And yet, where did the route of the Great Silk Road pass? Let's try to draw this line on the map of Eurasia. It is clear that this line will not be alone. Change of eras, emergence of new states and peoples, wars, scientific research And geographical discoveries, led to the emergence of new trade routes and the disappearance of old ones. Thick, thin, and somewhere dotted lines on our map will constantly divide and bifurcate, break off and appear again.
Having looked at those published in different sources VShP cards you can come to simple conclusion: the routes, both before and now, were drawn, in general, freely, once - and we crossed the Hindu Kush, two - behind the Pamirs. In fact, you can go along some of these routes, but only on an airplane...
Let's draw. We have point A. The generally accepted starting point is the ancient capital of China Chan'an (modern Xi'an) and the end point B - let's say ancient city Tire on the shores of the Mediterranean Sea. In a straight line - 10,000 km - a quarter of the length of the equator. The shortest path from one point to another is a straight line, but caravans will not pass along such a route, since there are obstacles on their way. Let's mark them on our map - these are mountains, deserts, rivers. The fourth obstacle is, let’s say, the geopolitical situation. To understand it, you need to know at least a little about the history of the development of the states and peoples of the Near and Middle East in the ancient and Middle Ages.
We won’t look on the Internet, but will take material from excellent sources:
1. Monumental work by B.G. Gafurov “Tajiks”
2. The story by V.A. Obruchev “In the Wilds” Central Asia»,
3. Book by V.I. Sarianidi “Bactria through the Mist of Ages”, and the book of the restless Pamir explorer, scientific secretary of the first Tajik-Pamir expeditions P.N. Luknitsky “Travels in the Pamirs”.
The main stages of the medieval history of Central Asia:
1. Bronze Age(II millennium BC - VI century BC) The territory of Central Asia is inhabited by tribes and nationalities that belonged to the Iranian ethnic group - Sogdians, Bactrians, Margians, Khorezmians, Parthians, various tribes of the Saks, etc. They learned to smelt iron, the first cities appeared. Agriculture and cattle breeding are becoming the leading sectors of the economy. The emergence of Zoroastrianism, the cult of Mithras.
2. Achaemenid state(V -IV centuries BC). The unification of various ancient Eastern countries and peoples within one state. The most important center is Bactria. The caravan road to ancient Iran and Babylon passed through it. The first minted coins appear.
3. 334 BC The Greco-Macedonian troops of Alexander the Great invaded Central Asia. Darius III is defeated. Babylon, Susa, Persepolis, Pasageda were captured. After capturing the north of modern Afghanistan, the Greeks, through the Hindu Kush passes, moved to India.
4. Seleucid state, the heyday of Greek Bactria. (III-II centuries BC). The capital of Bactria is the city of Baktra (20 km from modern Mazar-i-Sherif). Greco-Hellenistic culture is intertwined with Buddhist and Zoroastrian monuments. New cities and settlements are being built along the trade road from the Tigris to Bactras (about a dozen of Alexandria alone). Coins are minted with a local king on the front side and a Greek god on the back. Buddhism penetrates from northern India to Bactras and Sogd along trade routes through modern Kabul.
6. I–II centuries AD. Kushan kingdom. Huge territory - Northern India, Afghanistan, Central Asia, East Turkestan. The influence of Buddhism is increasing. Greek gods are no longer stamped on coins. New cities are being built along the Amu Darya, Syr Darya, Zeravshan (along the lines of trade highways). Caravans with silk, iron products, and bronze mirrors go west to Rome. (So, there is evidence that the Parthians already had silk banners in the middle of the 1st century BC). Woolen blankets, various fabrics, sheep skins, weapons, horses.
7. III century AD. Sasanian state. Capital Herat.
8. IV -VI centuries. Central Asia under rule Hephthalite nomads.
9. In the 6th century, far from the border of Central Asia in Altai, public education, which played an important role in the history of Central Asia - Turkic Khaganate(VI-VIII centuries). A huge nomadic empire is being created, covering the space from Korea to the Black Sea region. China turned into a virtual vassal of the Turks and bought them off with a colossal annual indemnity. But the huge Turkic power was not destined to remain united. Internecine wars began at the beginning of the 7th century. The Khaganate splits into a number of separate states.
10. Tokharistan, VI –VIII centuries AD. Occupied the territory of the south of Tajikistan, part of Uzbekistan (Surkhandarya region), northern regions of Afghanistan. In Badakhshan, noble lal (spinel) and lapis lazuli were mined. In China, lapis lazuli was called Khotan stone. Tokharistan horses were prized.
11. VIII century - conquest of Central Asia by the Arabs, the gradual spread throughout the territory of the Muslim religion. 751 – Battle of Talas. Not far from the city of Taraz, the Arabs were stopped by the Chinese army. Beyond this meridian, all the way to Dzungaria, a buffer zone arises between Muslims and Chinese.
12. 9th – 10th centuries AD - education Samanid states. Capital Bukhara. Unification of Khorasan and Transoxiana.
13. XI century – Karakhanids. Sultan Mahmud Ghaznavid became famous for his brutal raids on India.
14. XII century - formation of states Seljukov, Guridov. In the northeast state of the Kara-Kitaev with its capital in Balasagun. The rise of trade between East and West. The range of products is changing. More often there are items for personal use of the general population and for the needs of the handicraft industry. The caravan route began in the coastal Mediterranean countries and passed through Baghdad, Hamadan, Nishapur, Merv, Amul on Bukhara, and from there through Samarkand, Shash, Taraz, Balasagun, Suyab and the southern coast of Issyk-Kul, led to Mongolia and China.
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The caravans were sometimes very large. For example, Ibn Fadlan, who in 921-922. participated as a secretary in the embassy of Caliph Muktadir to the kingdom of the Volga Bulgars, claims that the ambassador's caravan consisted of 5 thousand people and 3 thousand horses, not counting camels. Not only merchants, but also artisans, craftsmen, scientists, artists and travelers often traveled with caravans. Caravans were often accompanied by armed detachments.
15. XIII-IX centuries - conquest of Central Asia Tatar-Mongols. The guides of Genghis Khan's troops were merchants from Khorezmshah. It was they who led the advanced detachments of the sons of Genghis along the routes of the Great Silk Road. Troops gathered in Dzungaria and Inner Mongolia, accelerated along the Dzungar corridor and through the Dzungar gate broke out into the strategic expanse of the Chu-Ili Valley. After the capture of Otrar (1219), the end came to Bukhara and the entire Bukhara oasis. Samarkand, Termez, Urgench..., dozens of other cities of Khorasan, Balkh and all of Maverannahr fell. As a result of robberies and fires, the cities of Central Asia turned into heaps of ruins, and their population was subjected to mass extermination. It has fallen into disrepair agriculture and trade.
At this time, the opening of new maritime trade routes between East and West, the complex and geopolitical situation in Central Asia led to the closure of the main routes of the Great Silk Road.
16. The contradictions and enmity of Shiite Iran with its Sunni neighbors also, to some extent, influenced the closure of trade routes within Western and Central Asia.
We're distracted. It's time to draw a route.
We will show the mountains on our map as Chinese - a series of cones along the strike of the main ridges (by the way, in most old Chinese maps the top of the map is oriented to the south, not to the north). We denote deserts in yellow, rivers in blue. From point A (Xi'an) straight to the west - the Nan Shan Mountains. We go around them from the north through Xining to the city of Dunhuang. Dunhuang considered the gateway to China, here the route is divided into three parts. For convenience, let us designate them, for example, as follows: Northern (Chu-Ili), Central (Fergana) and Southern (Pamir) routes.
1.Northern route. From Dunhuang it goes northwest along the Dzungarian corridor, through Hami, Turfan, Manas to Ghulja and then turns west into the valley of the Ili River.
Dzhungar Valley It is an accumulative desert of internal drainage with a hot, dry sharply continental climate, bounded from the northeast by the Mongolian Altai ridge, and from the west by the Tien Shan mountains. The famous Turpan depression(150 meters below sea level). The general global drying of Central Asia, the constant removal of material from the nearby mountains and its accumulation in the lower parts of the valley, led to the death of many ancient cities in the area. This is how the famous Buddhist and Zoroastrian monuments disappeared under the eolian sands. Khara-Khoto and Kara-Khoja.
From Kulja the route line stretches along the northern spurs of the Tien Shan, along the southern shore of Issykul, to the city Balasagun. The route is very difficult and trade caravans spent up to two weeks traveling on this section of the route. From Balasagun we draw a line to the city Taraz and further to Otrar. Otrar– one of largest city in the Middle Ages. Logistics center, transshipment base. Here the line bifurcates - one goes to Samarkand And Bukhara, the second stretches northwest along the Syrdarya to Yanykent on the Aral Sea.
From Bukhara, one of the branches of the trade route went to the Amu Darya, then along the Amu Darya to Kyat- the center of Southern Khorezm, then to Urgench, and from there through Embu to the Bulgarian kingdom. Until the 10th century, the trade route from Baghdad and Iran to the Bulgarian kingdom went through the Caucasus and the Khazar kingdom. However, at the beginning of the 10th century. Relations between the Baghdad caliphs and the Khazar kingdom deteriorated sharply, and trade routes began to pass through Transoxiana.
The intensity of trade relations between Central Asia and Russia is evidenced by large number Samanid dirhams found in various areas of Russia, right up to the Baltic Sea. Furs, leather, bark for tanning leather, cattle, slaves, honey, nuts, and much more were exported from the Bulgarian kingdom through Khorezm. Silk, rice, dried fruits, silver and gold coins were brought from Central Asia to Eastern Europe. From Samarkand, trade routes turned south and went through Termez to Balkh. From Balkh, one of the highways through Khulm went to Kabul and further south to India. From Bukhara the main trade route went to Merv.
Merv- a supercity in the Middle Ages (as well as Samarkand, Bukhara, Balkh and Kashgar). All these cities were at one time major trade and cultural centers. Trade deals were concluded here, duties were removed, contraband was confiscated...
IN Balkh(Baktr) Gems were brought from Badakhshan - lapis lazuli (heavenly stone) and Badakhshan lal (noble spinel). Lapis lazuli (lajuar) mined in Badakhshan in the Middle Ages was extremely valued in the Middle Ages, both in the east and in the west. In India and ancient Iran They burned this stone and ground it into a fine powder. The powder was mixed with resin, wax and oil. The best artists bought this ultramarine. The Scythians wore lajuar beads. It was a favorite and expensive stone of China. China decorated bowls and boxes with it, made rings, amulets and figurines from it. IN historical times Balls were made from lapis lazuli for the headdresses of mandarins, as an emblem of their power. Mongol caravans brought lajuar to Kyakhta and exchanged a pound of lapis lazuli for a pound of silver.
Europe knew almost no lapis lazuli until the 17th century. Some tableware made of lapis lazuli have survived to this day - these are the cups, bowls and vases of Francis I and Henry IV. In the 19th century, the Peterhof lapidary factory lined the columns of St. Isaac's Cathedral with lapis lazuli, and this work was done twice: Monferand rejected the columns made from Baltic lapis lazuli and installed them in his house on the Moika, and for St. Isaac's, a lajoire was ordered from the “Bukhara country” - 78 pounds of Badakhshan blue stone.
The western line stretched from Merv to the Mediterranean Sea and crossed without significant changes modern territory Iraq, Iran and Syria.
Large rivers of Western and Central Asia, such as the Tigris, Euphrates, Amu Darya and Syr Darya, presented a serious obstacle to caravans. It is difficult to understand exactly how the crossings were carried out - after all, hundreds of tons of cargo, camels, and horses had to be transported. Perhaps these were stationary ferries, perhaps hired ships were used.
2. Central (Fergana) route. We return to the fork from the Chinese city of Dunhuang. The central branch of the trade route stretched along the northern edge of the Taklamakan Desert, through Karashar And Uch-Turfan To Kashgar. Kashgar is a transshipment base, the last Chinese (or first) outpost. Here again the route is divided into several components. One line stretches along the valley of the Karadarya River to Uzgend and then goes to the Fergana Valley, the second along the Kuzylsu Valley to the Alai Valley and further through the Taldyk Pass to the city of Osh. Now the fertile Fergana Valley extends to the west to Samarkand and Bukhara.
From Kashgar still coming one trade route along the river valley Markansu, along which you can again go to the Alai Valley. This road is called the smugglers' trail. It was rarely used, mainly by dubious elements who did not want to pay the duty at the border.
Markansu, or as it is called - Death Valley- this is a deserted, waterless, table-flat valley, covered with hot rubble and debris. A strong wind constantly blows here, which, like a hairdryer, dries out everything that gets in its way. The valley has preserved material evidence of the presence of an old caravan trail here - these are bones and mummified corpses of animals - horses and camels. There was a funny incident described by Stanyukovich. In the 30s of the last century, the Moscow-Osh-Khorog motor rally took place. And the road foreman at the Kyzyl-Art pass (near Markansu) was a guy with humor. He collected several mummies of animals and placed them along the road, and also hung up signs saying “hello to the rally participants”...
3. Southern (Pamir) route. From Dunhuang, the route leads west along the northern foothills of Nanshan, Altintag and Kuen Lun, skirting the Tibetan Plateau along the southern edge of the Taklamakan Desert. This path went through cities Cherchen, Niya, Keria, Khotan to Kashgar and Yarkand. But what follows is not entirely clear. The only logical route is south along the Kashgar mountains, further through Tashkurgan to the west, along the southern outskirts of the Pamirs. No one knows exactly where the route took place. At the beginning of the 13th century, Marco Polo passed this part of the route while traveling with his father and uncle from Italy to China. These three were professional merchants and, it is clear that they did not travel on their own, but joined trade caravans. Since the records of Marco Polo have been preserved, it is possible to trace their route, and therefore the caravan road along which the Venetians crossed Badakhshan.
It is reliably known that Marco Polo, walking from west to east, first visited Shesmur (Kashmir), and then Badakhshan, a city not preserved even in ruins. Then, turning to the northeast, he crossed the Hindu Kush and went to Badasian (Pyanj river). It is unclear at what point he crossed the Panj. Luknitsky believes that somewhere near modern city Khorog, near the ruins of the Kala-i-bar-Pyanj fortress.
Let's look at physical card this area, or better yet, “turn on” the satellite. Yes, there is a natural passage through the Hindu Kush Mountains - through Lake Shiva and further southwest to modern Faizabad.
This is how Marco Polo describes Badasian (r. Pyanj) - “From Badasian you travel 12 days to the east and northeast along the river; it belongs to the brother of the Badassian ruler; there are many fortresses and villages there. The people are brave and revere Mohamed. Twelve days later - another area, not very large, three days' journey in every direction; it's called Vakhan..."
But from Khorog to the east and northeast the Rushan ridge stretches, and along Pyanj from Khorog you can only go south to Ishkashim, or to reverse side to the north - to Rushan. The general direction to the border with China at Marco Polo is maintained, but these 200 km that need to be covered to the south somehow get stuck.
Maybe, after all, Marco Polo and his friends went to Pyanj through Zebak directly to Ishkashim, and not through Lake Shiva to Khorog? The caravan road definitely passed through Zibak all the way to the Kashmir Valley.
Further from Ishkashim to Kashgar (where Marco Polo headed), the most logical path is along Pyandzh to the east to the confluence of the Pamir and Vakhan-Darya rivers, then to the northeast through Lake Zorkul to Tashgurgan, Yarkand, or directly to Kashgar.
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Crossing Badakhshan, Marco Polo may have visited the ancient mines of Kuhilal. At least he gave them brief description. Noble spinel was mined at the Kuhilal deposit until the 15th century. Then the reserves were depleted and the field was closed. In the 80s of the 20th century, the development of the deposit was resumed by the Pamirkvarts Samotsvety expedition. In 1985, geologist Ya. A. Gurevich found a unique, unusually large sample of Badakhshan lala in the face of an adit. The bright pink crystal weighing 6 kg was nicknamed the Miracle Stone.
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| Lake Shiva |
We return to the northern section of the HSR route to the city of Dunhuang. Obruchev V.A. the famous geologist and researcher of Central Asia in the book “In the Wilds of Central Asia” indicates that trade routes connecting Chinese Dzungaria and Fergana existed until the 20th century. Caravans were not as large as in the Middle Ages. They brought silk, Chinese souvenirs to Fergana, and fabrics and various consumer goods (fish hooks, tools, etc.) back. Trade routes passed through the cities of Niya, Keria, Khotan, which allowed them to exist to this day, despite the destructive onslaught of the sands of the Taklamakan desert. Caravans traveled along the Dzungarian corridor to the north, to Chuguchak, until the Dungar uprising (1862-1877). The Chinese brutally suppressed the uprising of the Muslim inhabitants of the western provinces of China. As a result, hundreds of wells were filled in, stations and settlements along trade routes were destroyed.
The decline of the cities of ancient Bactria, such as Balkh, Khulm, Alexandria Oxia and others, located both on the right and left banks of the Amu Darya River, is associated both with general historical processes and with the activities of the Amu Darya River. Frequent changes in the riverbed and the deposition of alluvial sand from the ancient terraces above the floodplain ultimately led to the death of these cities. The super-city of Merv, a city with a two-thousand-year history, standing at the intersection of not only trade routes, but also at the intersection of migrations of peoples and religions, was destroyed by the Mongols in 1221. The Timurids tried to revive it, but in vain.
This is how the Great Silk Road ended its existence. Many of the cities through which it passed fell into disrepair over time, and are now gentle sandy hills covered with camel thorn.
Well, I wrote and drew everything I wanted. The principle that I used when laying out the routes is simple - we map the key cities and connect them, going around natural obstacles, maintaining the general direction. It's very simple.
Kyiv, Borshchagovka, 2016
The Silk Road was a network of trade routes officially established during Chinese dynasty Han, which links the regions ancient world in trade.
Because the "Silk Road" was more than one route from east to west, the term "Silk Route" has become increasingly popular among historians, although "Silk Road" is the more common and recognized name.
Both terms for this network of roads were coined by the German geographer and traveler Ferdinand von Richthofen in 1877 AD, who labeled them "Seidenstrasse" (Silk Road) or "Seidenstrassen" (Silk Route).
The network was used regularly from 130 BC, when Khan officially opened trade with the west, until 1453 AD, when it closed the routes.
Persian royal road
The history of the Silk Road dates back to the Han Dynasty, when during the Achaemenid Empire (500 -330 BC) the Persian Royal Road became one of the main arteries of the Silk Road. The Persian Royal Road ran from Susa, in northern Persia (modern-day Iran) to the Mediterranean Sea in Asia Minor (modern-day Turkey), with post stations along the route with fresh horses for envoys so messengers could quickly deliver messages throughout the empire.
Writing about the speed and efficiency of Persian envoys, he stated that: “There is nothing in the world that travels faster than these Persian couriers. Neither snow, nor rain, nor heat, nor the darkness of night prevents these couriers from completing their assigned routes with maximum speed.”
The Persians carefully maintained the Royal Road and over time expanded it, many small side roads appeared. These routes eventually crossed the Indian subcontinent through Mesopotamia and into Egypt.
Western contact with China
After Alexander the Great conquered the Persians, he founded the city of Alexandria Echate in 339 BC. BC in the Fergana Valley (modern Tajikstan). Leaving his wounded veterans in the city, Alexander moved on. Over time, these Macedonian warriors intermarried with the indigenous population, creating the Greco-Bactrian cultures that flourished under the Seleucid Empire after Alexander's death.
During the reign of the Greco-Bactrian king Euthydymus I (260-195 BC), the Greco-Bactrians expanded their domains. According to the Greek historian Strabo (63-24 AD), the Greeks "extended their empire to the level of Seres." "Seres" was the name by which the Greeks and Romans knew China, meaning "the land from which came silk." The first contacts between China and the West are believed to have occurred around 200 BC.
China's Han dynasty (202 BC - 220 AD) was regularly persecuted by the nomadic Xiongnu tribes on its northern and western borders. In 138 BC. Emperor Wu sent his envoy Zhang Qian to the west to negotiate with Yueji's men for help in defeating Xiongnu. Zhang Qian's expedition began to come into contact with many different cultures and civilizations in Central Asia, and among them were those they called "Dayuan" or "Great Ionians", who were Greco-Bactrians and came from the army of Alexander the Great.
Deiyuan had powerful horses and Zhang Qian reported to Wu that they could be used effectively against Xiongnu's marauding forces. The consequences of Zhang Qian's journey were not only further contacts between China and the West, but also an organized and efficient program of breeding horses throughout the land to equip cavalry.
The horse had long been known in China and was used in war as early as the Han Dynasty (1600 - 1046 BC), but the Chinese admired the Western horse for its size and speed. With the western horse Deiyuan, the Han Dynasty defeated Xiongnu. This success inspired Emperor Wu to think about what more could be achieved through trade with the West, and the Silk Road was opened in 130 BC.
Between 171-138 BC. e. Mithridates I of Parthia advocated the expansion and strengthening of his kingdom in Mesopotamia. The Seleucid king Antiochus VII of Sides (138-129 BC) opposed this expansion, and also wanting to avenge the death of his brother Demetrius, fought against the Parthian forces of Phrates II, Mithridates' successor. With the defeat of Antiochus, Mesopotamia fell under Parthian rule and with it approached the Silk Road. The Parthians then became the central intermediaries between China and the West.
Silk Road Goods
Many people passed along the Silk Road different types goods, roads stretched from China through India, Asia Minor, throughout Mesopotamia, to Egypt, the African continent, Greece, Rome and Britain.
The northern Mesopotamian region (present-day Iran) became China's closest trade partner as part of the Parthian Empire, initiating important cultural exchanges. Paper, invented by the Chinese during the Han Dynasty, and gunpowder, also a Chinese invention, had a far greater cultural impact than silk.
The rich spices of the East also contributed to the development of fashion, which grew out of the silk industry.
However, by the reign of the Roman Emperor Augustus (27 BC - 14 AD), trade between China and the West was firmly established, and silk was the most sought after commodity in Egypt, Greece and especially , in Rome.
Silk in the Roman Empire
Before becoming Emperor Augustus, Octavian Caesar used the controversial issue of silk clothing to denounce his opponents Mark Antony and Cleopatra VII as immoral. Since they both preferred Chinese silk, which was increasingly associated with promiscuity, Octavian sent his enemies out of the country.
Although Octavian was victorious over Antony and Cleopatra, he was unable to do anything to curb the popularity of silk.
Historian Durant writes: The Romans considered silk to be a vegetable product, combed from trees, and valued it as worth its weight in gold. Much of this silk was sold to the island of Kos, where it was woven into the dresses of ladies in Rome and other cities.
By the time of the reign of Seneca the Younger (4 BC - 65 AD), conservative Romans saw women wearing dresses made of Chinese silk and considered them immoral, while tunics for men were too feminine. However, these criticisms did not help stop the silk trade with Rome, and the island of Kos became rich and luxurious thanks to the production of silk clothing.
As Durant writes, “Italy enjoyed an ‘unfavorable’ balance of trade—buying more than it sold,” but still exported high-value goods to China, such as “carpets, jewelry, amber, metals, dyes, glass.”
During the time of Emperor Marcus Aurelius (161-180 AD), silk was the most valuable commodity in Rome and no amount of conservative criticism seemed to slow trade or end fashion. Even after Aurelius, silk remained popular, although expensive.
During the fall in 476 AD. Rome outlived its eastern half, which became known as the Byzantine Empire and which continued the romantic fascination with silk. Around 60 AD the west began to realize that silk was not grown on trees in China, but was actually produced by silk worms.
The Chinese purposefully kept the origins of silk a secret, and once it was released, they carefully guarded their silk worms and their silk harvesting process. The Byzantine Emperor Justinian (527-556 CE), tired of constant late payments from the Chinese, sent two emissaries disguised as monks to China to steal silkworms and take them west.
The plan was successful and revitalized the Byzantine silk industry. When Byzantine Empire fell in 1453 AD, Ottoman Empire closed the Silk Road and broke all ties with the West.
Protection of the Silk Roads
Art, religion, philosophy, technology, language, science, architecture and all other elements of civilization were subject to exchange through the Silk Road, along with commercial goods transported by merchants from country to country.
Disease also spread along the network of routes, as evidenced by the spread of the bubonic plague of 542 AD, which is believed to have arrived in Constantinople via the Silk Road and destroyed the Byzantine Empire.
The closure of the Silk Road forced traders to take to sea to continue their trade, thus initiating the Age of Discovery (1453-1660 AD), which led to worldwide interaction and the beginning of the globalization of society.
According to Putin, work on the Russian section of the Europe-Western China road route is planned to be completed in 2019. Thus, a new “Silk Road” - a road one - will appear on the transport map of the world. It should become a joint transport project between Moscow and Beijing, for all participants of which this road is of strategic importance. With the help of new land transport corridors, the Chinese authorities hope to unlock the potential of the western regions of the country, which are too far from the transport hubs of the eastern coast of China. As a result, the population of these regions found themselves on the margins of the country's economic boom. Given that these territories are inhabited by Muslim minorities, economic inequality is transformed into political discontent and separatism. The investment priorities of Chinese investors are aligned in accordance with political interests. They are ready to finance part of the costs of construction of the Moscow – Sagarchin (Kazakhstan) section. The cost of the work is tentatively estimated at 783 billion rubles, half of which the budget is ready to cover. Construction costs must be offset by tariff revenues.
Gazprom is of particular interest in this project. At the end of June, the head of the corporation, Alexey Miller, announced his readiness, together with Chinese partners, to use LNG (liquefied natural gas) as a vehicle fuel. This project is supposed to be implemented in the process of “gasification” of the automobile corridor.
The route “Europe - Western China” promises to become a real automobile “Silk Road 2.0” - the world’s longest economic corridor, covering countries with a total population of more than 3 billion people. Unlike the railway analogue, which is being created in parallel, the automobile version may turn out to be a more powerful integrator of economic and cultural ties between Europe and Asia due to the active involvement of small and medium-sized businesses in this network. It may also be faster. It is expected that the delivery time for goods from China to the EU by road will be 10 days. This is almost two times faster than by rail and four times faster than by traditional sea route. Total length The route will be more than 8 thousand km, of which 2.3 thousand km will pass through the territory of the Russian Federation.
The regions of Kazakhstan bordering Russia are also showing keen interest in the project. The country's authorities plan to complete the repair of their section of the Europe - Western China road by the end of this year.
The project is also being completed in China itself. Through the cities of Khorgos, Urumqi and Wuhan, the highway should reach the coast of the Yellow Sea in the city of Lianyungang.
The transport route “Europe – Western China” is a key component of the overall project of the Silk Road Economic Belt, which is promoted by Chinese President Xi Jinping and supported by Russian President Vladimir Putin.
Its implementation will inevitably increase the status of Eurasia as a world economic center and reduce the role of the Atlantic, which could become the most important geopolitical event since the 16th century, when sea routes to America and Asia were opened.
The past two decades of rapid economic growth in China have transformed it into a superpower. With the coming to power of a new leadership led by Xi Jinping, the PRC has stopped hiding its foreign policy ambitions. The project to create the New Silk Road is a logical continuation of China’s policy for recent years. The first steps to realize the dream have already been taken: financial resources have been allocated and agreements have been developed with key countries. The plan also has several opponents from among the major world powers. By implementing the project, China will solve not only a number of internal problems, but will also have a global impact on the economic picture of the world. How will the New Silk Road go?
Grand Plan
Not long ago, Foreign Minister Wang Yi defined the concept for foreign policy China's "One Belt - One Dream", according to which it is planned to build a New Silk Road from Asia to Europe. At the beginning of 2014, Chinese President Xi Jinping presented a plan to create the Silk Road. As part of the project, it is planned to form a giant single economic belt consisting of infrastructure facilities in many countries. The New Silk Road will pass through Central Asia, Russia, Belarus, and Europe. The sea route will follow the Persian Gulf, the Mediterranean Sea and the Indian Ocean. An option with routes through African countries is being considered.
The PRC is going to invest more than $40 billion in the project from a special fund. $50 billion has already been allocated by the Asian Bank. The funds will be used for construction railways, ports and other facilities, to develop relations between the countries participating in the project. The Wantchinatimes resource estimated the total investments of the PRC at $22 trillion.
Attempts to revive the Silk Road have already been made by Europe and the United States. China was the last to address this idea, but has done much more to implement it. Thanks to impressive financial capabilities and “soft economic aggression,” it will be possible to create a safe transit that will be used by many states. Today, China is actively discussing infrastructure construction projects with participating countries. A more specific scheme for the new Silk Road and the results of lengthy negotiations will become known in late March at the Boao Forum (South Chinese province of Hainan).
Silk Road concept
Today, China supplies electrical and high-tech products to the world market. In terms of length (16 thousand km), the country ranks first in the world. The ancient Silk Road was exclusively a Chinese transport corridor. Today, the PRC announces the creation of an international economic platform.
The initiative to unite the Economic Belt and the 21st Century Maritime Silk Road is being carried out within the framework of the One Belt, One Road program. The concept of the New Silk Road is to implement the plan through five interrelated elements:
- unified infrastructure;
- political coherence;
- monetary and financial flows;
- trade relations;
- humanitarian communication.
On this basis, full-scale cooperation is promoted, strengthening mutual trust between countries, developing economic integration and cultural tolerance. The implementation of the project as a whole was planned along three routes:
- "China - Central Asia - Russia - Europe."
- "China - Central and Western Asia".
- "China - Southeast Asia - South Asia".
New Silk Road. Route
The scale of the project is impressive not only in terms of investment, but also in terms of geography. The entire “path” is divided into two routes (by land and by sea). The land route begins in Xi'an (Shaanxi province), passing through the whole of China, follows to the city of Urumqi, crosses such as Iran, Iraq, Syria, Türkiye. Then it goes through the Bosphorus Strait to Eastern Europe, to Russia. The New Silk Road, the route of which will pass through the territory of several European countries, will travel from Rotterdam to Italy.
No less grandiose sea route starts in the city of Quanzhou (Fuzqian Province), follows through major southern Chinese cities, through the Strait of Malacca, ending in Kuala Lumpur. Crossing the Indian Ocean, it stops in Colombo (Sri Lanka), in the Maldives, and reaches Nairobi (Kenya). Next, the route passes along the Red Sea through Djibouti, through the Suez Canal to Athens (Greece), to Venice (Italy) and connects with the land Silk Road.
Economic tasks of the “path”
As the largest exporter, China greatly influences world economy. According to forecasts, the Silk Road is expected to generate $21 trillion in trade turnover per year, which could increase China's share of global GDP to 50%.
It is assumed that the New Silk Road, the construction of which is already in full swing, will redirect the flow of exports of goods and capital to regions that until recently remained outside of international trade. In recent decades, China has been actively cooperating with Asian countries. Investments made by Chinese state-owned companies are for many developing countries perhaps the only opportunity to maintain independence among the great powers.
From an economic point of view, the benefit of the project for China lies in the reduction of logistics costs. For countries participating in the Silk Road - in attracting additional funds. An example of such cooperation based on Chinese investments is the iHavan project in the Maldives (in the future this will be one of the important points on the map of the maritime Silk Road).
Regional tasks
China's presence in Central Asia and Africa is not purely economic in nature. At the regional level, the priority task for the PRC remains the political and economic stability of the border regions: East, Central and Southeast Asia. The main barrier to the spread of the Chinese economic phenomenon was the “Chinese threat” factor. It is planned to reduce the threat to “no” using the strategy of “soft power” and strengthening the cultural influence of the PRC. The number of students from the Asian region studying at Chinese universities reflects the degree of penetration
China's energy security largely depends on its control over the sea and land Silk Road. As the world's largest importer of energy resources, China is 100% dependent on sea supplies. The threat of an “oil embargo” constantly hangs over the country. The US used this tactic against Japan before the war.
The New Silk Road will unite many countries, including opponents of the United States (Russia, Pakistan, Iran). The states participating in the path can become a significant political force. An important task associated with the creation of the Silk Road is the protection of Chinese investments. Through trading points controlled by the PRC, it is possible to implement not only commercial, but also anti-terrorist goals. From time to time, information appears in the media about the creation of a Chinese network of “String of Pearls” military bases in the Indian Ocean.
The impact of the project on the internal politics of the PRC
Large international projects are becoming a priority and domestic policy China. The New Silk Road will help resolve several internal problems.
- The Pro-China Economic Belt is a profitable investment project with high returns and long-term benefits.
- Passing through Western China, the belt will help solve the problems of uneven development of the country, cultural and economic integration of the western regions.
- The construction of infrastructure facilities is a source of new jobs for state-owned companies in China, which have solid human resources.
Central Asia and Russia
The territories of Russia and Central Asia, which unite the West and the East, are significant transit arteries for China. Today, China is the world's factory. They had been considering the idea of using Central Asia for economic purposes since the collapse of Soviet Union. At the same time, systematic work began in this direction: the Shanghai Cooperation Organization, raising the issue of economic cooperation. It was important not only to level out the internal economic situation, but also to prepare a corridor to Europe through Central Asia and Russia.
It is not so important where the New Silk Road will take place: in any case, it will become a large-scale “shake-up” of the infrastructure of Central Asia and will significantly expand cargo flows from China. The success of the tactics of unification and stability, the only possible one on the Silk Road, has been proven historically. Revolutions and wars between nations led to its decline, and navigation to its lack of demand. Subsequent attempts to resume the route without unification at the regional level came to nothing.
Central Asia has always been a sphere of interest for Russia. Rapprochement between China and Russian Federation- quite a difficult question. It is not yet clear how the Silk Road will affect the Customs Union and the SCO. Much depends on the position of Kazakhstan, regional center
Russia's role in the project
On the ancient Silk Road, China was the only exporter. The modern way It differs from its predecessor precisely in its desire for integration. At the negotiations in Moscow, China for the first time proposed to Russia to use the infrastructure of the economic corridor for trade purposes. Russia will apparently gain access to ports on the New Silk Road and take part in the transit of goods. Of course, in this way the PRC solves one of the important tasks - to give impetus to development and inclusion in international economics western territories.
Russia on the New Silk Road is so far only an accomplice, a supplier of raw materials, and a transit country. Development along the “path” requires a holistic strategy. Government and corporate plans of individual companies are not enough for this; a single one is required. Thanks to China, we have formed positive image this project, but there are not many really positive aspects for Russia.
After the collapse of the USSR, we left Central Asia and solved internal problems. For the purpose of integration, China created the Shanghai Cooperation Organization. Small states were afraid of the PRC, so security was the order of the day. The PRC raised economic issues related to free trade and opening borders. The SCO would have been a monopolist in the region if not for the formation of the Eurasian economic union, which showed that Russia has the will and strategic plans for Central Asia. Today, the SCO and the EAEU are the only projects in Central Asia, and the second has more prospects for development, so China is negotiating.
Xi Jinping voiced several proposals for uniting the future economic belt and the EAEU. The idea was supported by V. Putin. The President expressed the opinion that both projects together will become powerful impulse for economic activity in Eurasia. The projects will be united on the basis of the SCO, which also puts China in the position of leader.
Prospects for the project in Russia
The New Silk Road project will contribute to an increase in trade turnover and the development of its own, both land and sea transport network Russia. To do this, it is necessary to create an associated infrastructure. Today the Russian government is saving the budget, including cutting funds allocated for construction.
The connection of Russia to the route as a whole depends on the degree of development of the domestic railway infrastructure. It was planned that the New Silk Road through will go to Russia according to the average, Southern Urals and northern regional territories, where construction of the Northern Latitudinal Railway is underway. The possibility of extending the highway through the Polunochnoe - Obskaya line to Kazakhstan and China is being considered. The Northern Urals could be integrated into the “path” by sea or land, but only by fulfilling the conditions for modernizing the railway network.
Sokolov raised the issue of modernizing the BAM and Trans-Siberian Railway, which would make it possible to create a Moscow-Beijing high-speed railway, but no money is expected. In 2015, according to the plan, funding for the BAM and Trans-Siberian Railways should have amounted to at least 21 billion rubles, but in fact 16 billion were allocated.
One of the options for including Russia in the New Silk Road was rejected along with the termination of the project to build a Crimean port. Crimea could become a strategic trading base and a new entry point for the trade route to Europe. In any case, the Silk Road by land will go through one of the European countries, where it is easy to provoke a change of power and block transit. For example, the South Stream stop in Bulgaria. The presence of a trade base in Crimea will allow redirecting the movement of goods through any of the countries.
New Silk Road bypassing Russia
Ukraine has announced its intention to take part in the Silk Road project as an intermediate link for cargo flows from China to Europe. According to Mikheil Saakashvili, it is more profitable to direct trade flows to the seaport of Ilyichevsk, since logistics through it will take no more than 9 days, and through Russia - 30 days. Saakashvili emphasized that work is already underway on the construction of roads in the EU, and a large bridge is being built across the Dniester estuary.
China has already made significant progress in implementing the basic version of the route: Kazakhstan - Azerbaijan - Georgia - Türkiye. The Nomadexpress test container train left China, bypassing Russian territory, traveling 3,500 km in five days - through Kazakhstan, the Caspian Sea to Kishly station (not far from Baku). Second route of New Silk will pass the way through Iran, the third (through Russia to Moscow and St. Petersburg) is still being discussed. The last route is more profitable: it is shorter than the other two. In addition, Russia, Belarus and Kazakhstan are members of the EAEU. The issue of Russian participation in the project took a long time to resolve; a declaration of consent was signed in May 2015.
The PRC considers the option of an “independence” to be quite acceptable. The Chinese ambassador announced that Chinese banks are ready to invest $20 billion in the infrastructure of Ukraine. Doesn't this mean that a New Silk Road will appear, bypassing the territory of the Russian Federation? Wait and see. It is quite obvious that China is considering several route options at once, as in ancient times.
The direction “Kazakhstan - Russia - Belarus” is the most profitable for China, but Russia has not joined the concept of the “New Silk Road” and defends its own interests related to the EAEU. Ukraine is indeed convenient for organizing transportation, but is not suitable for large investments due to its instability. The PRC's game with the Square strengthens the Chinese position in negotiations with the Russian Federation. Of course, the route “Kazan - Moscow - St. Petersburg...” on the Silk Road will still be discussed.
