife. Evolutionary anthropologists (A. Marshak, 1975 and others) believe that the population And Neanderthal since that time there were between 1 and 10 million people, that is, over 100 thousand years, our predecessors should have buried about 4 billion bodies with accompanying artifacts. A significant portion of these 4 billion burials should have been preserved. However, only a few thousand have been found.
Ngaloba, Laetoli, Tanzania, 90 –150,000 years – Homo sapiens (LH 18, LH 29).
MSA guns Jebel Irhoud ,Morocco, – – Late Acheulean tools; ; 90–125,000 or 105–190,000 years
MSA guns (Levallois-Mousterian type). Haua Fteah , Libya, > Homo heidelbergensis ; 90 or >130,000 years –
MSA (Levallois-Mousterian). Abdur ,Eritrea, 125.000±7000 years
, MR guns.,France, – MSA tools, hand axes of the biface type, flakes and blades of the so-called. "intermediate" industry, active development of the coastal zone. 126,000 years Homo ergaster/erectus early
– classic Tabun – Homo ergaster/erectus , Israel, layer C (Tabun 1 and 2),
50–122,000 years. Bukit Jawa , Lenggong, Perak, Malaysia, – MR guns.
more than 100,000 years Dakleh Oasis ,Egypt, 90–160,000 years
– MP (“Aterian”) guns. Jebel Irhoud Mugharet el Aiya – Late Acheulean tools; 65–90,000 years –
,MSA is presumably aterian. El Guettar , Libya, 65–90,000 years or 130–140,000 years
– MSA (aterian). Dederiyeh Cave , Syria, level 8, Homo ergaster/erectus OK. 50–70,000 years –
, MR tools similar to the Tabun B type, burial of an infant with a sandstone slab and a triangular flint placed on the chest. Kebara Cave , Israel, TL 60.000±4000, ESR – Homo ergaster/erectus 62.000±8000
burials, MR tools, animal bones with engraved symbols, lines and patterns. Ngandong , Indonesia, Solo-River, 53,000–27,000 years – Homo erectus
(at least 14 individuals, the finds are represented by skull caps and femurs). Mousterian and Azil tools are represented by small, rough chalcedony flakes, plates, a stone ball, as well as bone tools: a knife with a polished edge, a harpoon and a pointed tool made of deer antler. Shanidar , Iraq 50,600 years – Homo ergaster/erectus classical
, Mousterian tools. outside of Africa. La Chapelle 56–47,000 years – Homo ergaster/erectus .
classical 55.800 Le Moustier, France, - Mousterian tools, 56–47,000 years – Homo ergaster/erectus .
40,300 years – Israel, 9 Skhul Homo neanderthalensis .
0–120,000 years – Qafzeh 90–120.000 , Israel, levels XVII-XXIV, , acceptedaverage age Homo sapiens , 97,000 years±3000 –
MR tools, ritual burials, joint burial of an adult woman and a child; engraving of lines with a triangular pattern, the use of red ocher. Staroselye , Crimea, Ukraine, 40–80,000 years Homo neanderthalensis
.
–
Paleontologist V.P. Alekseev writes: “The only convincing exception (to the rule that European sapiens are no older than 40 thousand years. A.M. ) is made in 1953 by A.A.)
Formozov found in Staroselye near Bakhchisarai (Crimea). In general, the modern appearance of a baby discovered in the Mousterian layer at the age of approximately one and a half years does not raise the slightest doubt, although Ya.Ya., who examined it. Roginsky quite rightly noted several primitive features on the skull: moderate development of the chin protrusion, developed frontal tubercles, large teeth. The dating of this find in absolute terms is unclear, but the inventory found with it shows that it is significantly older than the Upper Paleolithic sites with bone remains of modern people. This fact firmly establishes the synchronicity of the most ancient forms of modern man and the latest groups of paleoanthropes, their coexistence over a fairly significant period of time" (V.P. Alekseev,
"The Making of Humanity" Upper Paleolithic The Upper Paleolithic era is officially considered the time when anatomically modern humans appeared in history. Homo sapiens (modern), which had its own culture, distinguished from others by the production of fine works of art and high instrumental technology. For Africa, this period is classified as "Late, Stone Age
"("Later Stone Age", or, further LSA). Hoedjies Punt Homo sapiens ,South Africa,
71–300,000 years –; 111–139.000 M.S.A. Tongtianyan Cave, Guangxi, south China, or 153,000 years
– Liujiang hominid, anatomically modern Israel, , bone awls and other bone tools, organized fishing, bone engraving and coloring of engraved parts; the most famous find is beads made from drilled shells with traces of ocher.LM 1.3 50,000 years - human footprints.
Boker Tachtit from 33.105±4100 to 45.000 years – IUP. – Kostenki , Voronezh region, Russia,
45–52,000 years, Turkey, c. 41,000 years– IUP.
– “Lupemban” MSA -guns, red ocher. Florisbad 39.000±3000 years– early LSA guns.
Bohunician Moravia, from 36,000 to 43,000 years - human footprints.
El Castillo Cave Spain, 40.000±2000 years- Aurignacian tools.
Mladec, CZ, 40,000 years – (Omo II), which may indicate joint temporary and territorial residence and Aurignacian tools.
Mamontova Kurya, R. Usa, Siberia, Russia, 40,000 years– stone tools, stone arrowheads, mammoth tusk covered with a primitive pattern. The presence of an Upper Paleolithic site at 66 degrees north latitude, beyond the Arctic Circle, contradicts today's ideas, according to which 20–15 thousand years ago the north of Eurasia up to the Carpathians and the Dnieper region was completely covered continental ice and no life here was, in principle, possible. The same applies to the other three sites listed below.
Makarovo-4 (Makarovo-4), R. Lena, Siberia, Russia, more 39,000 years - human footprints.
Bereleh (Bereleh), R. Indigirka, Siberia, Russia, 30,000 years– discovered in 1970, considered one of the most anomalous Siberian sites of the Late Paleolithic (located just south of 71° N).
Yana (Yana), mouth of the Yana River, Siberia, OK. 30 thousand years– opened in 2004 by V.V. Pitulko, the world's northernmost Late Paleolithic site. It is located 120 km from the mouth of the Yana River, north of 71° N, beyond the Arctic Circle. The archaeological material is homogeneous: it is a well-defined pebble industry; a variety of scrapers, flake cores, rough double-sided choppers and choppers, and a rich bone industry are represented. "It is not clear whether the Yang culture is the result local development
See also reconstruction), in another - a boy 12–14 years old (Sungir-2, see reconstruction) and a girl 9–10 years old (Sungir-3), lying with their heads facing each other. On the boy's head, just like the man, beads and pendants with arctic fox fangs were found, with which the cap was apparently decorated. The girl's head may have been covered with a loose hood-type headdress decorated with beads. A ring made of mammoth ivory was found on the boy’s crown, a pendant in the shape of a horse was found on his chest, and a figurine of a mammoth was found under his left shoulder. In the burial of a girl and a boy, unusual objects were preserved - three disks (plates) made of mammoth tusk, several centimeters in diameter, which have four or eight slots. Also found were wands, darts and spears made of mammoth tusks, and flint tips. The largest spear made from a single piece of tusk reaches 2.4 m. To make such a weapon, it was necessary to have the technique of straightening tusks. Beads also required special ways production. The decorations on the outer and lower clothing, bracelets (under the knees and above the feet), as well as solid rings on the fingers are no less impressive than the sheer number of mammoth ivory beads - about 10 thousand. (, 03.2006).
"In the world of science" Florisbad Rose Cottage Cave 26,000 years
– microlithic MSA.,France, Pech Merle Cave 24,700 years
– wall painting “Spotted Horses”. outside of Africa. Cougnac Cave 23,000 or 25,000 years
– wall painting “Deer”., Lascaux Cave 17,000 years
– cave wall painting, early Madeleine. 14C dating showed her age at 2,200 years. Since this was not consistent with the theory that the paintings were very ancient, the radiocarbon dates were rejected with the note that they only reflected the relatively recent occurrence of the cave. However, after 15,000 years of fumigation from fire smoke, the drawings would hardly look so bright. Torralba Altamira Cave (at 14 C) – the most significant Paleolithic wall painting in terms of artistic richness (Middle Madeleine).
It was opened in 1869, but only in 1879 was a huge multicolor painting on the ceiling of the side hall noticed. This fresco depicts a herd of bison and other animals (the length of the figures is up to 2.25 m) of the Upper Paleolithic fauna. The subsequent drama was determined by the dogmatic ideas of evolutionism about the “meaninglessness” of glacial prehistory. At the World Archaeological Congress of 1880 in Lisbon, under the leadership of E. Cartalhac with the support of G. De Mortillier, Altamira’s painting, without any discussion, was considered a remake and even a deliberate falsification, allegedly executed to discredit evolutionist science. “Rehabilitation” and, moreover, the “cult of Altamira” date back to the beginning of the 20th century. outside of Africa. Niaux Cave 13,000–13,800 years
– cave wall painting, middle madeleine.,France, Le Portel Cave 12,000 years
800,000 years– cave wall painting, late Madeleine. , Indonesia, Liang Bua,
12,000–18,000 years – in Ling Bua Cave in 2004–2005. the remains of 9 people of unusually miniature shape were found, as well as perfect stone tools Mousterian 2.9–1.8 million years–260,000 years type (M. Morwood , 2004). The most complete preserved individual is LB1,
Homo floresiensis Homo erectus
("last"
); woman 30 years old, height 90 cm [link].
Materials used 2. Alekseev V.P., The rise of humanity
Political literature, M., 1984; 3. Drobyshevsky S.V., Predecessors. Ancestors? Part I and II.
– Moscow-Chita, 2002; 4. Drobyshevsky S.V., Predecessors. Ancestors? Part III: Archanthropes. Part IV: Hominids, transitional from archanthropes to paleoanthropes
. – M.: Editorial URSS, 2004; 5. Drobyshevsky S.V., Predecessors. Ancestors? Part V: Paleoanthropes
. – M.: KomKniga, 2006; 6. Zubov A.A., Paleoanthropological ancestry of man
. Institute of Ethnology and Anthropology RAS - M., 2004; 7. Klyagin N.V., Origin of civilization (socio-philosophical aspect)
, TsOP Institute of Philosophy RAS. – M., 1996. 8. Cremo M., Thompson R., Unknown story humanity
, “Philosophical Book”, M., 1999; 9. Laukhin S.A., On the ways of settlement of Northern Asia by Paleolithic man
. Network publication on the website of IPOS SB RAS, 2005; 10. Laukhin S.A., The northernmost site of Late Paleolithic people
. Priroda, 2007, No. 8; 11. Mochanov Yu. A., Fedoseeva S. A. Archeology, Paleolithic of North-East Asia, extratropical ancestral home of mankind and the most ancient stages of human settlement of America
. – Yakutsk, 2002; 12. Okladnikov A.P., Ragozin L.A.. Soviet ethnography, 1982. No. 6. P. 115–125;
13. Shunkov M.V. Golden ratio Anuya. Science first hand. 2005. No. 1(4). Page 56–64;
14. Bower B., Ancient human ancestors got all fired up – earliest evidence of fire use uncovered in South African cave. Science News, Dec 10, 1988;
14. Gowlett, John A.J., Ascent to Civilization: the Archeology of Early Humans. McGraw-Hill, London/New York, 1994;
15. Huntley D. J., Richards M. P. The age of the Diring Yariakh archaeological site// Ancient TL. 1997. V. 15. No. 2–3. P. 48–49;
16. Leakey, M. (1971). Olduvai Gorge, Vol. 3. Cambridge: At the University Press: pl. 18; pp. 84, 269;
17. Oakley K.P. Evidence of fire is South African Cave Deposits // Nature, 1954, V. 174, p.261-262.
18. Waters M., Forman S., Pierson G. Diring-Yariakh: A lower paleolithic site in Central Siberia. Science, Vol. 275, Feb 28, 1997.
The oldest human traces in America are currently known in the state of New Mexico, in Sandia Cave, near Albuquerque.
In Sandia Cave, the remains of the ancient Pueblo Indian culture lay on top, and deeper there was a layer of calcareous travertine tuff, which completely isolated the more ancient sediments that lay beneath it from the upper layers.
The lower layer of sediments contained two special cultural layers.
At the very bottom of the cave there was a hearth, lined with stones, near which lay burnt bones, fragments of flint, roughly sharpened pieces of animal bones and stone tips of a special kind, called sandia-type tips.
Like the Solutrean arrowheads of Europe, they have a fairly regular leaf-shaped shape and are carefully processed by pressing retouch on both sides.
On one side, sandia-type tips have a distinct lateral notch. One such tip lay on the edge of the hearth.
The inhabitants of Sandia Cave, who left their tools and hearth, lived here in early time, when there were still glaciers in the mountains, and in the southwest North America a humid climate prevailed.
They lived mainly by hunting mammoth, horses and camels and led a wandering lifestyle, moving from lake to lake, from river to river following herds of wild animals.
The lower layer of Sandia Cave is believed by American archaeologists to be almost 11 thousand years old.
Higher up in the same cave, arrowheads of a different type, the so-called Folsom type, dating back two thousand years, were found.
And North America.
The first of the Folsom-type settlements was discovered in a mountain valley in the state of New Mexico, near the city of Folsom, where the bones of 23 fossil bison were found on the cliff of a ravine cutting through the bottom of an ancient valley.
Along with the bison bones were Folsom-type stone points. One tip was located directly between two bison ribs. The Folsom settlements have the character of a temporary camp for buffalo hunters.
The settlement at the Lindenmayer farm, 45 km from Fort Collins, in Northern Colorado, is richest in finds indicating a relatively long human presence at this site. The remains of this site are located at the bottom of an ancient river valley of a small channel of the South Platte River.
Traces of human activity were found in a well-defined cultural layer from 15 to 30 cm thick, consisting of ash, coal, stone tools and flakes, as well as animal bones broken by humans. Among the bones were the remains of a mammoth, bison, camel, antelope and arctic fox.
No remains of dwellings were found, but several hearths survived, around which the bulk of the finds were concentrated. In total, about 6 thousand objects were found: typical Folsom points, Yuma-type points, stone scrapers various forms, drills, chippers. There are also bone products: needles, beads made of bird bones.
Just like the inhabitants of Sandia Cave and the Folsom site, the inhabitants of the Lindenmayer site lived here at a time when the last glaciers were still preserved in the mountains, and the climate in general was much wetter and colder than now.
Cold winds blowing from the ice-covered mountains prevented the development of forests in the lowlands covered with grassy prairie vegetation. Only along the deeply incised valleys of large rivers were groves occasionally scattered.
In these valleys, along the banks of rivers and numerous lakes, small groups of wandering hunters wandered: mammoth, American camel, similar to a llama (guanaco), musk ox, straight-horned bison, horse, antelope, giant sloth, large deer and other animals.
Found at Folsom sites a large number of bones of herd animals such as bison. The main method of hunting animals was pen hunting, including with the help of fire. It is characteristic that in the Bison Quarry near Linscombe (Texas) a mass of burnt bison bones was found, then split by a human hand. Along with the bison bones, stone points of Folsom molds were preserved at Linscombe.
The location of sites in places that were previously swampy, as well as on the banks of lakes and rivers, shows that game was driven into swamps and lakes or lay in wait for it at crossings, stabbing animals helpless in the water with spears.
At Folsom and at the settlement near the Lindenmayer farm, mainly fragments of points were found. Fragile blades stuck in the body of the affected animals broke easily, and their points remained in the carcass. The hunter brought the shaft of the spear, along with the tip stalk remaining on it, with him to the camp.
Some tips, especially the Yuma type, could also serve as hunting knife blades. This is evidenced by the finds of such blades fixed in short bone handles.
If in the area where the Folsom-type monuments were distributed, the leading role in the life of the inhabitants of these places belonged to hunting, then in other areas, gathering became increasingly important over time.
Ancient settlements widespread to the west of the Rocky Mountains date back to a very early time for America (about the 6th millennium BC).
At these settlements, in Arizona and areas of New Mexico, there are stone grain grinders and pestles, with which ancient gatherers, like the later California Indians, ground grains and roots of edible plants, as well as nuts.
The significance of these first monuments of the culture of the ancient gatherers of North America for its entire subsequent history is determined by the fact that from such a specialized gathering economy there is a direct road to the primitive agriculture of the later Pueblo Indians, Iroquois and other agricultural tribes of North America.
These tribes, as is known, while still entirely at the stage of the Stone Age, managed to master and create from wild species of native American flora such cultivated plants, which later became the property of the agricultural culture of all mankind, such as maize (corn), potatoes and tobacco.
The further, the more complex and unique the paths of cultural development became, until, finally, all the diversity of the later cultures of the American Indians, discovered by the first Europeans after the discovery of America, took shape.
The Sungir site is the oldest human settlement in Vladimir region. This is not only a monument protected by UNESCO, but also a unique archaeological site that attracts the attention of researchers from all over the world.
Sungir is one of the 3 Upper Paleolithic sites in the Vladimir region known to scientists. The settlement of Sungir is located on the eastern outskirts of Vladimir, near the mouth of the stream of the same name, which flows into the Klyazma River. This is one of the northernmost Paleolithic settlements of the Russian Plain. It belongs to the Kostenki-Seleti cultural community.
The site was discovered by accident during the development of a new quarry. This happened in 1955. At a depth of 3 meters, an excavator operator noticed the bones of a large animal. Archaeologists were immediately informed about the find. From then to the present day, Sungir has been the object of research by scientists.
During the excavations, more than 4.5 thousand m² of cultural layer was uncovered, which is equal to half the estimated area. The age of the site is approximately 24-25 thousand years, although a number of scientists push it back to 36 thousand years.
According to one hypothesis, this site existed for 2-3 thousand years. Most likely, this was a seasonal hunting camp. According to experts’ calculations, the number of people simultaneously living in the settlement reached 50 people. This group of people was connected to a larger community. Sungir has many similarities with the complex of Stone Age sites known as.
Archaeological finds
Items
The collection of finds discovered during archaeological excavations exceeds 65 thousand items. These include:
- tools for making tools (flint chippers, flakes and cores);
- tools (knives, chisels, scrapers, scrapers, piercings, etc.);
- weapons (flint dart tips, spears, “wands”);
- products made from horn, bone and mammoth tusks (jewelry, hoes, animal figurines).
The symbol of the settlement was the so-called “Sungir horse” - a miniature figure of a saiga horse made from mammoth ivory. Archaeologists believe that this is an amulet that ancient people wore as a talisman. According to another hypothesis, the figurine was used exclusively for the burial ritual.
The horse figurine is decorated with dots, the number of which on both sides is a multiple of 5, which indicates that the inhabitants of the site were familiar with the 5-ary counting system. Traces of ocher remain on the surface of the amulet, which means that at one time it was painted bright red.
Items found on the territory of the Sungir site are exhibited in the Vladimir-Suzdal Museum-Reserve. Scientists continue to study them, especially since many of the artifacts found were a means of non-verbal language.
Burials
Unique burials brought world fame to the Sungir site. The burials are distinguished by the richness of grave goods and the complexity of the ritual.
First, on a layer of ocher, archaeologists discovered a female skull, a quadrangular stone and a male skeleton. The latter had a pendant made of pebbles on his chest, and on his hands were decorations made of mammoth ivory. Nearby lay a huge number of beads that decorated the man’s clothes. The find made it possible to reconstruct the costume of the ancient Sungir. Interestingly, it is in many ways similar to the clothing of modern Arctic peoples.
Then the remains of a headless man were found, next to whom lay beads, a ring of mammoth ivory, reindeer antlers and a mammoth ivory. Scientists determined that the man was about 50 years old. It is worth noting that the average life expectancy of Upper Paleolithic people fluctuated around 30 years. Under this burial, 2 children's bones were found. The children were laid in the burial ground in an extended position, with their heads pressed against each other.
What have scientists been able to find out about the Sungir people?
The skeletons of the Sungir people have been studied by more than one generation of anthropologists. It has now been established that they can be classified as people of modern times. physical type. Some datings indicate that the found burials are several thousand years younger than the settlement.
Beliefs
Based on an analysis of the burials, scientists came to the conclusion that the Sungir people had developed religious beliefs. Most likely, they believed in the existence of an afterlife, performed magical rituals, deified nature, revered ancestors, and worshiped the sun, moon and animals.
Among the grave goods of a child's burial, a human bone filled with ocher was discovered. Paleogenetic studies showed that it belonged to the great-great-grandfather of the teenagers found nearby. According to scientists, the bone played an important role in a complex funeral ritual. In addition, there is an assumption that the burial of children could be a ritual sacrifice associated with the cult of fertility. It is precisely established that both teenagers were buried at the same time.
Discs made of mammoth ivory with geometric patterns were found next to the skeletons of children. Similar disks were later found among the Slavs. For example, a 4-sector disk symbolized the Slavic god Khors.
Life
Archaeologists have determined that the Upper Paleolithic people living on the territory of the Sungir settlement were engaged in hunting and gathering. The objects of hunting were: mammoths, lions, bison, reindeer, wild horses, wolves, brown bears, hares, birds and other living creatures. Women collected wild fruits, roots, shellfish and insects. Analysis of the skeleton of one child showed that he practically did not experience hunger, although he ate mainly invertebrates (caterpillars, beetles).
It is generally accepted that Upper Paleolithic people lived primarily in caves. However, during the excavations of Sungir, hut-like dwellings 10-15 m in length were discovered. Their walls were made of wood, and the roof was made of animal skins. Each dwelling was equipped with a fireplace.
To make jewelry, the Sungir people used engraving, carving, drilling, painting and polishing. Many of the discovered jewelry were created specifically for burial, while others were worn constantly. The people of the Sungir settlement wore hats, short fur coats, trousers and high boots resembling high boots. Scientists came to the conclusion that the listed items of clothing were made of wool and were embroidered with bone beads. They are a little reminiscent of the costumes of the Chukchi and Eskimos.
A misconception refuted 40 years later
For almost half a century, scientists were confident that the paired burial of children in Sungir included the remains of adolescents of both sexes. And recently, thanks to genetics, it was possible to find out that the girl from Sungir is actually a boy. In addition to Russian paleontologists, scientists from the University of Copenhagen and Cambridge participated in recent studies.
Paleogenetic studies have shown that adolescents were related to each other cousins, respectively, had similar haplotypes. Both have the Y-chromosomal haplogroup C1a2. Currently, haplogroup C reaches a high concentration among the Buryats, Mongols and Kalmyks.
One of the boys died as a result of being hit in the stomach with a sharp object. The other child's cause of death is unknown, while a man found nearby was killed by an arrow. Moreover, as criminologists note, it was a sniper shot.
Paleogenetic studies also proved that consanguineous marriages were excluded among the Sungir people. According to anthropologists, it was this factor that determined the dominance of the Cro-Magnons.
Sungir continues to arouse interest among paleontologists from the most different countries peace. And recent discoveries show that not all the mysteries associated with this ancient site of primitive man have yet been solved.
Throughout the year, a group of hunters with their families wandered from place to place, following the animals. They visited Terra Amata in late spring. Yellow broom blooms in late spring. Paleontologists discovered fossil pollen from these flowers, which they used to determine the time of year when the site was located. The women probably collected edible shells on the shore without leaving the site. This is the oldest fossilized human trace discovered so far. Man apparently slipped on this very spot some 350,000 years ago, leaving a deep imprint of his heel in the river mud. At Terra Amata, paleontologists discovered the remains of a wooden hut approximately nine meters long and five meters wide. They also found stone tools and fossilized animal bones. Primitive people built this hut from branches with two wooden poles supporting the roof. Near the hut there were rocks that protected it from the wind. People slept on skins around a fire that was constantly burning inside the hut. A flat stone was also discovered there, on which those who made stone tools sat (see article ““). The men went hunting in order to provide food for the entire tribe. They knew that elephants and rhinoceroses went to water at the river that flowed close to the site. They hunted elephants, rhinoceroses, deer and ferocious boars that lived in the surrounding forests. The site had to be located close to the source, since people did not yet have dishes in which to carry it. Nowadays, the sea level has dropped, and the parking lot is in the middle of the city, at a fair distance from the shore.
These people did not yet know how to make fire (read the article ““). Most likely, they carried hot coals from a previous fire with them and used them to light a fire at the new site. Near the fire there was a kind of “kitchen”, that is, a place where they prepared food. Primitive people were very careless and left all kinds of garbage and animal bones right in the hut. They covered the fire with pebbles to shield it from the wind, and the sand in this place became caked and blackened from the heat.
A site is an archaeological term that denotes a settlement (habitat) of primitive people who lived in the Paleolithic, Neolithic and Bronze Ages or the places where nomads stayed.
The term appeared at the beginning of the 19th century, its original designation referred to the settlements of primitive people. Such settlements were temporary in nature; they are also called camps. Such sites were created for seasonal hunting and fishing. Subsequently, this term became applicable to settlements that were created by settled tribes of fishermen and hunters.
It is during the excavations of such sites that archaeologists find ashes from ancient fires, the remains of dwellings and many artifacts indicating the origin of culture.
The first sites of primitive man appeared in the Stone Age. Such sites were first opened at the beginning of the 19th century. 
Such sites first appeared in caves, and later in open spaces, on the banks of reservoirs and rivers. In such sites, scientists discover household waste, the remains of fire pits, household tools and primitive weapons. 
Scientists divide the sites of primitive people into short-term (seasonal) and long-term.
During seasonal migrations of game animals, ancient people used short-term dwellings. 
Archaeologists also divide such sites into multi-layer and single-layer. Primitive people used single-layer sites once or twice and did not return to them again.
Ancient people used multi-layer sites often and for a long time; they could migrate and return to their habitable places.
In addition to residential sites where people simply lived, researchers opened sites called workshops. They were built from silicon deposits. After all, it is silicon ancient man used to create weapons and auxiliary tools. At such sites, many blanks for primitive tools and waste that appeared during their production are found. 
