Alberts molecular biology of cells read online

Year of manufacture: 1994

Genre: Biology

Format: DjVu

Quality: Scanned pages

Description: Book by B. Alberts, D. Bray, J. Lewis. M. Raff and J. Watson “Molecular Biology of the Cell” was published in Russian translation in 1986-1987. and immediately gained wide recognition and popularity among domestic biologists. It is difficult to overestimate the importance of this book for undergraduate and graduate students who use it as a textbook.
There is no doubt that the second edition of Molecular Biology of the Cell, published by the same authors in 1989, will also be very useful for both biologists and doctors in our country. The six years separating these books turned out to be very fruitful for biology as a whole; new fundamental data were obtained, many controversial issues were resolved, new scientific ideas appeared in the field of molecular biology, cytology, developmental biology, cellular immunology and neurobiology. The authors of the book significantly revised its content and brought it into line with the modern level of knowledge.
The overall composition of the book has not changed, but two new chapters have appeared: control of gene activity (Chapter 10) and cancer (Chapter 21). Changes have been made to the order of the chapters, which makes the presentation of the material more logical. Thus, Chapter 7, dedicated to bioenergy, naturally follows the material related to the structure of membranes, and after Chapter " Cell nucleus" follows a chapter on gene expression.
Chapter 8, on intracellular organelles, has been significantly updated to include “Intracellular Macromolecule Sorting and Intracellular Compartments.” It includes analysis molecular basis sorting of lysosomal and secretory proteins.
Much attention is paid in the book modern methods molecular and cellular biology. The authors strive to show how, in what way, with the help of what kind of experiments certain data were obtained. This desire to connect specific material with the logic of experiment has great pedagogical significance.
The proposed second edition of "Molecular Biology of the Cell" can be recommended as the main textbook for undergraduate and graduate students of molecular biology, as well as for students of courses in such specialties as cytology, genetics, histology, embryology, general physiology and others. Moreover, familiarization with the book “Molecular Biology of the Cell” by a biologist of any specialty will significantly expand his horizons and update his ideas about the molecular, cellular and tissue organization of living nature.

B. Alberts D. Bray J. Lewis M. Raff K. Roberts J. Watson

MOLECULAR CELL BIOLOGY

2ND EDITION, REVISED AND ADDED

Translation from English Ph.D. biol. Sciences V. P. Korzha,

Ph.D. biol. Sciences N.V. Sonina, Ph.D. biol. Sciences N. M. Rutkevich, Ph.D. biol. Sciences G.I. Eisner,

T. D. Arzhanova, G. V. Kryukova, A. V. Nikashina

edited by academician G. P. Georgieva, Doctor of Biology. Sciences Yu.S. Chentsova

BBK 28.070 M75 UDC 576.32/36

The publication was published as part of a subsidy allocated by the Russian Press Committee

Molecular biology of cells: In 3 volumes, 2nd ed., M75 revised. and additional T. 3. Per. from English-M.: Mir, 1994.-504 p., ill. ISBN 5-03-001985-5

Created by a team of famous American scientists (including laureate Nobel Prize James Watson) modern textbook molecular biology. The encyclopedic comprehensiveness of the material coverage allows it to be used as a reference guide. Published in Russian in 3 volumes. The reader is already familiar with the 1st edition (M.: Mir, 1986-1987). The new edition has been revised by the authors and supplemented with modern material. Volume 3 discusses the problems of cell differentiation and organization of specialized tissues, and analyzes general biological and molecular genetic aspects of malignant cell degeneration.

For biologists of all specialties, teachers and students of universities, medical, pedagogical and agricultural institutes.

Educational edition

Bruce Alberts, Dennis Bray, Julian Lewis, Martin Raff, Keith Roberts James D. Watson

MOLECULAR

BIOLOGY

2nd edition, revised and expanded

In 3 volumes

ISBN 5-03-001988-Х (Russian)

ISBN 5-03-001985-5

ISBN 0-8240-3965-6 (English)

License L.R. No. 010174 dated January 22, 1992

Head by the editors of Ph.D. biol. Sciences M. D. Grozdova Leading editors: Yu. I. Lashkevich, M. B. Nikolaeva, M. R. Pogosbekova Editor N. V. Peresypkina Artist E. I. Volkov

Art editors A. E. Volkov, L. M. Alenicheva Technical editor M. A. Strashnova Proofreader N. N. Svetlova

Delivered for recruitment on November 19, 1992. Signed for publication on September 21, 1994. Format 84 x 108 1/16. Offset paper. Offset printing. Times typeface. Volume 15.75 boom. l. Conditional pech.l. 52.93.

Conditional cr.-ott. 103.74. Uch.ed.l. 55.25. Ed. No. 4/7793. Circulation 10,000 copies. Zach. 2292.

Publishing house "Mir" of the Committee Russian Federation by printing 129820, GSP, Moscow, I-110, 1st Rizhsky lane, 2

Mozhaisk Printing Plant of the Russian Federation Committee for Printing 143200, Mozhaisk, st. Mira, 93

Editorial Board of Biology Literature

III From cells to multicellular organisms

15 day mouse embryo

Sperm on the surface of the egg sea urchin. A photograph obtained using a raster electron microscope. (Courtesy Brian Dale.)

15 Sex cells and fertilization

Reproduction is possible without the sexual process. Single-celled organisms can reproduce by simple mitotic division. Many plants reproduce vegetatively, forming multicellular daughters, which are subsequently separated from the mother organism. Similar phenomena also occur in the animal kingdom: for example, a single multicellular hydra produces descendants by budding them from its body (Fig. 15-1). Anemones and some sea worms are divided into two halves, each of which regenerates the missing part of the body. Among lizards there are even species that are represented only by females and reproduce without mating. This kind asexual reproduction - process very simple and does not lead to the formation of new forms: all offspring are genetically identical to the parent organism. In contrast to this, when sexual reproduction the genomes of two different individuals of a given species are mixed, and the resulting offspring are usually genetically different from each other and from both parents. Sexual reproduction, apparently, has great advantages, since it is characteristic of the vast majority of plants and animals. Even many prokaryotes and some other organisms that usually reproduce asexually, in some cases, switch to sexual reproduction, which results in new combinations of genes. In this chapter we will be introduced to the cellular mechanisms that function in sexual reproduction, but before going into detail, we will consider the reasons for this apparatus and the advantages it provides.

15.1. Benefits of the sexual process

The cycle of sexual reproduction includes alternation of haploid generations of cells, each of which has a single set of chromosomes, with diploid generations, where cells have a double set of chromosomes (Fig. 15-2). Mixing of genomes occurs due to the fusion of two haploid cells, from which one diploid cell is formed. In turn, new haploid cells are formed from diploid ones as a result of a special type of division called meiosis. During the process of genetic recombination in meiosis, paired chromosomes exchange DNA, after which their new combinations disperse into different cells, which now contain single sets of chromosomes (see Section 15.2.2). As a result, each cell of the new haploid generation receives a new combination of genes, derived partly from one parent cell of the previous haploid generation and partly from another. Thus, through cycles including the haploid phase, gamete fusion, diploid phase and meiosis, old gene combinations break down and new ones are created.

Rice. 15-1. A hydra from which two new individuals bud (indicated by arrows). Offspring are genetically identical to the parent organism; they eventually separate and move on to an independent existence. (Courtesy of Matai Hornbruch.)

15.1.1. In multicellular animals, the diploid phase is complex and long, and the haploid phase is simple

And short-term

During the sexual cycle, cells reproduce by normal mitotic division - most often during the diploid phase (see Section 13.5). The exception is some simple organisms, such as yeast (only haploid cells reproduce through mitosis, while a diploid cell, once formed, immediately proceeds to meiosis), as well as plants, although not in such a bright form; in the latter, mitotic divisions occur in both haploid and diploid phases. Moreover, in all plants, with the exception of the most primitive ones, the haploid phase is very short and simple, while the diploid phase is represented by a long period of development and growth. In almost all multicellular animals, including all vertebrates, the haploid phase is even shorter. They spend almost their entire life cycle in a diploid state; haploid cells live very briefly, they do not divide at all and are specially adapted for sexual fusion (Fig. 15-3).

Haploid cells that fuse during fertilization are called gametes. Typically, two types of gametes are formed: large, immobile eggs (or eggs) and small, motile sperm (or sperm) (Fig. 15-4). During the diploid phase, which begins immediately after gamete fusion, cells multiply and specialize to form a complex multicellular organism. In most animals (but not plants) it is useful to distinguish cells germline(rudimentary path), from which it originates

Rice. 15-2. The life cycle of a sexually reproducing organism includes alternating diploid and haploid cell generations.

Rice. 15-3. This diagram shows how cells of higher eukaryotes reproduce in the diploid phase, forming a multicellular organism in which only gametes become haploid. On the contrary, in some lower eukaryotes it is haploid cells that reproduce, and the only diploid cell is the zygote, which exists for a very short time after fertilization. Haploid cells are highlighted in color

Rice. 15-4. The egg of a bivalve mollusk with numerous sperm attached to its surface. The micrograph was obtained using a scanning electron microscope. (Courtesy David Epel.)

the next generation of gametes, and somatic cells that form the rest of the body and leave no offspring. In a sense, somatic cells are only needed to promote the survival and proliferation of germ cell cells (sex cells).

15.1.2. Sexual reproduction makes organisms competitive in conditions of environmental variability.

The apparatus of sexual reproduction is complex, and the funds “spent” on it are very large. What advantages does it provide, and why was it developed in the process of evolution? In the presence of genetic recombination, parental individuals produce offspring that will differ from them in the most unpredictable ways, and among new random combinations of genes, at least half may turn out to be worse than the parental genotypes. But if this is so, then why should sexual reproduction be more beneficial than asexual reproduction, in which the offspring will retain all the parental genes? Although this issue is still not entirely clear to population geneticists, the main conclusion seems to be that the shuffling of genes during sexual reproduction contributes to the survival of the species when environmental conditions change. If a parent produces many offspring with a wide variety of gene combinations, there is a greater chance that at least one offspring will be well suited for future life circumstances, whatever they may be. Many hypotheses have been proposed to explain the advantages of sexual reproduction in the struggle for existence. One of them gives an idea of what the first stages of the evolution of sexual reproduction might have been. The course of evolution depends largely on mutations, which change existing genes, forming instead new alleles (variants) of these genes. Suppose that two individuals in a certain population have favorable mutations affecting different genetic loci, and therefore different functions.

In an asexual species, each of these individuals will give rise to a clone of mutant offspring, and the two new clones will compete until one of them wins. One of the favorable alleles produced by mutation will thus spread, while the other will eventually disappear. Now imagine that one of the original mutants has a genetically determined feature that allows it from time to time to include genes from other cells into its genome. In conditions of the struggle for existence, the acquisition of genes from cells of a competing clone is equivalent to the creation of a cell that carries all the favorable mutations. Such a cell will have the greatest fitness, and the advantages it receives will ensure the spread in the population of a feature that allows it to include genes from other cells in its genome. Natural selection will favor such primitive sexual reproduction.

Whatever the origins of sexual reproduction, it is striking that the evolution of virtually all complex organisms that survive to this day has proceeded through the alternation of many generations of sexual reproduction. Despite the abundance of asexual organisms, they apparently remained very primitive. Why? Perhaps the answer is that sexual reproduction creates special opportunities for genetic renewal leading to the development of complex organisms. We will talk about all this further.

15.1.3. New genes appear as a result of duplications and divergence

Evolution of a complex organism requires more than improvements to existing genes: new genes are needed to perform new functions. How do they appear?

Many proteins of a multicellular animal can be grouped into families: collagens, globins, serine proteases, etc. Proteins of the same family are similar both in their function and in their amino acid sequence. There can be little doubt that the protein genes of each such family descended from a single ancestral gene as a result of processes of duplication and divergence (Section 10.5.3). Various members One family of proteins is often characteristic of different tissues of the body, where they perform similar but slightly different functions. The creation of new genes due to the divergence and specialization of existing ones obviously played a decisive role in the evolution of complex multicellular organisms. In this regard, diploid organisms have an important advantage: they have an extra copy of each gene, and this copy can mutate and serve as the starting material for creating something new. Haploid species cannot as easily embark on the path leading to genome enlargement and complexity. In order for the mechanism of these processes to become clear, we will need to consider in some detail the relationship between sexual reproduction and diploidy.

15.1.4. Sexual reproduction maintains diploidity in diploid species

A diploid organism has two copies of each gene, one from each parent; however, in most cases, one copy is sufficient for survival and normal functioning. A mutation that disrupts the function of a vital gene is lethal for a haploid organism, but it may turn out to be harmless

B. Alberts D. Bray J. Lewis M. Raff K. Roberts J. Watson

MOLECULAR

BIOLOGY

2nd EDITION, REVISED AND ADDED

In 3 volumes

Translation from English

Ph.D. biol. Sciences T.N. Vlasik Ph.D. biol. Sciences V.P. Korzha, Ph.D. biol. Sciences V.M. Maresina, T.D. Arzhanova, G. V. Kryukova

edited by academician G. P. Georgieva, Doctor of Biology. Sciences Yu.S. Chentsova

BBK 28.070 M75 UDC 576.32/36

Federal Target Program for Book Publishing in Russia

Molecular biology of cells: In 3 volumes, 2nd ed., revised. M75 and additional T. 1. Per. from English-M.: Mir, 1994.-517 pp., ill. ISBN 5-03-001985-5

Created by a team of famous American scientists (including Nobel Prize winner James Watson), this is a modern textbook on molecular biology. The encyclopedic comprehensiveness of the material coverage allows it to be used as a reference guide. Published in Russian in 3 volumes. The reader is already familiar with the 1st edition (M.: Mir, 1986-1987). The new edition has been revised by the authors and supplemented with modern material. Volume 1 discusses the evolution of cells, their chemical composition, research methods, structure and functions of the plasma membrane, mitochondria, chloroplasts.

For biologists of all specialties, teachers and students of universities, medical, pedagogical and agricultural institutes.

		1903010000 − 023	KB 46 − 92 − 29
		056(01) − 94

ISBN 5-03-001986-3 (Russian) ISBN 5-03-001985-5

ISBN 0-8240-3695-6 (English)

Editorial Board of Biology Literature

Translation Editor's Preface

The book “Molecular Biology of the Cell” by B. Alberts, D. Bray, J. Lewis, M. Raff and J. Watson was published in Russian translation in 1986-1987. and immediately gained wide recognition and popularity among domestic biologists. It is difficult to overestimate the importance of this book for undergraduate and graduate students who use it as a textbook.

There is no doubt that the second edition of Molecular Biology of the Cell, published by the same authors in 1989, will also be very useful for both biologists and doctors in our country. The six years separating these books turned out to be very fruitful for biology as a whole; new fundamental data were obtained, many controversial issues were resolved, new scientific ideas appeared in the field of molecular biology, cytology, developmental biology, cellular immunology and neurobiology. The authors of the book significantly revised its content and brought it into line with the modern level of knowledge.

The overall composition of the book has not changed, but two new chapters have appeared: control of gene activity (Chapter 10) and cancer (Chapter 21). Changes have been made to the order of the chapters, which makes the presentation of the material more logical. Thus, Chapter 7, devoted to bioenergetics, naturally follows the material related to the structure of membranes, and after the chapter “Cell Nucleus” there is a chapter on gene expression.

Chapter 8, on intracellular organelles, has been significantly updated to include “Intracellular Macromolecule Sorting and Intracellular Compartments.” It includes an analysis of the molecular basis of the sorting of lysosomal and secretory proteins.

Much attention is paid to modern methods of molecular and cellular biology in the book. The authors strive to show how, in what way, with the help of what kind of experiments certain data were obtained. This desire to connect specific material with the logic of experiment has great pedagogical significance.

The proposed second edition of “Molecular Biology of the Cell” can be recommended as the main textbook for undergraduate and graduate students of molecular biology, as well as for students of courses in such specialties as cytology, genetics, histology, embryology, general physiology, etc. Moreover, acquaintance With this book, a biologist of any specialty will significantly expand his horizons and update his ideas about the molecular, cellular and tissue organization of living nature.

Yu. S. Chentsov

Preface to the second edition

More than 50 years ago, Wilson wrote that “the key to the solution of any biological problem is ultimately to be found in the cell.” However, until recently, cell biology was taught in universities as a specialized minor course based primarily on electron microscopy. And in the majority medical universities Many areas of cell biology - such as the mechanisms of endocytosis, chemotaxis, cell movement and cell adhesion - have hardly been studied at all. They were considered too “cellular” for a biochemistry course and too “molecular” for a histology course. However, due to the enormous advances that cell biology has made recently, it is beginning to take its rightful central place in biology and biology. medical education. More and more universities are introducing it as a compulsory one-year course for all students majoring in biology or biochemistry. Cell biology is also becoming general education discipline for the first year of most medical schools. First edition "Molecular Cell Biology" appeared in anticipation of these urgently needed reforms, and, as we hoped, should contribute to them. We will be pleased if the second edition helps to deepen these reforms and speed up their implementation.

While revising the book, we found only a few examples where new discoveries completely refuted old ideas. But in the six years that have passed since the publication of the first edition, a lot of new data has been obtained; they revealed new connections between various issues and, in many places, radically changed emphasis. Thus, in the second edition the book has been seriously revised: each chapter has undergone significant changes, many sections have been almost entirely rewritten, and two new chapters have been added on the control of gene expression and the problem of cancer.

Some readers of the first edition, especially teachers, suggested more detailed descriptions of the experiments that supported the theories discussed. We didn’t want to break the narrative and increase the volume of the already very big book, but we agree that students need to understand how the discoveries described in the book were made. To this end, John Wilson and Tim Hunt have compiled a collection of molecular biology problems. Each section of this collection corresponds to a specific section of Molecular Biology of the Cell and is devoted mainly to experiments described in the relevant original literature. This provides the basis for exploring a series of questions - both simple and more difficult - designed to actively engage the reader in the discussion underlying the discovery.

The second edition, like the first, took a long time to prepare. As before, each chapter passed from the author who wrote the first draft to the remaining authors for criticism and active revision. Therefore, each part of this book is a collaborative work. In this common cause we had a lot of help from Tim Hunt and John Wilson. When deciding whether to revise a particular section, we used the services of independent experts. We are especially grateful to James Rothman (Princeton University) for his contributions to Chapter 8, and Jeremy Hames (University College London), Tils Mitchison (University of California, San Francisco), and Paul Raers (University of Oxford) for their work on Chapter 13. All sections The already revised text was reviewed by independent experts, whose comments and suggestions were invaluable.

Miranda Robertson once again played a major role in creating a readable book. She ensured that every sentence was clear and logical, and rewrote many pages that did not have these qualities. We are also grateful to the staff at Garland Publishing, especially Ruth Adama, Alison Walker and Gavin Borden, for their kindness, humor, hard work and great help over the four years it took to produce this publication. We especially thank Carol Winter for her painstaking work in typing the entire book and preparing the floppy disks for printing. Finally, we are grateful to our wives, families, colleagues and students and apologize to them for the lack of attention over the years; without their help and patience this book would never have been written.

Preface to the first edition

Scientific knowledge is fraught with paradox. From the chaos of facts accumulated in the rapid flow of information, an unexpectedly simple explanation is born. mysterious phenomena. This is how the very essence of things is gradually revealed. Modern cell biology can serve as an example of this. Usage the latest methods molecular biology made it possible to see the amazing elegance and economy of the processes occurring in living cells, and the remarkable unity of the principles of their functioning. In an effort to convey the essence of these principles to the reader, the authors were far from thinking of creating an encyclopedia scientific information On the contrary, we would like to provide an opportunity to reflect on the available facts. Of course, vast areas of cell biology still remain unexplored, and many known facts still haven't received an explanation. But these unresolved problems These are precisely the most exciting ones, and we tried to present them in such a way as to encourage readers to join in the search for solutions to unclear issues. Therefore, touching on little-studied areas, instead of simply presenting facts, we often took the liberty of expressing hypotheses, submitting them to the reader’s judgment and hoping for a critical attitude towards them.

Molecular Biology of the Cell deals primarily with eukaryotic cells rather than bacteria. The title of the book reflects the paramount importance of the approaches defined molecular level research. It is from the standpoint of molecular biology that cells are considered in the first two parts of the book, the content of which together corresponds to traditional courses in cell biology. But molecular biology alone is not enough. Eukaryotic cells that make up multicellular animals and plants are highest degree“social” organisms: they live through cooperation and specialization. To understand how they function, it is necessary to study the role and place of cells in multicellular communities, as well as to learn how isolated cells of a given type function. These are two completely different, but deeply interconnected levels of research. Therefore, Part III of the book is devoted to the behavior of cells in the body of multicellular animals and plants. Thus, the problems of developmental biology, histology, immunology and neurobiology are given much more attention here than in other textbooks on cell biology. Although this material may be considered an elective or supplementary material in a basic cell biology course, it represents an important branch of cell science and should be of particular interest to those who choose to pursue further studies in biology or medicine. The broad scope of topics in the book reflects our belief that in today's biological education a cell biology course should take center stage.

The book is intended primarily for students, biologists or physicians, who are systematically studying cell biology for the first time. We assume that most readers are familiar with at least introductory course biology, nevertheless, we tried to write the book in such a way that even a reader not familiar with biology could understand it, provided that he starts reading the book from the first pages. Along with this, we hope that the book will be useful for scientific workers, needing guidance to help them navigate vast areas of knowledge. Therefore, we provide a list of references that is much more detailed than what the average graduate student might need. At the same time, we tried to select only those works that can be found in most libraries.

This big book, and we carried her for a long time - three times longer than an elephant is born and five times longer than a whale is born. Many people put their work into it. The book's chapters were repeatedly returned to the author who wrote the first draft, discussed and revised by other authors, criticized again and rewritten, so that each chapter of the book in its final form is the result of a combined effort. In addition, some of the material was provided by several specialists, not included

joined the writing team. This material has been revised by us and brought into line with the rest of the book. All chapters were additionally read by specialists, whose comments and corrections are difficult to overestimate. Paul Barton (University of Kansas), Douglas Chandler (Arizona State University), Ursula Goodenow (University of Washington), Robert Pollack (Columbia University), Robert Savage (Swarthmore College), and Charles Yocum (University of Michigan) read the manuscript in whole or in part and made significant contributions. useful suggestions. Students reading the manuscript helped identify passages that were unclear and difficult to understand.

Advice from students and experts was collected and systematized mainly by Miranda Robertson. By insisting that every page be clear and logical, and by rewriting pages that did not meet these requirements, she played main role in creating a textbook that students can read with ease. Lydia Meilim drew many of the pictures for chapters 15 and 16. A whole series The scientists generously provided us with photographs - their names are indicated in the captions to the corresponding pictures. We are grateful for the forbearance and understanding of our colleagues who have had to shoulder some of our responsibilities, as well as our families and our students, to whom we have neglected for a number of years. Finally, it is our especially pleasant duty to thank our editors and publisher. Tony Adams contributed greatly to improving the style of presentation, and Ruth Adams, whose kind disposition and high efficiency more than once made the authors blush for themselves, completely organized the preparation of the publication of the book. Gavin Borden took the trouble to publish the book, and his unfailing kindness and cordiality made the work of writing the book both enjoyable and educational for us.

Note to Readers

The chapters of this book can be read independently of each other. However, they are arranged in a logical sequence. The first three chapters of Part I cover the elementary principles and fundamentals of biochemistry and can serve as an introduction to students of it. Part I concludes with Chapter 4, which describes the principles of basic experimental approaches to cell research. It is not necessary to read it to master the material in subsequent chapters, but please note that it contains useful reference information.

Part II addresses central issues in cell biology; it discusses general properties most eukaryotic cells, the inherent molecular mechanisms of heredity and problems of cell adhesion and the extracellular matrix are discussed.

Part III describes the behavior of cells in the formation of multicellular organisms, from the formation of eggs and sperm to the breakdown of multicellular organization in cancer.

Chapter 4 contains several tables that list the most important milestones in the development of molecular cell biology and the names of the scientists involved in these discoveries. In other sections of the book we avoid references to specific researchers. The authors of major discoveries are listed in the bibliography at the end of each chapter. This list usually includes original articles that present important results. The numbers in the text headings indicate the number of the cited article in the list of references.

Bold font is used throughout the book to highlight key terms in the section where they are discussed most fully. Less important terms are in italics.

A significant addition to the book is the problem book.1 It allows you to appreciate the elegance of the experiments and the ingenuity of their authors. The problems belong to the central section of the book (chapters 5-14) and are closely related to the data presented in it.

Most of the experimental problems are covered in the main text. For example, the symbol 5-4 above the section title means that the material presented in it is formulated in the form of task No. 4 in Chapter 5 of the problem book. In addition, each section of the problem book begins with a series of missing word statements and true/false questions that are designed to help the reader understand terminology and basic concepts related to the topic. The problem book may be useful for independent work students and seminar classes. It can also be used by teachers during exams.

______________________________________________________

1 Wilson J., Hunt T. Molecular biology of cells. Collection of problems. Per. from English In print. Note editors.

I Introduction to Cell Biology

Rice. 1.1. Bacterial cells on the tip of a pin (micrographs taken using a scanning electron microscope). (WITH

courtesy of Tony Brain and Science Photo Library.)