Polar explorer Otto Sverdrup The old emblem of the Norwegian Polar Institute, the leading scientific organization of the Kingdom of Norway, depicted three silhouettes of the famous polar explorers of this country - Fridtjof Nansen, Roald Amundsen and Otto Sverdrup. First two

Every educated person can easily remember the name of the one who made the first trip around the world and crossed Pacific Ocean. This was done by the Portuguese Ferdinand Magellan about 500 years ago.

But it should be noted that this formulation is not completely correct. Magellan thought through and planned the route of the voyage, organized it and led it, but he was destined to die many months before it was completed. So Juan Sebastian del Cano (Elcano), a Spanish navigator with whom Magellan had, to put it mildly, not friendly relations, continued and completed the first trip around the world. It was del Cano who eventually became captain of the Victoria (the only ship to return to her home harbour) and gained fame and fortune. However, Magellan made great discoveries during his dramatic voyage, which will be discussed below, and therefore he is considered the first circumnavigator.

The first trip around the world: background

In the 16th century, Portuguese and Spanish sailors and merchants vied with each other for control of the spice-rich East Indies. The latter made it possible to preserve food, and it was difficult to do without them. There was already a proven route to the Moluccas, where the largest markets with the cheapest goods were located, but this route was not close and unsafe. Due to limited knowledge about the world, America, discovered not so long ago, seemed to sailors as an obstacle on the way to rich Asia. No one knew whether there was a strait between South America and the hypothetical Unknown South Land, but the Europeans wanted there to be one. They did not yet know that America and East Asia were separated by a huge ocean, and they thought that opening the strait would provide quick access to Asian markets. Therefore, the first navigator to circumnavigate the world would certainly have been awarded royal honors.

Career of Ferdinand Magellan

By the age of 39, the impoverished Portuguese nobleman Magellan (Magalhães) had visited Asia and Africa several times, was wounded in battles with the natives and collected a lot of information about his travels to the shores of America.

With his idea of ​​getting to the Moluccas by the western route and returning the usual way (that is, making the first trip around the world), he turned to the Portuguese King Manuel. He was not at all interested in Magellan’s proposal, whom he also disliked for his lack of loyalty. But he allowed Fernand to change his citizenship, which he immediately took advantage of. The navigator settled in Spain (that is, in a country hostile to the Portuguese!), acquired a family and associates. In 1518, he obtained an audience with the young king Charles I. The king and his advisers became interested in finding a shortcut for spices and “gave the go-ahead” to organize the expedition.

Along the coast. Riot

Magellan's first voyage around the world, which was never completed for most of the team members, began in 1519. Five ships left the Spanish harbor of San Lucar, carrying 265 people from different countries Europe. Despite the storms, the flotilla relatively safely reached the coast of Brazil and began to “descend” along it to the south. Fernand hoped to find a strait into the South Sea, which should have been located, according to his information, in the region of 40 degrees south latitude. But in the indicated place it was not the strait, but the mouth of the La Plata River. Magellan ordered to continue moving south, and when the weather completely deteriorated, the ships anchored in the Bay of St. Julian (San Julian) to spend the winter there. The captains of three ships (Spaniards by nationality) mutinied, seized the ships and decided not to continue the first trip around the world, but to head for the Cape of Good Hope and from there to their homeland. People loyal to the admiral managed to do the impossible - recapture the ships and cut off the rebels' escape route.

Strait of All Saints

One captain was killed, another was executed, the third was put ashore. Magellan pardoned the ordinary rebels, which once again proved his foresight. Only at the end of the summer of 1520 did the ships leave the bay and continue searching for the strait. During a storm, the ship Santiago sank. And on October 21, the sailors finally discovered a strait, more reminiscent of a narrow crevice between the rocks. Magellan's ships sailed along it for 38 days.

The admiral called the coast remaining on the left hand Tierra del Fuego, since Indian fires burned on it around the clock. It was thanks to the discovery of the Strait of All Saints that Ferdinand Magellan began to be considered the one who made the first trip around the world. Subsequently, the Strait was renamed Magellan.

Pacific Ocean

Only three ships left the strait for the so-called “South Sea”: “San Antonio” disappeared (simply deserted). The sailors liked the new waters, especially after the turbulent Atlantic. The ocean was named Pacific.

The expedition headed northwest, then west. For several months the sailors sailed without seeing any signs of land. Starvation and scurvy caused the death of almost half the crew. Only at the beginning of March 1521 did ships approach two yet undiscovered inhabited islands from the Mariana group. From here it was already close to the Philippines.

Philippines. Death of Magellan

The discovery of the islands of Samar, Siargao and Homonkhon greatly pleased the Europeans. Here they regained their strength and communicated with local residents, who willingly shared food and information.

Magellan's servant, a Malay, spoke fluently with the natives in the same language, and the admiral realized that the Moluccas were very close. By the way, this servant, Enrique, ultimately became one of those who made the first trip around the world, unlike his master, who was not destined to land on the Moluccas. Magellan and his people intervened in an internecine war between two local princes, and the navigator was killed (either with a poisoned arrow or with a cutlass). Moreover, after some time, as a result of a treacherous attack by savages, his closest associates, experienced Spanish sailors, died. The team was so thin that it was decided to destroy one of the ships, the Concepcion.

Moluccas. Return to Spain

Who led the first voyage around the world after Magellan's death? Juan Sebastian del Cano, Basque sailor. He was among the conspirators who presented Magellan with an ultimatum at San Julian Bay, but the admiral forgave him. Del Cano commanded one of the two remaining ships, the Victoria.

He ensured that the ship returned to Spain loaded with spices. This was not easy to do: the Portuguese were waiting for the Spaniards off the coast of Africa, who from the very beginning of the expedition did everything to upset the plans of their competitors. The second ship, the flagship Trinidad, was boarded by them; the sailors were enslaved. Thus, in 1522, 18 expedition members returned to San Lucar. The cargo they delivered covered all the costs of the expensive expedition. Del Cano was awarded a personal coat of arms. If in those days someone had said that Magellan made the first trip around the world, he would have been ridiculed. The Portuguese only faced accusations of violating royal instructions.

Results of Magellan's journey

Magellan explored the eastern coast of South America and discovered a strait from the Atlantic to the Pacific Ocean. Thanks to his expedition, people received strong evidence that the Earth was indeed round, they were convinced that the Pacific Ocean was much larger than expected, and that sailing on it to the Moluccas was unprofitable. Europeans also realized that the World Ocean is one and washes all continents. Spain satisfied its ambitions by announcing the discovery of the Mariana and Philippine Islands, and laid claim to the Moluccas.

All the great discoveries made during this voyage belong to Ferdinand Magellan. So the answer to the question of who made the first trip around the world is not so obvious. In fact, this man was del Cano, but still the main achievement of the Spaniard was that the world generally learned about the history and results of this voyage.

The first round-the-world voyage of Russian navigators

In 1803-1806, Russian sailors Ivan Kruzenshtern and Yuri Lisyansky made a large-scale journey through the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian oceans. Their goals were: exploring the Far Eastern outskirts of the Russian Empire, finding a convenient trade route to China and Japan by sea, and providing the Russian population of Alaska with everything they needed. The navigators (set off on two ships) explored and described Easter Island, the Marquesas Islands, the coast of Japan and Korea, the Kuril Islands, Sakhalin and Yesso Island, visited Sitka and Kodiak, where Russian settlers lived, and also delivered an ambassador from the emperor to Japan. During this voyage, domestic ships visited high latitudes for the first time. The first trip around the world by Russian explorers had a huge public resonance and contributed to increasing the prestige of the country. Its scientific significance is no less great.

Russian navigators, along with European ones, are the most famous pioneers who discovered new continents, sections of mountain ranges and vast water areas. They became discoverers of significant geographical objects, took the first steps in the development of hard-to-reach territories, and traveled around the world. So who are they, the conquerors of the seas, and what exactly did the world learn about thanks to them?

Afanasy Nikitin - the very first Russian traveler

He was able to prove that even being a member of a poor peasant family, you can become a famous explorer and traveler. Streets and embankments in several places are named after him. Russian cities, motor ship, passenger train and aircraft.

Semyon Dezhnev, who founded the Anadyr fortress

In 1643, as part of a detachment of explorers, Semyon Ivanovich discovered Kolyma, where he and his associates founded the city of Srednekolymsk. A year later, Semyon Dezhnev continued his expedition, walked along the Bering Strait (which did not yet have this name) and discovered the easternmost point of the continent, later called Cape Dezhnev. An island, a peninsula, a bay, and a village also bear his name.

In 1648, Dezhnev hit the road again. His ship was wrecked in the waters located in the southern part of the Anadyr River. Having arrived on skis, the sailors went up the river and stayed there for the winter. Subsequently this place appeared on geographical maps and received the name Anadyrsky fort. As a result of the expedition, the traveler was able to make detailed descriptions and draw up a map of those places.

Vitus Jonassen Bering, who organized expeditions to Kamchatka

The discovery of the Kamchatka and Ozerny peninsulas, the Kamchatka, Krest, Karaginsky bays, Provedeniya Bay, and St. Lawrence Island is also the merit of Bering and Chirikov. At the same time, another strait was found and described, which later became known as the Bering Strait.

The second expedition was undertaken by them with the aim of finding a way to North America and the study of the Pacific Islands. On this journey, Bering and Chirikov founded the Peter and Paul fort. It took its name from the combined names of their ships (“St. Peter” and “St. Paul”) and subsequently became the city of Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky.

On the approach to the shores of America, the ships of like-minded people lost sight of each other, due to heavy fog. "St. Peter", controlled by Bering, sailed to the west coast of America, but was caught in a severe storm on the way back - the ship was thrown onto an island. The last minutes of Vitus Bering’s life passed on it, and the island subsequently began to bear his name. Chirikov also reached America on his ship, but completed his voyage safely, having discovered several islands of the Aleutian ridge on the way back.

Khariton and Dmitry Laptev and their “name” sea

Each of the brothers made a significant contribution to the development of new territories. Dmitry became the first navigator to photograph the coastline from the mouth of the Lena to the mouth of the Kolyma. He compiled detailed maps of these places, using mathematical calculations and astronomical data as a basis.

Khariton Laptev and his associates conducted research on the northernmost section of the Siberian coast. It was he who determined the dimensions and outlines of the huge Taimyr Peninsula - he carried out surveys of its eastern coast, and was able to identify the exact coordinates of the coastal islands. The expedition took place in difficult conditions - large number ice, snowstorms, scurvy, ice captivity - Khariton Laptev’s team had to endure a lot. But they continued the work they had started. On this expedition, Laptev's assistant Chelyuskin discovered a cape, which was later named in his honor.

Noting the great contribution of the Laptevs to the development of new territories, members of the Russian Geographical Society decided to name one of the largest seas in the Arctic after them. Also, the strait between the mainland and the island of Bolshoy Lyakhovsky is named in honor of Dmitry, and the western coast of the island of Taimyr is named after Khariton.

Krusenstern and Lisyansky - organizers of the first Russian circumnavigation

This trip allowed me to collect important information. Based on data obtained by seafarers, a detailed map Pacific Ocean. Another important result of the first Russian round-the-world expedition was the data obtained about the flora and fauna of the Kuril Islands and Kamchatka, local residents, their customs and cultural traditions.

During their journey, the sailors crossed the equator and, according to maritime traditions, could not leave this event without a well-known ritual - a sailor dressed as Neptune greeted Krusenstern and asked why his ship had arrived where he had never been Russian flag. To which I received the answer that they are here exclusively for the glory and development of domestic science.

Vasily Golovnin - the first navigator who was rescued from Japanese captivity

The leadership set the goal of the round-the-world expedition to study the North Pacific Ocean, with special attention to that part of it that is located within home country. Diana's path was not easy. The sloop passed the island of Tristan da Cunha, passed the Cape of Hope and entered a port owned by the British. Here the ship was detained by the authorities. The British informed Golovnin about the outbreak of war between the two countries. Russian ship was not declared captured, but the team was not allowed to leave the bay. Having spent more than a year in this situation, in mid-May 1809 the Diana, led by Golovnin, tried to escape, which the sailors successfully succeeded in doing - the ship arrived in Kamchatka.

Golovnin received his next important task in 1811 - he was supposed to compile descriptions of the Shantar and Kuril Islands, the shores of the Tatar Strait. During his journey, he was accused of not adhering to the principles of sakoku and was captured by the Japanese for more than 2 years. It was possible to rescue the team from captivity only thanks to the good relations between one of the Russian naval officers and an influential Japanese merchant, who was able to convince his government of the harmless intentions of the Russians. It is worth noting that before this, no one in history had ever returned from Japanese captivity.

In 1817-1819, Vasily Mikhailovich made another trip around the world on the Kamchatka ship, specially built for this purpose.

Thaddeus Bellingshausen and Mikhail Lazarev - discoverers of Antarctica

The results of this expedition exceeded all expectations. During the 751 days that it lasted, Bellingshausen and Lazarev were able to do several significant geographical discoveries. Of course, the most important of them is the existence of Antarctica, this historical event occurred on January 28, 1820. Also, during the trip, about two dozen islands were found and mapped, sketches of Antarctic views, and images of representatives of the Antarctic fauna were created.

Interestingly, attempts to discover Antarctica were made more than once, but none of them were successful. European navigators believed that either it did not exist, or it was located in places that were simply impossible to reach by sea. But the Russian travelers had enough perseverance and determination, so the names of Bellingshausen and Lazarev were included in the lists of the greatest navigators of the world.

There are also modern travelers. One of them.

Russian travelers and geographers made a great contribution to the knowledge of our planet. First of all, they explored the colossal territory of our Motherland, constituting a sixth of the entire landmass. Many lands in all parts of the world and islands of the world's oceans were mapped for the first time by the Russians. They were the first to visit Alaska, made heroic voyages in the Arctic on small boats, were the first to penetrate the Antarctic, collected information about the deserts of Iran and India, explored and described Mongolia, Tibet, Western China, mapped a significant part of Africa and South America. The names of many Russian researchers are depicted in geographical names on the world map.

The collection opens with a story about Afanasy Nikitin. The time to which the recording of his journey “Walking across the Three Seas” dates back to was significant for Russia - the unification of feudal principalities into a centralized Russian state. Nikitin's notes are interesting not only as the first reliable description of 15th-century India compiled by a European, but also as a document that reflected important changes that took place in Rus'.

It is difficult to say to what time man's acquaintance with the polar countries dates back to. It is known that in the 12th - 15th centuries Novgorodians explored and developed the coast of the Kola Peninsula and the shores of the White Sea. Pomors discovered a number of islands in the Arctic Ocean: New Earth, Kolguev, Medvezhiy, Spitsbergen. After Ermak's campaign in 1581-1584, Russian exploration of Siberia began. In 1586, the Tyumen fort was built on the Tura River, then the Tobolsk town was erected, which became the main support center of the first settlers. In 1601, having crossed Kamen (Ural), the Russians founded Mangazeya, a large trading city. In 1630, several detachments of Cossack explorers moved to Lena. Having gone down the Lena, they came out to the “Holy Sea” (Arctic Ocean).

In 1684, Fyodor Popov undertook a voyage from the mouth of the Kolyma to the east, and Semyon Dezhnev went with him (Fyodor Popov’s path was repeated only 200 years later by Nordenskiöld). At the beginning of the 19th century, industrialist Y. Sannikov discovered ancient crosses on Stolbovoy Island. And on Kotelny Island, an ancient winter hut was found - evidence that in the 22nd century, Russian sailors undertook ice voyages far into the depths of the ocean on their kochka boats.

A new page in the study of Russian sea routes was written as a result of the tireless work of a number of expeditions, equipped according to the plans of Peter 1. The 1st Kamchatka expedition (1725 - 1730) confirmed the hypothesis that Aznya and Acherika are separated by a strait, but since Bernng turned back before reaching lo Alaska, the existence of the strait was questioned. In 1732, it was decided to send a second, more significant expedition to the Pacific Ocean. Two ships were to go to America, and the other two were to go to Japan. At the same time, an expedition was sent to the Arctic Ocean to find out the possibility of sailing along the shores of Sibnri. This expedition went down in history as the Great Northern Expedition.

Russian navigators V. Pronchishchev, S. Chelyuskin, P. Lasinius, S. Muravyov, D. Ovtsyn, D. Sterlegov, F. Minin, Khariton and Dmitry Laptev quite accurately mapped the northern regions of Siberia and became convinced of the impossibility at that time of regular shipping in the eastern Arctic Ocean. The ships of the detachment of Bering and Chirikov - packet boats "St. Peter" and "St. Pavel" first approached the shores of Northwestern America and put them on the map; discovered the Aleutian and Commander Islands. The 2nd Kamchatka expedition finally confirmed the existence of a strait between America and Asia.

For two hundred years (before the expedition of the ships "Taimyr" and "Vaigach" in 1910-1915), hydrographic data compiled by the participants of the Great Northern Expedition remained the only guidance for navigation in those places.

The objects of the study were the islands of Novaya Zemlya, Vaygach, and Kolguev. In 1767, Novaya Zemlya was explored by F. Rozmyslov, and in 1821 - 1824 by F. Litke. The work begun by Rozmyslov and Litke was continued in 1832 by P. Pakhtusov and A. Tsivolko. In 1912, on the ship "St. Foka" Georgy Sedov went to the pole. He managed to go around the northern tip of Novaya Zemlya.

A worthy place in the development of the Arctic belongs to Admiral S. Makarov, his theory of conquering the Arctic Ocean with the help of icebreakers. “All the way to the Pole” was Makarov’s motto. In order to improve navigation and establish regular flights of Russian ships from the Baltic ports to the shores of the Pacific Ocean, I. Kruzenshtern and Yu. Lisyansky undertook a circumnavigation. Huge amounts of time were spent along the way. research papers, collected the richest scientific material, vast, little-known areas of the Pacific Ocean have been studied in detail.

After Krusenstern and Lisyansky, V. Golovnin undertook a circumnavigation of the world on the sloop “Diana”; he studied Kamchatka and the adjacent islands in detail. The second circumnavigation of the world on the sloop "Kamchatka", which was made by V. Golovnin, enriched world science with major geographical discoveries.

In 1819, after long and careful preparation, the South Polar Expedition set off from Kronstadt, consisting of two sloops of war, “Vostok” and “Mirny”, with Lazarev and Bellshausen at the head. On January 29, 1821, ships saw a coast called the Land of Alexander I. It was Antarctica - greatest discovery XIX century. The expedition, having spent 751 days sailing, covered more than 90 thousand kilometers and discovered 29 islands, as well as coral rocks.

A whole galaxy of geographers explored the mountain ranges and deserts of Central Asia. The name of the humanist scientist N. Miklouho-Maclay, a scientist, stands out somewhat especially among geographers. who set the goal not to penetrate into the depths of the ocean and not to pass through untrodden lands, but to penetrate into the depths of human society on earth.

The purpose of the proposed selection of postcards is to briefly acquaint the reader with the activities of Russian geographers and researchers and talk about the enormous contribution made by them to world geographical science, both in terms of the breadth of the problems posed and in the number and significance of discoveries.
P. Pavlinov

Afanasy Nikitin

Afanasy Nikitin

“Until now, geographers did not know that the honor of one of the oldest described European journeys to India belongs to Russia of the Johannine century. While Vasco da Gama was only thinking about the possibility of finding a way from Africa to Hindustan, our Tverite was already traveling along the shores of Malobar.” This is what N. Karamzin said about the notes he found from the 15th century Russian merchant Afanasy Nikitin, “Walking across Three Seas.” Leaving Tver in the summer of l466, a caravan of merchant ships led by Afanasy Nikitin descended along the Volga and Caspian Sea to Baku. Further the path lay through Persia to India on the Malobar coast.
The Indians appreciated Nikitin's friendly disposition towards them. Responding to his trust, they willingly devoted him to the peculiarities of their life and customs. Over the course of three years, Afanasy Nikitin collected the most interesting information about the “Bakhmani state,” the largest power in India in the 15th century. “Walking across Three Seas” was highly appreciated by his contemporaries: in 1472, the traveler’s diary was included in the Chronicle of the Russian State.

Ivan Moskvitin

Ivan Moskvitin

After the defeat of Khan Kuchum in 1598, “Siberian Land” ( Western Siberia) was included in the Russian state. And, naturally, there was a desire to explore areas rich in “soft junk” and “fish teeth.” A detachment of 31 Cossacks in 1639 under the command of Ivan Yuryevich Moskvitin, having learned from local residents (Evens) that there was a Lama (Sea of ​​Okhotsk) beyond the Dzhugdzhur mountain range, dragged boats through the mountains and, having gone down the Ulye River in boats, came to Sea of ​​Okhotsk. At the mouth of the Ulya they set up several huts, fenced them off and dug a ditch. This was the first Russian settlement on the Pacific coast. The pioneers explored the harsh Sea of ​​Okhotsk, moving away from the shores at times by 500 - 700 kilometers.
Information about the “new lands” was included in the Yakut “Paintings of rivers and names of people on which rivers and people live.” The Russian Cossacks modestly described their campaign: “Before Lama, the marchers fed on wood, bark, and roots, but on Lama, along the rivers you can get a lot of fish and you can be well-fed.”

Erofey Khabarov
Hike to the Amur

Erofey Khabarov

Fascinated by stories about the wealth of the Amur land, Khabarov turned to the Yakut governor with a request to send him at the head of a detachment of Cossacks to the Amur. The voivode invited Khabarov not only to collect yasak, but also to describe the life of the local peoples, draw up “drawings” (maps) of the area and describe natural conditions. Initially traveling by boat along the rivers of the Lena basin, Khabarov wrote down: “In the rapids, gear was torn, slops were broken, people were hurt...”. Even more difficult was the pass over the snow-covered Stanovoy Range, when, having hoisted the boats onto sledges, they had to be dragged. Khabarov made a number of campaigns in the Amur region and the rich Daurian land in 1649 - 1651. In one of the reports he writes: “And along the rivers there live many many Tungus, and down the glorious river great river The Amur is inhabited by Daurian people who are arable and cattle-farming, and in that great Amur River there is calushka fish, sturgeon, and all kinds of fish in abundance opposite the Volga. And in the cities and uluses there are great arable lands, the forests along that great river are dark, large, there are a lot of sables and all kinds of animals. And in the ground you can see gold and silver.”

Semyon Dezhnev
Opening of the strait between Asia and America

Semyon Dezhnev

The “Mangazeya passage” - the path from the mouth of the Northern Dvina, Mezen to the Gulf of Ob - is a bright page in the history of Russian sea travel. This is the way Ustyug resident Semyon Ivanovich Dezhnev “went” to Siberia. In 1643, he led a detachment that set off on Kochs across the Kolyma and further to the east. According to Dezhnev’s report, three Kochas were approaching the “Big Stone Nose” (the most northeastern point of the Asian continent): Fedot Alekseeva (Popova), Semyon Dezhnev and Gerasim Ankidinov. “But that bow went out into the sea much further and a lot of good Chukhchi people live on it...” notes Dezhnev in his “reply”. Having lost Ankidinov's koch, Dezhnev and Popov turned their ships south and entered the strait separating Asia from America. Fog, which is common in these places, did not allow them to see Alaska.
Thanks to this expedition, an image of Northeast Asia appeared on the “Drawing of the Siberian Land” in 1667. The name of Dezhnev is crowned with the glory of the discovery of the strait between Asia and America, the Chukotka Peninsula, and the Anadyr Territory.

Vitus Bering and A.I. Chirikov
1st and 2nd Kamchatka expeditions

Vitus Bering and A.I. Chirikov

When Russian Empire stretches from the Baltic to the Pacific Ocean, the time has come to accurately define its borders and the outlines of the sea shores. For this purpose, Peter I decided to send an expedition to the Pacific Ocean. It was necessary to clarify not only the issue of borders and scientific “curiosity”, but also to open sea ​​routes for trade with “gold-rich” Japan, according to the concept of that time. Head of the 1st Kamchatka expedition(1725-1730) Vitus Bering, a Dane who had served in Russia for many years, was appointed, and Alexey Ilyich Chirikov was appointed assistant.
Bering walked around the eastern coast of Kamchatka, the southern and eastern coasts of Chukotka, and discovered the St. Lawrence Islands. Having passed through the Chukchi Sea to a latitude of 6718" and seeing that "the land does not extend further to the north", Bering, despite the proposal of Alexei Ilyich Chirikov to continue further north, considered the question of the existence of a strait between Asia and America to be resolved positively and turned back. In St. Petersburg, the results of the expedition were considered unsatisfactory. Bering received instructions for a new voyage. The instructions determined the scope and tasks of the 2nd Kamchatka and the associated Great Northern Expedition (1733 - 1743), which were tasked with making a description of the entire northern and eastern coasts of Siberia and familiarizing themselves with it. the shores of America and Japan and finally clarify the issue of the strait between Asia and America. The main objectives of the expedition were fulfilled. The survey materials produced during the expeditions were used by cartographers for two centuries.

H. Laptev and S. Chelyuskin

H. Laptev and S. Chelyuskin

In 1730, Bering, who returned from Kamchatka, began to equip an expanded expedition (2-Kamchatka): some ships to send along the Pacific Ocean to Japan and the Americas, and others along the Arctic Ocean to describe and map the coast of the Arctic Ocean. The expedition in the North of Russia lasted 10 years (from 1733 to 1743) and in terms of its objectives, the size of the territories covered, and the results, it was rightly called the Great Sverpa Expedition. The expedition consisted of separate land and naval detachments, which had bases at the mouths of large rivers in the North of Siberia. Its participants were Khariton and Dmitry Laptev, S. Chelyuskin, S. Malygin, V. Pronchishchev and many others. All of them showed unparalleled courage and perseverance in achieving their goal. As a result, a huge amount of material was collected about the nature of the northern seas, thousands of kilometers of the coast of the Arctic Ocean were mapped, large territories of the Russian North, and the life and way of life of the peoples inhabiting them were explored and described.

I.F.Kruzenshtern and Yu.F.Lisyansky
The first Russian trip around the world

I.F.Kruzenshtern and Yu.F.Lisyansky

TO early XIX century, there was a need to establish regular flights of Russian ships from the Baltic ports to Russian ports on the Pacific Ocean. In 1802, the Naval Ministry accepted the proposal of Lieutenant-Commander I. F. Kruzenshtern to organize the first Russian round-the-world expedition (1803 - 1806). The purpose of the expedition was: delivery of goods to Russian possessions in North America and Kamchatka, establishment of trade relations with Japan and China, research in the tropical part of the Pacific Ocean and near Russian possessions. Yu. F. Lisyansky was appointed Krusenstern's assistant. The expedition had two ships, Nadezhda and Neva. During the trip, the world map was updated, a number of islands were discovered, and numerous oceanographic studies were carried out. The descriptions of the life, customs, economy, and social structure of the inhabitants of Sakhalin and Kamchatka deserve special attention. Kruzenshtern compiled the “Atlas of the South Sea” - the most accurate for that time.

F.F. Bellingshausen and M.P. Lazarev
Discovery of Antarctica

F.F. Bellingshausen and M.P. Lazarev

In 1819, two military sloops set out from Kronstadt on a circumnavigation of the world: “Vostok” and “Mirny” under the command of Thaddeus Faddeevich Bellingshausen and Mikhail Petrovich Lazarev. The expedition had to decide an ancient riddle about the Southern Continent. Having overcome the enormous difficulties of sailing in ice conditions, the ships approached Antarctica. According to Lazarev’s companion on the expedition, midshipman Novosilsky, “the Russians were given the honor for the first time to lift the corner of the curtain hiding the distant, mysterious south, and to prove that behind the ice wall that encircles it, islands and lands are hidden.” On January 10, 1821, the sailors of the Mirny and Vostok simultaneously saw an island, which they called the Island of Peter I. Then a coast was discovered, called the Alexander I Coast.

F.P.Litke
Exploration of Novaya Zemlya

F.P.Litke

A major contribution to the study of Novaya Zemlya belongs to the navigator Admiral Fyodor Petrovich Litka, who, during expeditions in 1821 - 1824, for the first time since the Barents, examined and mapped the entire western coast of Novaya Zemlya, the Murmansk coast, and explored the eastern part of the Barents and White Seas. In 1826 - 1829, on the sloop Senyavin, Litke, leading a round-the-world expedition, explored and mapped the islands of the Caroline Archipelago, and surveyed Bonin Island. Fyodor Petrovich Litke was one of the founders of the Russian Geographical Society. A gold medal was established in his honor.

G.I.Nevelskoy

G.I.Nevelskoy

In the report of Admiral G. I. Nevelsky on the results of the voyage in 1848-1849 on the Baikal transport, it is written: “... we discovered
1) that Sakhalin is an island separated from the mainland by a strait 4 miles wide and having a minimum depth of 5 fathoms;
2) that the entrance to the Amur from the north from the Sea of ​​Okhotsk and from the south from the Tatar Strait, as well as communication through the Amur Estuary of the Seas of Japan and Okhotsk is accessible to seagoing vessels;
3) that on the southwestern coast of the Sea of ​​Okhotsk there is an extensive roadstead, closed from all winds, which I called the Gulf of St. Nicholas...”
Many saw Nevelskbgo’s action as a daring violation of instructions. After all, Nicholas 1 himself ordered: “The question of the Amur, as a useless river, should be left.” A special committee threatened to demote Nevelsky to sailor status. But still, he managed to prove the need to create the Amur Expedition (1850 - 1855), which explored the vast expanses of the Amur region and the island of Sakhalin. In 1854, Primorsky Krai was annexed to Russia.

P.P. Semenov Tian-Shansky

P.P. Semenov Tian-Shansky

The travels of the great Russian explorer Pyotr Petrovich Semenov-Tyan-Shansky marked the beginning of a new period in the study of Central and Central Asia. The results of the scientist’s research showed that the Tien Shan mountains are not of volcanic origin. During the expedition, he collected a large mineralogical collection, a herbarium, a collection of insects and mollusks, and valuable ethnographic material. The artist P. Kosharov, who made a huge number of sketches of the places through which the expedition passed, provided great assistance to the geographer in his research.
The famous Soviet geographer Yu. Shakalsky wrote: “For us, old workers of the Society, the names Pyotr Petrovich and the Geographical Society are inseparable.” For more than 40 years, Semenov-Tyan-Shansky headed the Russian geographical society and was the direct organizer and ideological leader of the expeditions of N. Przhevalsky, G. Potanin, P. Kozlov and many others.

N.M. Przhevalsky

N.M. Przhevalsky

“In the history of science there are scientists whose ideas and works constitute an entire era. Such scientists include Nikolai Mikhailovich Przhevalsky,” wrote Doctor of Geographical Sciences E. Murzaev about the traveler. The routes of the expeditions of the great Russian traveler (from 1867 to 1888) covered the vast expanses of Central Asia. Przhevalsky was the first to describe in detail the deserts of the Gobi, Ordos, Dzungaria and Kashgaria, and was the first to suggest that the Gobi Desert is a huge bowl with a predominance of rocky and clayey soils. He refuted the theory of the famous geographer and traveler Humboldt about the grid direction of the central ridges of the Tibetan Plateau, proving their predominantly latitudinal direction. He was the first to describe the ridges of the Kuen Lun system, discovered the system of Nanshan ridges, and discovered a number of ridges of Humboldt, Columbus, Przewalski and others.
During his expeditions, the scientist collected remarkable collections of flora and fauna of Central Asia. His herbariums, which included unique plants, numbered 15 - 16 thousand plants. Przhevalsky collected a huge collection of animals. He discovered and described a wild camel and a wild horse, which received the name of Przhevalsky.

N.N. Miklouho-Maclay

N.N. Miklouho-Maclay

Academician L. Berg said excellently about N. Miklouho-Maclay: “While other geographers were discovering new, hitherto unknown lands, Miklouho-Maclay sought first of all to discover Man among the “primitive” peoples he studied, that is, peoples not touched by European culture " It is hardly possible to more accurately characterize the goal to which the life of the outstanding Russian traveler was dedicated.
In 1871, the Russian corvette Vityaz landed the scientist on the shore of New Guinea (now the Maclay Coast), where he lived among the Papuans for 15 months. “The Man from the Moon,” as the natives called him, with courage and trust, throwing away his weapons, sought the favor and love of the Papuans. MiklouhoMaclay became their true friend, with whom they parted with tears.
The traveler brought home diaries, sketches, and collections that contained valuable ethnographic material. The diaries of Nikolai Nikolaevich Miklouho-Maclay were published only after the October Revolution.

S.O. Makarov

S.O. Makarov

Among the famous Russian naval commanders, the name of Stepan Osipovich Makarov stands out - admiral, talented scientist, tireless polar explorer. 33-year-old Makarov, commanding the steamship Taman, on his own initiative began studying the currents in the Bosphorus Strait. He made more than 5 thousand observations with a device he invented - a fluctometer - and proved the presence of two opposite currents: the upper one, from the Black Sea, and the lower one, from the Mediterranean Sea. Sailing on the corvette Vityaz, Makarov continued hydrological observations along all sailing routes: he measured the temperature and density of water at various depths, and studied currents in different layers. The scientist systematized the research of expeditions in the Pacific Ocean in the two-volume work “Vityaz” and “The Pacific Ocean” (1894), which was awarded a prize from the Academy of Sciences and a gold medal from the Russian Geographical Society. Stepan Osipovich Makarov also came up with the idea of ​​creating the world's first powerful icebreaker, the Ermak.

P.K. Kozlov

P.K. Kozlov

The outstanding explorer spent fifteen years on expeditions through the deserts and cities of Central Asia. On horseback, on foot and on camels, he made his way to the most remote and inaccessible areas. The length of his travels is over 40 thousand km. Pyotr Kuzmich Kozlov owns one of the most outstanding archaeological discoveries of the 20th century: the discovery of the dead city of Khara-Khoto in the sands of Mongolia and burial mounds of the ancient Huns in the Mongolian Altai; he researched and described largest river Asia - Mekong, in 1905, the first European met and talked with the Dalai Lama, who was then in Mongolia. Kozlov left an unforgettable impression upon the discovery of Khara-Khoto. The excavations made the Russian geographer famous throughout the world. Manuscripts, books, paintings, household and religious objects of the 11th - 12th centuries AD were discovered here. During the expeditions, the scientist collected valuable materials about the geology, climate, flora and fauna of Tibet and about little-known or completely unknown Eastern Tibetan tribes.

G.Ya.Sedov
Path to the North Pole

G.Ya.Sedov

On February 2, 1914, the already seriously ill famous polar explorer Georgy Yakovlevich Sedov left his last winter in Tikhaya Bay on Hooker Island. For almost a year and a half, Sedov’s expedition, which left Arkhangelsk on the ship “St. Foka" in August 1912, sought to break through the ice to the North Pole. But the attempt ended in failure. On February 20, 1914, before reaching Rudolph Island, Sedov died and was buried on Cape Auk of this island.
However, according to Nansen, the materials obtained by the brave researcher on Novaya Zemlya alone completely paid for the entire expedition, so great is their scientific value.