In 1711 Peter the Great as the highest. By decree of Peter I, the Governing Senate was established in Russia. State officials attached to the central government

On March 5 (February 22), 1711, by decree of Peter Alekseevich, the Government Senate was established, the highest state body in the Russian state for legislation and government controlled. This government body was created by Peter due to constant absences, which often prevented him from engaging in current management affairs. He had done this several times before, in 1706, 1707 and 1710. He entrusted cases to several selected associates, from whom he demanded that they, without turning to him for any clarification, resolve current issues. The immediate prerequisite for the Senate was preparation for the Prut campaign (summer of 1711), when the head of state was busy with the problem of the Russian-Turkish war and could not solve the “turnover” with full dedication. Therefore, the Senate received very broad functions; it was established “in place of His Royal Majesty himself” in the absence of the sovereign. He was supposed to duplicate the power of the king. In a decree of March 2, 1711, Pyotr Alekseevich says: “we have determined the governing Senate, to which everyone and their decrees will be obedient, as we ourselves, under severe punishment, or death, depending on the guilt.” At the same time, the Senate was responsible to the king, who promised severe punishment for unjust deeds.

In 1711 - 1714 The permanent seat of the Governing Senate was Moscow. Only sometimes for a while, as a whole or in the person of several senators, the Senate moved to St. Petersburg. The new capital of Russia became the permanent seat of the Senate in 1714. From that time on, the Senate moved to Moscow only occasionally, in the case of the Tsar’s trips there for a significant period of time. However, part of the Senate chancellery remained in Moscow - the “Office of the Senate Board”. The first senators were Count Ivan Musin-Pushkin, 1st Moscow Governor, boyar Tikhon Streshnev, former Arkhangelsk Governor, Prince Pyotr Golitsyn, Prince Mikhail Dolgorukov, Prince Grigory Plemyannikov, Prince Grigory Volkonsky, Kriegszalmeister General Mikhail Samarin, Quartermaster General Vasily Apukhtin and Nazariy Melnitsky. Anisim Shchukin received the position of chief secretary.

When appointing a senator, as well as for other positions, Peter was guided not by the person’s origin, but by his service suitability. If in the 17th century a representative of a boyar family with the usual consistency overcame the steps of the career ladder and ultimately reached the highest rank, replacing his father, then under Pyotr Alekseevich the right to become a senator was given to persons who had personal dignity. The merits of the ancestors were not of decisive importance. Intelligence, service skills, education, etc. were valued. This new criterion allowed new people to appear in the upper ruling stratum. They owed their entire career to the king. In addition, senators differed from boyars in that a boyar is a rank, and a senator is a position. A person who left the Senate lost the title of senator. Senators were more dependent on the supreme power. This was supposed to increase the official zeal of the senators.

In 1718, presidents of the colleges were included in the Senate. The Senate had to make decisions on requests from the panels that they could not decide on their own due to the lack of precedents. Governors and governors appealed to the Senate over the heads of the collegiums only in exceptional cases: an unexpected attack by enemy troops, the beginning of an epidemic, etc.

At the end of the reign of Peter Alekseevich - in 1721-1722. – The Senate was reorganized, and its activities were streamlined. First of all, the principle of its acquisition was changed. If previously it included all the presidents of the colleges, then Peter admitted that this was “imprudent.” The presidents of the collegiums could not work well immediately at the head of the collegiums and in the Senate. In addition, the Senate, consisting of the presidents of the collegiums, could not closely monitor the activities of central government bodies. According to the decree of April 22, 1722, the Senate was to consist of secret active and privy advisers. As an exception, Peter allowed the appointment of presidents to senators of only the three most important collegiums - the Military, the Admiralty and Foreign Affairs. True, this decree was not properly implemented due to staff shortages. Already in May, a decree was issued that canceled the previous one; the presidents of the colleges, due to the “small number of people in the Senate,” were returned to this body. As a result, Peter began to modernize the Senate not by changing its composition, but by establishing new officials and structural divisions.

Until the death of the Emperor, the Governing Senate remained the highest legislative and administrative body of Russia and the supervisory authority in relation to the collegiums subordinate to it. In addition, simultaneously with the establishment of the Senate, the sovereign ordered, instead of the Rank Order, to establish a “rank table under the Senate. Thus, appointment to all military and civilian positions (“writing to ranks”), management of the entire service class of Russia, maintaining lists, holding reviews and ensuring that nobles did not hide from service came under the jurisdiction of the Senate. In 1721-1722 the discharge table was transformed into a collapsible office, also located under the Governing Senate.

On February 5, 1722, a king of arms was appointed under the Senate, who was in charge of the service class through the king's office. Steward Stepan Kolychev became the first king of arms. The Heraldry Office kept records of nobles, identified among them those fit and unfit for service, and registered ranks and movements of servicemen both according to the levels of the Table of Ranks and from one department to another. Under the special supervision of the kings of arms were nobles evading service, as well as children who were to serve in the future. The office had to collect information about where they received their education - at home or in educational institutions. The responsibilities of the Heraldry Office also included the creation educational institutions for children of “noble and middle-class noble families,” where they were to be taught “economics and citizenship,” that is, civil professions. However, this duty was never realized, like many of Peter’s other undertakings.

The instructions also instructed the Heraldry Office to create coats of arms. For these purposes, the Italian Count Francis Santi was invited, who received the task of “painting” the imperial coat of arms, the coats of arms of all his kingdoms, provinces, cities and noble families. Santi and his assistants during the life of Pyotr Alekseevich made an image of the coat of arms for state seal, as well as the coats of arms of the provinces and 97 coats of arms of the provinces.

The Office of the King of Arms operated most successfully in the area of ​​accounting for the service class. This was due to the primary need to implement this function and the presence of previous structures - the Discharge Order and the discharge table created on its basis in 1711.

Communication between the Senate and the provinces was carried out by commissioners (they were appointed by the governors), two from each region. As the collegiums (central government bodies) developed, they began to serve as an intermediary between the Senate and the provinces.

Simultaneously with the creation of the Senate, the position of fiscals was established, who were supposed to “secretly supervise all matters”, fight against corruption, such as bribes, embezzlement of the treasury, violations in the field of tax collection, etc. Violations were reported to the Senate. If the culprit was actually convicted, then the fiscal received half of the fine, the other part went to the treasury. An order was also given to establish the position of Ober-Fiscal (later General-Fiscal), who was the highest official for the secret supervision of affairs, he had four assistants. The provinces had provincial fiscals, one for each branch of government; The city fiscals were subordinate to them. With the creation of the collegiums, the position of collegiate fiscals appeared, one for each collegium.

In order to stop the constant strife between senators, Peter entrusted supervision of the order of Senate meetings, as well as the function of compliance of Senate decisions with the Code and decrees, to the Prosecutor General (the Prosecutor's Office was established on January 12, 1722). Prior to this, supervision of the deanery of Senate meetings was carried out by Chief Secretary Anisim Shchukin, and then by monthly changing staff officers of the guard. The Chief Prosecutor became the Assistant Prosecutor General in the Senate. Pavel Yaguzhinsky became the first prosecutor general. The Prosecutor General was in direct relations with the sovereign, therefore he brought the Senate closer to the highest authority and at the same time streamlined the proceedings. At the same time, in 1722, Senate offices were established - Senate, Audit and Schismant.

In February 1722, the powers of the reketmeister (reketmeister general) were defined; this word was derived from the German, combining the French requête - “complaint, petition”, and the German Meister. He began to supervise the paperwork in the boards and the course of justice, accepted complaints and petitions about red tape, illegal decisions of the boards and offices. The establishment of this position pursued two main goals: to free the emperor from examining petitions personally submitted to him and to launch a decisive attack on red tape and illegal actions of boards and offices. True, the establishment of this position did not solve the assigned tasks. The tradition was strong and they tried to submit the petition over the head of the racketeering general to the tsar personally. Peter himself wrote that “in many places they dare to beat His Majesty with their foreheads and submit petitions, not giving peace anywhere.” The racketeering general could achieve even less results in the fight against red tape and unfair decisions. The racketeer master had only bureaucratic methods of dealing with bureaucracy: having received a complaint, he had to understand not the substance decision taken, and in the timeliness of the passage of complaints through the authorities, and the adoption of decisions by these authorities. Therefore, the racketeer could not solve the problem of the flow of complaints, both fair and vexatious.

After the death of Peter I, the importance of the Senate decreased, and its functions began to change. Initially, his power was limited by the Supreme Privy Council, and then by the Cabinet of Ministers. The Senate, instead of the Governing One, began to be called the High One. Empress Elizabeth Petrovna, who in her policy tried to follow her father’s course, in 1741 issued a Decree “On the restoration of the power of the Senate in the management of internal state affairs.” However, this did not restore the real importance of the Senate in matters of internal government of Russia. After in 1802 in Russian Empire ministries were established, the Senate retained only the functions of the highest judicial body and supervisory body. In this form, almost without changes, the Senate existed until November 22 (December 5), 1917, when a decree of the Council was issued People's Commissars“On the Court”, which decided “to abolish the existing general judicial institutions, such as: district courts, judicial chambers and the Governing Senate with all departments...”.

SENATE INSTEAD OF THE BOYAR DUMA

Following the organization of the provinces, the Senate was established in 1711, replacing the Boyar Duma. Aristocratic in composition, the Boyar Duma began to die out since the end of the 17th century: it was reduced in composition, since the awarding of Duma ranks was no longer carried out, non-Duma ranks, people of humble origins, but enjoying the trust of the tsar, penetrated into the Duma. The Near Chancellery, which emerged in 1699, became an institution that exercised administrative and financial control in the state. The nearby chancellery soon became the seat of meetings of the Boyar Duma, renamed the Council of Ministers.

Going on the Prut campaign, Peter established the Senate as a temporary institution “for our constant absences in these wars.” All persons and institutions “under severe punishment or death” were ordered to unquestioningly carry out the Senate decrees. The Senate turned into a permanent institution with very broad rights: it controlled justice, supervised expenditures and tax collection, “since money is the artery of war,” it was in charge of trade, and the functions of the Discharge Order were transferred to it.

ESTABLISHMENT OF THE SENATE

The features adopted by the Boyar Duma under Peter were transferred to the government agency that replaced it. The Senate was born with the character of a temporary commission, which was allocated from the Duma during the tsar’s departure and which the Duma itself began to turn into during Peter’s frequent and long absences. Getting ready for the Turkish campaign, Peter issued a short decree on February 22, 1711, which read: “We have determined that there will be a Governing Senate for our absences to govern.” Or: “For our constant absences in these wars, the Governing Senate has been determined,” as stated in another decree. So, the Senate was established for a while: after all, Peter did not expect to live in eternal absence, like Charles XII. Then the decree named the newly appointed senators in the number of 9 people, very close to the then usual composition of the once populous Boyar Duma […]. By one decree on March 2, 1711, during his absence, Peter entrusted the Senate with supreme supervision of the court and expenses, concern for increasing income and a number of special assignments for the recruitment of young nobles and boyars into the officer reserve, for the inspection of government goods, for bills and trade. , and another decree defined the power and responsibility of the Senate: all persons and institutions are obliged to obey him, as the sovereign himself, under penalty death penalty for disobedience; no one can even declare unfair orders of the Senate until the return of the sovereign, to whom he gives an account of his actions. In 1717, reprimanding the Senate from abroad for disorder in government, “which it is impossible for me to see at such a distance and behind this difficult war,” Peter inspired the senators to strictly monitor everything, “you have nothing else to do, just one thing.” rule, which if you do imprudently, then before God, and then you will not escape the local judgment.” Peter sometimes called senators from Moscow to his temporary place of residence, in Revel, St. Petersburg, with all the statements for a report, “what has been done according to these decrees and what has not been completed and why.” No legislative functions of the old Boyar Duma are noticeable in the original competence of the Senate: like the council of ministers, the Senate is not a state council under the sovereign, but the highest administrative and responsible institution for current affairs administration and for the execution of special assignments of the absent sovereign - a council that met “instead of the presence of His Majesty himself.” Progress of the war and foreign policy were not subject to his jurisdiction. The Senate inherited from the council two auxiliary institutions: the Execution Chamber, as a special judicial branch, and the Near Chancellery, which was attached to the Senate for the accounting and audit of income and expenses. But a temporary commission, such as the Senate in 1711, gradually turns into a permanent supreme institution […].

The council of ministers met randomly and in a random composition, despite the regulations that precisely regulated its paperwork. According to the list of 1705, there were 38 Duma people, boyars, okolnichy and Duma nobles, and at the beginning of 1706, when Charles XII with an unexpected movement from Poland, he cut off communications from the Russian corps near Grodna, when it was necessary to discuss and take decisive measures; under the Tsar, only two ministers, thoughtful people, happened in Moscow: the rest were “on duty”, in official dispersal. Of the orders in Moscow, only those that required and spent, such as Military, Artillery, Admiralty, and Ambassadorial, remained in Moscow. Financial consumption was concentrated in the capital, and the provincial administration mined; but in Moscow there remained no institution for supreme control of financial production and for supreme supervision of financial consumers, that is, there was no government. Among his military-strategic and diplomatic operations, Peter did not seem to notice that, by establishing 8 provinces, he created 8 recruiting and financial offices for recruiting and maintaining regiments in the fight against a dangerous enemy, but left the state without central internal administration, and himself without direct closest interpreters and conductors of their sovereign will. Such a conductor could not be a ministerial congress in the Near Chancellery without a specific department and permanent composition, from managers busy with other matters and obliged to sign the minutes of the meeting in order to thereby reveal their “stupidity.” Then Peter needed not a State Duma, advisory or legislative, but a simple state government of a few smart businessmen capable of guessing the will, catching the tsar’s unclear thought hidden in the laconic charade of a hastily sketched personal decree, developing it into an understandable and executable order and authoritatively looking after its execution - a government so empowered that everyone fears it, and so responsible that it itself fears something. The alter ego of the king in the eyes of the people, every minute feeling the royal quos ego above him - this was the original idea of ​​the Senate, if any idea participated in its creation. The Senate had to decide cases unanimously. So that this unanimity would not be squeezed out by anyone’s personal pressure, none of Peter’s top employees was brought into the Senate: neither Menshikov, nor Apraksin, nor Sheremetev, nor Chancellor Golovkin, etc. […] The majority of the Senate was made up of businessmen from far from the top bureaucratic nobility : Samarin was the military treasurer, Prince Grigory Volkonsky was the manager of the Tula state-owned factories, Apukhtin was the quartermaster general, etc. Such people understood military affairs, the most important subject of Senate jurisdiction, no worse than any principal, and they could probably steal less than Menshikov, if the senator is Prince M. Dolgoruky did not know how to write, and Menshikov was a little ahead of him in this art, having difficulty drawing the letters of his surname. So, two conditions were created by the needs of governance, which caused the establishment of the Senate as a temporary commission, and then strengthened its existence and determined its department, composition and significance: this was the disorder of the old Boyar Duma and the constant absences of the Tsar.

Klyuchevsky V.O. Russian history. Full course lectures. M., 2004.

DECREE ON THE POSITION OF THE SENATE

Paragraph VI. 1. In the Senate, the ranks must be said, which are depicted below,

2. give decrees to the entire state and those sent from us decide immediately;

3. and others, similar things, namely: in the ranks, to say, from the military - to all generals, from the state and civil government - as a minister, in the collegium - as president, in the province and in the province - as governor, governor and commandant, assessor, chamberlain, rentmaster and zemstvo and court kamsar, as well as collegiate members, including the secretary, and so on; and in the provinces - by the president, to the court courts, to the lantrichters and zemstvo secretaries.

Decree on the position of the Senate on April 27, 1722 // Russian legislation of the 10th–20th centuries. In 9 volumes. T.4. Legislation during the formation of absolutism. Rep. ed. A.G. Mankov. M., 1986. http://www.hist.msu.ru/ER/Etext/senat2.htm

SENATE AND NOBILITY

The entire mass of serving nobles was placed under direct subordination to the Senate instead of the previous Rank Order, and the Senate was in charge of the nobility through a special official, the “master of arms.”

THE MOST IMPORTANT TASK OF THE SENATE

The Senate, as the highest guardian of justice and state economy, had from the very beginning of its activity unsatisfactory subordinate bodies. In the center there were a bunch of old and new, Moscow and St. Petersburg, orders, offices, offices, commissions with confused departments and uncertain relationships, sometimes with random origins, and in the regions - 8 governors, who sometimes did not listen to the tsar himself, not just the Senate . The Senate consisted of the Chamber of Execution, inherited from the ministerial council, as its judicial department, and the Near Accounting Office. Among the most important responsibilities of the Senate was “to collect money as possible” and to consider government expenditures in order to cancel unnecessary ones, and yet money bills were not sent to him from anywhere, and for a number of years he could not draw up a statement of how much there was in the entire state in the parish, in consumption, in balance and in milk. […] The most important task of the Senate, which became clearest to Peter during its establishment, was the supreme control and supervision of the entire administration. The nearby office joined the Senate office for budget accounting. One of the first acts of government equipment of the Senate was the establishment of an active control body. By decree of March 5, 1711, the Senate was ordered to elect a chief fiscal, an intelligent and kind man, no matter what his rank, who should secretly supervise all matters and inquire about unjust trials, “as well as in collecting the treasury and so on.” The Ober-Fiscal attracted the accused, "what high degree no matter what," was held accountable before the Senate and there he was convicted. Having proved his accusation, the fiscal received half the fine from the person convicted; but even an unproven accusation was forbidden to blame the fiscal, or even to annoy him for it "under cruel punishment and the ruin of his entire estate" .

Klyuchevsky V.O. Russian history. Full course of lectures. M., 2004.

THE ADMINISTRATION CREATED BY PETER

In a systematic presentation, the administration created by Peter will be presented in this form.

Since 1711, the entire administration has been headed by the Senate. Around 1700, the old Boyar Duma disappears as a permanent institution and is replaced by the nearby office of the sovereign, in which, as in the old days, a meeting of the boyars sometimes takes place. During his incessant trips, Peter entrusted the conduct of state affairs in Moscow not to the institution, but to several trusted persons from the old Duma ranks (Peter did not give these ranks to anyone, but did not take them away from those who had them) and persons of new ranks and titles. But in 1711, setting off on the Prut campaign, Peter entrusted the state not to individuals, but to a newly founded institution. This institution is the Senate. Its existence, as Peter himself declared, was caused precisely by the “absences” of the sovereign, and Peter commanded everyone to obey the Senate as he did himself. Thus, the Senate's mission was initially temporary. It replaced: 1) the old Duma commissions, appointed to “in charge of Moscow” in the absence of the sovereign, and 2) the permanent “Execution Chamber,” which was, as it were, the judicial department of the Boyar Duma. But with Peter’s return to business, the Senate was not abolished, but became a permanent institution, in the organization of which three phases were noticed under Peter. From 1711 to 1718, the Senate was an assembly of persons appointed specifically to attend it; from 1718 to 1722 the Senate became a meeting of the presidents of the colleges; since 1722, the Senate has received a mixed composition, it includes some presidents of the colleges (military, naval, foreign) and at the same time there are senators who are alien to the colleges.

The department of the Senate consisted of control over the administration, in resolving cases beyond the competence of the boards, and in the general direction of the administrative mechanism. The Senate was thus the highest administrative body in the state. Him, in last years Peter, the judicial function was also assigned: the Senate became the highest court. There are different shades of opinion regarding whether legislative activity was inherent in the Senate. Some (Petrovsky “On the Senate during the reign of Peter the Great”) believe that the Senate at first had legislative power and sometimes even canceled the decrees of Peter himself. Others (Vladimirsky-Budanov in his critical article “The Establishment of the Government Senate”) argue that the legislative function never belonged to the Senate. But everyone recognizes that Peter, by modifying the position of the Senate in 1722, deprived it of legislative power; It is clear that Peter could not place meetings with legislative rights next to himself, as the only source of legislative power in the state. Therefore, even if we recognize the legislative function of the Senate, it should be considered an accidental and exceptional phenomenon.

The difference in ideas about its national significance also depends on the difference in ideas about the competence of the Senate. Some consider the Senate to be the absolute highest institution in the state, uniting and directing the entire administration and knowing no other power over itself than the sovereign (Gradovsky, Petrovsky). Others believe that, while controlling and directing the administration, the Senate itself was subject to control and depended on the “supreme ministers” (i.e., those close to Peter who controlled the troops, navy and foreign affairs) and on the prosecutor general, the representative of the sovereign’s person in Senate.

Platonov S.F. A complete course of lectures on Russian history. St. Petersburg, 2000

http://magister.msk.ru/library/history/platonov/plats005.htm#gl6

ASSESSMENT OF V.O. KLUCHEVSKY OF THE ADMINISTRATIVE REFORM OF PETER

“The capital clerk, the traveling general, the provincial nobleman threw the decrees of the formidable reformer out of the window and, together with the forest robber, were little worried about the fact that in the capitals there was a semi-sovereign Senate and nine, and then ten, Swedish-style collegiums with systematically demarcated departments. Impressive legislative facades covered the general lack of order.” Klyuchevsky V.O. Russian history. Full course of lectures. M., 2004.

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System of government bodies under Peter I

Formation of a new management system under Peter I

Until the end of the Northern Won, government bodies under Peter the Great in Russia did not have any special differences. However, after the end of hostilities against Sweden and the victory Russian state took its place of honor in the international arena. Taking these events into account, in 1721 the Senate proclaimed Tsar Peter emperor, as well as “Father of the Fatherland” and “Great”.

From this day on, the emperor acquired more extensive powers than the king had previously had during the so-called estate-representative monarchy. There is no longer a single state governing body left in the state that could in any way limit the imperial will and power. Only Peter the Great himself had the right to issue laws, completely forming at his own discretion the legislative basis of the state, and only the emperor could exercise justice through the Synod. Thus, every decision and sentence of the court was made on behalf of the sovereign. The Emperor deprived the Russian Church of its autonomy and completely subordinated it to the state, abolishing the position of patriarch.

Absolutism of Peter I

The power of the emperor was so undeniable in the state that Peter easily managed to change the order of succession to the throne in the Russian Empire. Before this, the right to govern the country passed from the father to the son, and in the absence of a legal heir, the future ruler could be elected by the Zemsky Sobor. However, Peter himself believed that this outdated order does not correspond to the ideas of an absolute monarchy and if the heir is not a good candidate, then the emperor should have the right to deny him the right to take the throne, choosing a new ruler himself. Naturally, by “unworthy heir,” Peter, first of all, meant his own son, who dared to oppose his father’s reforms.

Establishment of the Governing Senate in 1711

During the same period, as higher institution Peter's administration was represented by the Governing Senate, with which the sovereign replaced the former ineffective Boyar Duma. On February 27, 1711, before setting out on the Prut military campaign, the tsar signed a decree according to which, while Peter was not in the capital, all government of the state passed into the hands of the Governing Senate. There were nine members and the Chief Secretary present in the Senate.

Functions and powers of the Senate

The Senate performed the following functions:

• hearing cases as the highest court;
• resolving issues that were related to the conduct of military operations on territories belonging to the Russian state;
• hearing commission reports;
• consideration of various types of complaints, as well as the removal and appointment of heads of different categories, etc.

Together with this governing body, the Russian monarch established fiscals in the provinces and installed an over-fiscal in the Senate. The responsibilities of these officials included oversight of compliance with the law in provincial and central institutions. Later, all these responsibilities became part of the actual activities of the Prosecutor General, who, by decree of the Tsar, had to be present and maintain order at every meeting of the Governing Senate. The tsar appointed Pavel Yaguzhinsky as the very first chief prosecutor.

And although the Senate was established as a temporary solution to administer the state during the absence of the tsar in the country, this institution continued to exist after the return of Peter the Great from Prut campaign, representing the highest state - control, judicial and administrative.

Establishment of the prosecutor's office in 1722

The year 1722 is considered the beginning of the Russian prosecutor's office. During the same period, a special position of racketeer was established, considering complaints and making decisions on unfair decisions of the boards. The racketeer master had to report all such matters to the Senate, demanding a quick resolution of the issue, and sometimes his duties included reporting this to the emperor himself.

The above position was completely abolished only in 1763 during the reorganization of this governing body. In addition, subordinate to the Governing Senate there was also a master of arms, who was an official in charge of all the affairs of the upper noble class. For example, the duties of this official included the registration of nobles, their appointment to public service, control of their passage military service etc.

In 1731, under the Governing Senate, the so-called Office of Secret Investigation Cases appeared, investigating and conducting trials for all state crimes. Thirty years later it was abolished and replaced by a secret expedition of the Senate, which investigated the most important matters of a political nature.

After the death of Peter the Great, the political importance and power of the Senate dried up. Formally, remaining the highest authority after the monarch, it was completely subordinate to the Supreme Privy Council.

Table: reforms of Peter I in the field of government

Table: state administrative reforms of Peter I

Video lecture: public authorities under Peter I

Many radical transformations took place in the country: the way of life of the people changed, the fleet was rebuilt, the army was armed, but its main reforms concerned public administration. It was he who took the initiative to establish the highest administrative body, which was called the Governing Senate.

Founding history

With all the absolutism of power that was inherent in that period, the emperor decided to transfer part of his powers to the hands of selected and close people. At first, this practice was intermittent, and meetings took place only during the emperor’s frequent absences.

By official decree of Peter the Great, the Governing Senate was established in 1711. It did not arise out of nowhere; its predecessor was the boyar duma, which had long since become obsolete. The new and bold state demanded order in the legislative and administrative structure, “truth and fair trial between the people and in state affairs.” The emperor assigned these responsibilities to the new government body.

The question of foreign borrowing

Many historians associate the creation of the Governing Senate (date of event - February 19, 1711) with the emperor's practice of adopting everything Western. However, in addition to foreign word, there was nothing foreign in the new government body; all its structure and functions proceeded only from Russian reality. This was immediately evident from the system of subordination: if, for example, in Sweden the Senate could dictate its opinion and will to the monarch, then under Peter such a situation was simply impossible.

The Emperor took as a basis only the idea of ​​European states to include special institutions in the system of government and the distribution of responsibilities between different structures. The central authority was now guided not by ancient law or the customs of their ancestors, but by a law common to all. The Governing Senate under Peter 1 was a still-forming institution, the main goal of which was to unite the regions under the control of one center. The emperor himself was in charge and directed all the activities of his brainchild, even while away.

The role of the Governing Senate before 1741

After Peter's death, the central government existed in its original form for less than one year. In 1727, Empress Catherine I issued a decree establishing special supervision over him, which became the Privy Supreme Council. And the Governing Senate itself in Russia was renamed High.

Historians associate the reason for the creation of the supervisory body with the personal qualities of Peter’s successors, who did not know how to lead with an iron fist like he did. In practice, the Senate lost its original importance; its responsibilities now included judicial proceedings and minor government work. All this happened under the watchful eye of the Supreme Privy Council, whose members were A.D. Menshikov and F.M. Apraksin.

The situation changed with the arrival of Anna Ioannovna, who abolished the controlling body, and all power was again concentrated in the hands of the Empress and the Governing Senate. A reform was carried out, the department was divided into 5 departments, a cabinet of ministers appeared, for whose leadership Biron, Osterman and Minich fought.

Period from 1741 to 1917

Under Elizabeth, the governing Senate again received greater powers, including legislative activity and influence on foreign policy. However, all the introductions of the empress were canceled Peter III. Under Catherine II, the formation of the state system of the Russian Empire actively continued. The great ruler did not particularly trust the members of the Senate and, whenever possible, tried to remove certain departments from the institution and transferred them under the control of trusted people, such as Prince Vyazemsky, Shuvalov and Chernyshev.

The position of the supreme body of power was finally formed during the reign of Alexander I. Immediately after his accession to the throne, he seriously took up the task of restoring the high role of the Governing Senate in public administration. The result of his efforts was the decree of September 8, 1802, which became the last legislative act that fully clarified the rights and responsibilities of this organization. In this form, the institution existed until 1917, when it was abolished.

Structure of the Governing Senate

Initially, the structure of the central government had a very simple structure, Peter's decrees mainly concerned his duties and procedures. But with the growing importance of the Senate in the life of the country, its tasks gradually became more complicated; a clear hierarchy of management was required. IN general view The Governing Senate had the following organization:

1. The main work was carried out by senators; they were appointed by the emperor from among civil and military officials; only members of the cassation department had to have at least three years of experience as chief prosecutor.
2. The institution included several departments (their number was constantly changing), joint offices and general meetings.
3. It had its own office in different compositions and types; it usually consisted of a secret, administrative, provincial and discharge table.
4. Even under Peter, a “revenge fee” was distinguished, considering petitions and fiscal reports.
5. Senate offices, whose responsibilities included the administration of colleges from all over the country.

Under each subsequent emperor, the structure of the governing Senate constantly changed; depending on the era, new departments and structures were abolished or added, and a different procedure for election and administration was established.

Main functions

Over the two-hundred-year history of the central government body, it has undergone many changes. Gradual transformations led to the fact that the Governing Senate, whose functions were spelled out in a special imperial decree, had unique rights, including both the interpretation of laws and supervision of the activities of controlled institutions.

1. One of its most important functions is the ability to promulgate laws or refuse their official publication. Council members exercised control over the normative nature of state acts, interpreted laws, and it was their decision that was final.
2. The Governing Senate supervised the legality of the actions of ministers, ministries, and provincial authorities. If violations were detected, the organization had the right to demand an explanation and, if necessary, punish.
3. He observed elections to zemstvo assemblies, State Duma, city councils, merchants, petty bourgeois, craft institutions, considered complaints from nobles.
4. The Senate had the right, in the event of gross errors in the service of provincial leaders, to reprimand them and issue appropriate decrees.
5. The Cassation Department of the government Senate managed the judicial system in Russia; the decisions it made were no longer subject to appeal.

The unique powers of the government body also lay in the fact that council members had the right to initiate criminal prosecution of senior administrative officials, county representatives of the nobility and other officials.

Peculiarities in the appointment of senators

Under Peter I, members of the council, in addition to serving in this central organization, carried out other state assignments. Therefore, in the sources of that time you can often find references to the meeting not being held in full force. Someone was appointed ambassador to Europe, someone was sent on special assignments to county towns Empire, it turned out that all duties were performed by 5-6 people.

The main management function was carried out by senators in departments, and initially it was not noticed in their composition outstanding people of their time, those who are able to lead strong hand. The fact is that, according to the existing differentiation of government officials, persons with III and IV ranks were appointed to positions in the council, and service in the government for them was the pinnacle of their career. Thus, the social position of the members who were part of the governing Senate was absolutely not consistent with its high status.

Appointments were made by personal decrees, senators took an oath established under Peter I.

State officials attached to the central government

Even at the founding of the Governing Senate, a procedure was established according to which two commissioners were appointed from each province to “demand and adopt decrees.” They are the ones who should be intermediaries between the regional authorities and the Senate. Their duties included not only issuing decrees, but also monitoring implementation. Later these functions were transferred to the collegiums.

The Institute of Fiscals was established back in 1711; they were a supervisory body over the actions of courts, officials of all categories and other government officials. Very great power was concentrated in their hands; essentially, because of one denunciation, any person could be accused of a crime. Subordinate to the chief fiscal were several close assistants, as well as service people in every province and even city.

Peter I also wanted to establish control over the Governing Senate, but the problem was finding a person who could supervise the supreme body. Subsequently, the position of prosecutor general was established here. And we should also mention the retmeister and his office, they were the ones who received petitions from all over the country and monitored the timing and quality of their execution.

Range of departments

The establishment of the Governing Senate did not immediately resolve all the problems of government. The list of controlled departments was formed gradually; the first decree obligated the institution to carry out the following functions:

• monitor the court and check the legality of their decisions;
• control spending in the state;
• monitor the collection of nobles and literate young boyars as officers, the search for evaders;
• inspection of goods;
• bargain with China and Persia;
• control over escheated villages.

The institution could be called the central judicial, military and financial department, which exercised supervision over certain areas of government.

Procedure

Even Peter I noted the unforgivable slowness of the work of the entire system of the organ he created. The institution required a clear procedure for action, so the institution of office work was gradually organized in the government senate. In the 18th century, the concepts of protocol and reporting journal were already introduced into use, but only the charters of Alexander II finally established the procedure for conducting affairs in departments.

1. A petition, complaint or other documents are received by the office, employees collect the necessary information, certificates and prepare a note with summary the essence of the request, indicating the legal grounds.
2. An oral report is delivered to members of a particular department.
3. A vote is taken, and the decision, with some exceptions, had to be made unanimously.
4. The adopted resolution is entered into the journal by the office and, based on the results of the meeting, a final determination is drawn up.

Before the case went to the departments for consideration, all papers were read and controlled by the chief prosecutor, who had the right to make changes or influence the voting process.

Legislative activity

The Governing Senate has never fully been the department that develops and issues state decrees. Only under Peter and Elizabeth were council members given complete freedom of action. Over the two hundred years of its existence, its main function has taken shape - regulation and control of administrative management.

In rare cases, the central government body could submit a draft law for consideration by the emperor and ministers, however, council members rarely used this right, since the department did not have enough funds and capabilities to conduct legislative activities. Thus, the decrees of the governing Senate concerning the terms of service of noble officers were criticized and rejected by Alexander I.

Abolition

WITH early XIX century and until 1917, the role of the Senate in public administration was the same as under Alexander I. The problem of communication with the highest authority in the person of the emperor remained unresolved; all communication took place through the chief prosecutor, and the initial of great importance as under Peter I, this department was never able to achieve. After October revolution the council was dissolved, although temporary presences were renewed during the period Civil War in Omsk and Yalta.

The establishment of the Governing Senate marked the beginning of a clear organization of governance in our country; the experience of departments in the Russian Empire was taken into account in the formation of the modern political system.

During the era of Peter the Great, the Governing Senate appeared in Russia. Over the next two centuries, this government body was reformatted many times according to the will of the next monarch.

Appearance of the Senate

The Governing Senate was created by Peter I as a “safety cushion” in case the sovereign left the capital. The tsar was known for his active character - he was constantly on the road, which is why the state machine could stand idle for months in his absence. These were the obvious costs of absolutism. Peter was truly the only embodiment of state power in the vastness of the empire.

The original Governing Senate (1711) included the tsar's closest associates and assistants, who had his many years of trust. Among them are Pyotr Golitsyn, Mikhail Dolgorukov, Grigory Volkonsky and other high-ranking nobles.

The creation of the Governing Senate under Peter 1 occurred in an era when a clear separation of powers (judicial, executive and legislative) did not yet exist in Russia. Therefore, the terms of reference of this body were constantly changing depending on the situation and expediency.

In his first instruction, Peter announced to the senators that they should pay special attention to the state of the treasury, trade and court. The important thing is that this institution was never in opposition to the tsar. In this, the Russian Senate was the complete opposite of the body of the same name in neighboring Poland or Sweden. There, such an institution represented the interests of the aristocracy, which could oppose the policies of its monarch.

Interaction with provinces

From the very beginning of its existence, the Governing Senate worked a lot with the regions. Huge Russia has always needed effective system interaction between provinces and the capital. Under Peter's successors, a complex network of orders existed. Due to large-scale reforms in all spheres of the country's life, they have ceased to be effective.

It was Peter who created the provinces. Everyone is like that administrative entity received two commissioners. These officials worked directly with the Senate and expressed the interests of the province in St. Petersburg. With the help of the reform described above, the emperor expanded the scope of self-government in the provinces.

Fiscals and prosecutors

Of course, the creation of the Governing Senate could not do without the establishment of new positions related to its work. Along with the new body, fiscal officials appeared. These officials were the king's overseers. They controlled the work of institutions and ensured that all the instructions of the monarch were carried out exactly to the last remark.

The existence of fiscals led to abuses. A person who had such power could use his position for selfish purposes. At first, there was not even a regulated punishment for false reporting. Due to the controversial service of fiscal officials in the Russian language, this word received a second negative lexical meaning informer and sneak.

Nevertheless, the creation of this position was a necessary measure. The Ober-Fiscal (Chief Fiscal) could demand explanations from any official in the Senate. Thanks to this state of affairs, every nobleman, regardless of the height of his position, knew that his own abuses of power could ruin him. Fiscals existed not only in St. Petersburg, but also in the provinces (provincial fiscals).

Very quickly, the creation of the Governing Senate showed that this government body could not work effectively due to internal strife between senators. Often they could not come to a common opinion, became personal in their disputes, etc. This interfered with the work of the entire apparatus. Then Peter in 1722 established the post of Prosecutor General, who became the main person in the Senate. He was a “bridge” between the sovereign and the capital’s institution.

In the era of palace coups

After the death of the autocrat, the functions of the Governing Senate were seriously curtailed for the first time. This happened due to the fact that it was established in which aristocrats-favorites sat and it became an alternative to the Senate and gradually took over its powers.

After her accession to the throne, she restored the old order. The Senate again became the main judicial institution of the empire; the military and naval collegiums were subordinate to it.

Reforms of Catherine II

So, we figured out what functions the Governing Senate performed. It should be noted that Catherine II did not like this situation. The new empress decided to carry out reform. The institution was divided into six departments, each of which was responsible for a specific area of ​​the state. This measure helped to more accurately outline the powers of the Senate.

The first department dealt with internal political affairs, the second - judicial affairs. The third - by provinces that had a special status (Estonia, Livonia, and also Little Russia), the fourth - by military and naval issues. These institutions were located in St. Petersburg. The two remaining Moscow departments were in charge of court and administrative affairs. These are the functions the Governing Senate was endowed with under Catherine II.

The Empress also significantly increased the influence of the Prosecutor General on the work of all departments. During this time, this position lost its former importance. Catherine preferred to keep everything under control and thus restored Peter's orders of autocracy.

During the short reign of her son Paul, the Senate again lost most of its rights. The new emperor was extremely suspicious. He did not trust the nobles who had any influence and tried to make their contribution to government decision-making.

In the 19th century

As it was at the very end of its existence (on the eve of the revolution), the Governing Senate was created during the reign of Alexander I. It was then politic system the empire stabilized. They stopped and the inheritance of the royal title ceased to be a lottery.

Alexander was probably the most democratically minded Russian Emperor. He took control of a state that was working using outdated mechanisms that urgently needed to be changed. The new tsar understood that the creation of the Governing Senate (1711) was dictated by good goals, but believed that over the years this body had lost its significance and turned into a pathetic imitation of itself.

Immediately after his appearance on the throne, Alexander I issued a decree in 1801 in which he invited officials working in this institution to give him their projects for the upcoming reform for consideration. It went on for several months active work to discuss reformatting the Senate. Members of the Secret Committee took part in the discussion - young aristocrats, friends and associates of Alexander in his liberal endeavors.

Progress

Senators were appointed to their positions personally by the emperor. Only officials of the first three classes (according to the Table of Ranks) could become them. Theoretically, a senator could combine his main position with some other one. For example, this amendment has often been used in the case of the military.

Direct decisions on this or that issue were made within the walls of a certain department. At the same time, general meetings were convened periodically, at which all members of the Senate were present. A decree adopted in this state body could only be canceled by the emperor.

Functions

Let's remember in what year the Governing Senate was created. That's right, in 1711, and since then this institution of power has regularly taken part in legislation. During his reforms, Alexander I created a special institution for this purpose - State Council. However, the Senate could still draft laws and submit them for higher consideration through the Minister of Justice, who, since the 19th century, also combined the old position of Attorney General with the new one.

At the same time, ministries were created in place of the collegiums. At first there was some confusion in the relationship between the new executive bodies and the Senate. The powers of all departments were finally defined towards the end of the reign of Alexander I.

One of the most important functions of the Senate was its work with the treasury. It was the departments that reconciled the budget, and also reported to the supreme power about arrears and lack of money. In addition, the Senate was placed above the ministries in resolving interdepartmental disputes over property. This government body regulated internal trade, appointed justices of the peace. Senators were in charge of the armorial of the empire (a special department was even created for this).

The importance of the Senate and its abolition

Peter I needed government agency, which could replace him during his absence from the capital. The creation of the Governing Senate helped the emperor in this. The date of the appearance of the position of Prosecutor General (1722) is also considered the birthday of the Prosecutor's Office in modern Russia.

However, over time, the functions of the Senate have changed. The executive power of officials was small, but they remained an important layer between numerous boards (and later ministries).

The Senate had a noticeable importance in judicial matters. Appeals from all over the country flocked here. Dissatisfied provincial prosecutors, as well as governors, wrote to the Senate. This order was established after Alexander II in the 1860s.

When the Bolsheviks came to power in Russia, one of their first laws banned the activities of the Senate. This was Court Decree No. 1, adopted on December 5, 1917.