Assessment of the reign of Catherine II (According to V.O. Klyuchevsky). Historical figure Essay on history about Catherine 2

Catherine II was born on April 21, 1729, before accepting Orthodoxy she had the name Sophia-August-Frederike. As fate would have it, in 1745 Sophia converted to Orthodoxy and was baptized under the name of Ekaterina Alekseevna.

Married the future Emperor of Russia. The relationship between Peter and Catherine somehow did not work out right away. A wall of barriers arose between them due to the banal misunderstanding of each other.

Despite the fact that the spouses did not have a particularly big difference in age, Pyotr Fedorovich was a real child, and Ekaterina Alekseevna wanted a more adult relationship with her husband.

Catherine was quite well educated. I studied since childhood various sciences such as: history, geography, theology and foreign languages. Her level of development was very high, she danced and sang beautifully.

Arriving in, she was immediately imbued with the Russian spirit. Realizing that the emperor’s wife must have certain qualities, she sat down with textbooks on Russian history and the Russian language.

From the first days of my stay in Russia, I was imbued with the Russian spirit, and great love to a new homeland. Ekaterina Alekseevna quickly mastered new sciences; in addition to language and history, she studied economics and jurisprudence.

Her desire to “become one of her own” in a completely new, unfamiliar society made this very society accept her and love her dearly.

As a result of complications in her relationship with her husband and constant palace affairs, Ekaterina Alekseevna had to seriously worry about her fate. The situation was stalemate.

Peter III did not have any authority or support in Russian society, and those six months of his reign caused nothing but irritation and indignation in Russian society.

Due to the worsening relationship between the spouses, she seriously risked going to a monastery. The situation forced her to act decisively.

Having secured the support of the guards, Ekaterina Alekseevna and her supporters carried out a coup d'etat. Peter III abdicated the throne, and Catherine II became the new Russian empress. The coronation took place on September 22 (October 3), 1762 in Moscow.

Its policy can be described as successful and thoughtful. Over the years of her reign, Ekaterina Alekseevna achieved excellent results. Thanks to successful domestic and foreign policies, Catherine II managed to achieve a significant increase in the territory and the number of people inhabiting it.

During her reign, trade developed rapidly in Russia. The number of industrial enterprises on the territory of the Empire doubled. The enterprises fully met the needs of the army and navy. During her reign, active development of the Urals began; most new enterprises were opened here.

Let’s briefly go through Ekaterina Alekseevna’s legislative acts on economic issues. In 1763, internal customs duties were abolished.

In 1767, people acquired the legal right to engage in any city trade. In the period from 1766 to 1772, duties on the export of wheat abroad were abolished, this led to an increase in the development of agriculture and the development of new lands. In 1775, the Empress abolished taxes on small-scale fishing.

The nobles received the right to exile their peasants to Siberia. Also, now the peasants could not complain about their master. The reduction in personal freedoms of peasants was one of the reasons for the uprising that took place from 1773 to 1775.

In 1775, Catherine IIstarted reform government controlled. According to the new law, territorially - Administrative division Russia took this form: the Empire was divided into provinces, which in turn were divided into districts, and instead of 23 provinces, 50 were created.

Provinces were formed from the point of view of convenience of taxation, and not geographical or national characteristics. The province was governed by a governor appointed by the monarch. Some large provinces were subject to the governor-general, who had greater authority.

The governor headed the provincial government. The functions of the board were: announcement and explanation of laws to the population. As well as bringing lawbreakers to trial. Power in the lower ranks of the county was the responsibility of the local nobility, an assembly where people were chosen who would occupy important local positions.

Catherine II's foreign policy was aggressive. The Empress believed that Russia should behave as it did in the time of Peter I, conquer new territories, and legitimize its rights to access the seas. Russia took part in the division of Poland, as well as in the Russian-Turkish wars. Successes in them made the Russian Empire one of the most influential states in Europe.

Ekaterina Alekseevna died in 1796, November 6 (17). Years of reign of Catherine II 1762 - 1796

Needless to say, Catherine II is one of the most recognizable characters in Russian history. Her personality is certainly interesting. Ask any average person who he considers the most successful Russian ruler? I am sure that in response you will hear the name of Catherine II. She was in fact a worthwhile ruler, under her the Russian theater, Russian literature, and also science actively developed.

In cultural and historically The Russian Empire really gained a lot. Unfortunately, the empress's personal life is full of various rumors and gossip. Some of them are probably true, but some are not. It is a pity that Catherine II, being a great historical figure, to put it mildly, is not a model of morality.

 Essay Catherine II the Great Born Princess Sophia Augusta Frederica of Anhalt-Zerbst, born in Germany. In February 1744, at the invitation of Empress Elizabeth Petrovna, she arrived in Russia, and in 1745 she was married to the heir to the throne, Peter Fedorovich (the future Peter III). At baptism she received the name Catherine. From her youth she had a penchant for serious literature, read Voltaire, Diderot, and other educators, studied jurisprudence, the Law of God and psychology. All this later left a special mark on the reign of the Empress. In 1762 she overthrew Peter III and took the throne with the help of the Orlov brothers - Grigory, Alexei and Fedor. She began to rule as if it was her calling. Feeling the precariousness of her position, because Catherine the Great made a double seizure of power: she took the throne from her husband and did not pass it on to her son, the natural heir of her father, and even wanted to marry Ivan VI in order to legitimize her position. Fortunately, this was not to be. Soon, the wise government of the state silenced all those dissatisfied with it. Catherine canceled many of the ill-conceived orders of her husband Peter III, which prompted a general order to the new empress. The state of affairs at the beginning of the reign of Catherine the Great was extremely gloomy. She probably knew that for the success of her life’s work she would need: to educate the nation in every possible way, to give new order and rule of law, establish good police and courts to enforce the laws, increase the economic well-being of the country, strengthen its position in the international arena. The Empress made a number of trips around the country to see the state of affairs with her own eyes. After which Catherine decided to develop a new set of laws to replace the outdated one." Cathedral Code" 1649. She entered into correspondence with French educators (Voltaire, Diderot and others), informing them of the planned transformations in order to turn Russia from a wild country into a powerful monarchy. The educators enthusiastically accepted Catherine's ideas and predicted her success. A new collection of laws was called the “Order” and was enthusiastically accepted by the Russians. In the summer of 1767, a Commission was called to draw up a new Code, but after working for several years, the Commission did not do anything significant, and in turn, dissolved the Commission under the pretext of starting a Russian Turkish war. Having learned all the charm of autocratic power, Catherine did not want to share it. The Council created later was given only advisory functions. Foreign policy brought the greatest glory to Catherine, although her reign is considered one of the bloodiest. During the years of her reign, Russia fought six wars in Europe and was preparing for the seventh, with France. The Empress was a talented commander and thought through military plans and instructions with special diligence. Successful wars took Russia to a new level, securing for the empress “a great name in Europe and a power that belongs only to her.” Surprisingly, even wars did not interfere with skillfully conducting Russia’s internal politics. In 1775 “Institutions for the management of provinces” were published, and a Charter was also issued in 1785. securing the privileges of the nobility, allowing them to do what they love, instead of obligatory government activities. This had the most beneficial effect on the development of culture. Many measures were taken for public education. Conducted a provincial reform, according to which Orders were established in the provinces public charity, who were in charge of schools, hospitals, almshouses and others. It was also open city ​​Hospital Russia - Obukhovskaya. . Great importance for education and culture there was a Decree of 1783 on “Free Printing”. For the first time, private individuals could own printing houses. In 1786, the “Charter for Public Schools” was approved, according to which all-class four-year educational institutions were created in each provincial city. In 1783, the Russian Academy of Sciences was established. Catherine II was the founder of the creation of the largest museum in the world, the Hermitage. The Empress published the satirical magazine "All sorts of things", wrote plays and other literary works. She also corresponded and sent her works and views to the enlightenment philosopher Voltaire. During the reign of Catherine II, the economic potential of Russia increased, cities grew, and therefore industry developed, and capitalist industrial relations began to take shape. In agriculture, the connection between landowners and peasant farms with the market expanded. Russia's international authority has grown. But at the same time, trying to keep power in the hands of the nobility, Catherine contributed to the strengthening of class contradictions, which later resulted in the peasant war of 1773-1775.

1. Introduction………………………………………………………….………….………...1
2. Catherine II: The Path to Russia…………………………………….………. .2
3. Accession to the throne and the beginning of the reign……………….………………3
4. Domestic policy....................................................................................4
5. Serfdom………………………………………………………......8
6. Foreign policy…..………….………………………………………………………...10
7. Culture and education……………………………………………………………12
8. Conclusion……………………………………………………………..…15
9. Literature………………………………………………………………………………...16

Introduction

Mid 18th century. After the death of Elizabeth Petrovna, the throne is inherited by Peter III. But short-sighted social politics, conflicts with Orthodox Church and Russian-

which guard, contempt for his wife, the Prussian sympathies of the emperor turned against him

and a significant part of the population, both guards and courtiers. He had a chance to rule

shen coup d'etat. The person in whose name the coup was carried out was

empress, who managed to gain wide popularity, especially in the guards

kah. She was self-possessed, able to control herself well, suppress outbursts of anger,

maintain a conversation, at the same time patient with people's shortcomings, but unapologetic towards

opponents, knew how to be cruel.

Catherine was a supporter of an autocratic form of government based on law

and mutual observance by the monarch and subjects of duties towards each other.

Ekaterina is not only an intelligent and tactful woman, but also extremely talented, especially

the bone is formed, developed and active. She knew how to do a lot - and manage a huge

peria, which she passionately strived for since her arrival in Russia, and to get along with people, and

that it is important to bring bright, talented, gifted people closer to you, to entrust them with important

affairs according to their abilities. That is why Catherine's time is marked

the appearance of a whole galaxy of outstanding statesmen, generals, writers

lei, artists, musicians.

Catherine's reign lasts thirty-four years. It is filled with many

events in internal and external affairs, the implementation of plans that continued

what happened under Peter the Great.

Catherine II : The path to Russia

Catherine II, before her marriage Princess Sophia Augusta Frederica of Anhalt-Zerbst, born

German princely family. Her father, Prince Christian August of Anhalt-Zerbst, was in the Prussian service and was commandant and then governor of Stettin; mother - prin-

Princess Johanna Elisabeth - came from the ancient Duke of Holstein-Gottorp

who's at home?

The girl's parents were not happy in their marriage and often spent time apart.

My father left to fight with the army. Mother went to visit numerous influential

relatives, sometimes together with their daughter. From the events of those years, she remembers a meeting with an old priest, who, looking at Sophia, said to her mother: “Your daughter is alive.”

gives a great future. I see three crowns on her forehead.” Other important meeting happened,

when Sofia was already ten years old: she was introduced to a boy named Peter Ulrich.

Her mother told her that Peter Ulrich, pretender to the thrones of Russia and Sweden, holder of hereditary rights to Schleswig-Holstein, was her second cousin.

Several years passed, and Sofia's mother again spoke to her about a strange boy named Peter Ulrich. During this time, his aunt Elizabeth became the Russian Empress. She summoned her nephew to Russia and declared her heir under the name of Peter Fedoro-

HIV. Now the young man was looking for a bride.

Elizabeth Petrovna liked Princess Sofia. She was baptized according to Orthodox custom under the name of Ekaterina Alekseevna and named the bride of Grand Duke Peter Fedorovich.

Very soon, young Catherine experienced the empress’s changeable temperament, the imbalance of her groom, the neglect and treachery of those around her. In 1745, her wedding took place with Pyotr Fedorovich. But she had no happiness and confidence in the future. Her personal life was not going well. The position of the Grand Duchess did not change even after her long-awaited son-heir Pavel was born. The empress immediately took him under her care, believing that only she could raise the child wisely and with dignity.

It seemed that fate laughed at Catherine: she beckoned with the shine of the Russian crown,

but gave more hardships and sorrows than pleasures and power. But strength of character

allowed her not to get lost in the most difficult periods of her life. Ekaterina read a lot in those

years. At first she became interested in fashionable novels, but her inquisitive mind demanded more,

and she discovered books of completely different content. These were the works of French

Zuzian enlighteners - Voltaire, Montesquieu, works of historians, naturalists,

economists, lawyers, philosophers and philologists. Catherine thought and compared

read with Russian reality, made extracts, kept a diary in which

I wrote down my thoughts. As a result, Catherine assimilated the ideas of the enlighteners about social

good as highest goal statesman, about the need for education and enlightenment

understanding of subjects about the primacy of laws in society.

Catherine managed to get used to Russia and tried to fall in love with it. Having mastered Russian

language, she read chronicles, ancient codes of laws, biographies of great princes,

reys and fathers of the Church. Not content with reading, she asked those around her,

remembering the rebellious freemen of the archers from the time of the ruler Sophia, the reign

Peter I, who remade Russia with his rack, whip and axe. She was told about the harsh

howl to Tsarina Anna Ioannovna and, finally, about the accession to the throne and the reign of Elizabeth

Petrovna.

Compared to the capricious, aging empress, weak-willed and unpredictable

in the actions of Pyotr Fedorovich, Catherine won a lot in the opinion of the majority

courtiers. And foreign diplomats paid tribute to the Grand Duchess. Over the years

spent at court, she learned to cope with her feelings and passionate temperament

rament, she always looked calm and friendly, simple and courteous.

Slowly but persistently she conquered and forever tied the hearts of those around her to herself.

people, often turned ardent ill-wishers into their ardent supporters. One

one of Catherine’s contemporaries wrote that “from the very moment of her arrival in St. Petersburg, the great

the princess tried with all her means to gain universal love, and now she is not

They only love, but they are also afraid. Many who are on the best terms with the Empress do not miss the opportunity to fall under the arm of the Grand Duchess.”

Accession to the throne and beginning of reign

The deterioration of relations with her husband led to the fact that she began to fear for her fate if he came to power, and began to recruit supporters at court. Catherine heard rumors that Peter wanted to get rid of her by imprisoning her in a monastery or taking her life, and declare their son Paul illegitimate. Catherine carefully prepared the conspiracy, relying on the support of the Orlov brothers, Panin, Razumovsky, Dashkova and others. On the night of June 28, 1762, when the emperor was not in the capital, with the help of guard regiments, a coup was carried out, and Catherine was proclaimed autocratic empress. Not only the guard regiments, but also the Senate and Synod readily swore allegiance to the new empress. And then on June 29, 1762. Peter III signed a manifesto of his abdication. His death on July 6, 1762, finally cleared the path to power for Catherine.

In order to force everyone to recognize the legitimacy of her power, she decided as soon as possible

re Kremlin. On this occasion, the people were offered a rich treat. From the first days

reign Catherine II wanted to be popular among the broadest masses of the people, she

demonstratively attended pilgrimages, went to worship holy places, traveled

roamed around the country. I tried to see everything with my own eyes, hear everything with my own ears.

Meetings were also held with the people; she communicated not only with nobles, but also with

simple peasants.

In the first years of her reign, Catherine II was intensely looking for ways to establish

throne, while exercising extreme caution. Deciding the fate of favorites and favorites

During the previous reign, Catherine II showed generosity and condescension -

ness. She made every effort not to alienate both the influential, worldly dignitaries who had served Elizabeth Petrovna, and her young comrades-in-arms.

kovs who were eager to govern the state, lacking experience and knowledge. As a result, many

Some truly talented and useful people remained in their previous positions.

positions. Catherine II loved and knew how to appreciate the merits of people. She understood that her praise and rewards would make people work even harder.

Catherine, not without reason, pointed out rather difficult circumstances,

under which she began to reign. “Finances were depleted. The army did not receive pay for 3 months. Trade was in decline, for many of its branches were given over to

We're into a monopoly. There was no correct system in the state economy. Military

the department was plunged into debt; the sea barely held on, being in extreme neglect

cutting. The clergy was dissatisfied with the taking of his lands. Justice was for sale

with trade, and laws were guided only in cases where they were favourable.

whether to a strong person." The Empress, of course, exaggerated her colors, but not so much that

At the festival, she outlined the program for her future reign. It talked about “observing

the implementation of Orthodox law, strengthening and protecting the fatherland, preserving justice,

the root of evil and all untruths and oppression.”

Domestic policy

Being German by origin, Catherine II understood that the empress must, first of all, protect the interests of Russia and did not deviate from this rule. She entered

to the throne, having a well-defined political program based on one

on the one hand, on the ideas of the Enlightenment and, on the other hand, taking into account the peculiarities historical development Russia. The most important principles for the implementation of this program were gradual

foam, consistency, taking into account public sentiment.

Catherine well understood the place of Russia in the world of that time. She didn't copy blindly

European models, but was at the level of the then world political knowledge. She

sought to use European experience to reform a country where there was neither

private property, nor bourgeois civil society, but, on the contrary, there was

traditionally developed state economy, dominated serfdom.

In the first years of her reign, Catherine abolished the hetmanate in Ukraine,

which corresponded to her ideas about the need to unify management throughout

territories of the empire; invited German colonists to Russia to explore the Volga region

and the Black Sea region; confirmed the decree of Peter III on the abolition of the Secret Investigation Department of Kan-

celaria, however, the organ remained like this, Secret Chancery replaced the Secret Expeditions under the Senate in the capital and at the Senate office in Moscow. Ekaterina brought out the Secret ex-

petition from the jurisdiction of the Senate and subordinated it to the Prosecutor General.

In 1763 Catherine carries out a reform of the Senate, making the work of this institution more

more effective. The Senate was divided into six departments with strictly defined

functions and under the leadership of the Prosecutor General, appointed by the monarch, became a body of control over the activities state apparatus and the highest court. The Senate lost its main function of legislative initiative; it actually passed to the empress.

According to the Decree of February 26, 1764 The secularization of spiritual land ownership is being carried out. By this decree, monastic, bishop's and church estates with the peasants who inhabited them were transferred to the College of Economy. All duties of the peasants were replaced by a monetary quitrent, of the total amount of which 1/3 was transferred to the maintenance of church institutions (monasteries, etc.). The most important result of the reform was the elimination of the previously powerful and semi-independent layer of spiritual feudal lords from the state; now they were completely dependent on the state, in addition, the living conditions of peasants who previously belonged to spiritual landowners were eased. This is due to the replacement of corvée with quitrent, which gave the peasants more independence and developed their economic initiative. The peasants perceived secularization as a blessing and stopped disobedience. At the same time, about 8.5 million dessiatines came under the authority of the authorities. land and almost a million souls.

Another important area of ​​Catherine’s activity was legislative reform.

government In 1767, she announced the convening of a Commission to compose a new code, co-

standing among the elected deputies from all social groups of Russian society, with the exception of

nium of serfs. Catherine wrote the “Order” for the Commission, which was according to the court.

ty liberal program of her reign. Catherine's calls, however, were not understood.

you were deputies of the Commission who argued over minor issues. During their discussions

deep contradictions emerged between individual social groups, low

the level of political culture and the outright conservatism of the majority of members of the Committee

these. At the end of 1768, the Statutory Commission was dissolved. We can say that the work of the Commission on the Code ended in failure. However, the work was not wasted; it familiarized the empress with the needs of the country. A huge amount of factual material was collected about the position of the classes in the empire; minutes of the meetings remained, reflecting a picture of the views, moods and interests of the society of that time. Using the works of the Commission, Catherine II issued many important laws. Catherine herself wrote that she “received light and information about the entire Empire, with whom to deal, and about whom she should take care.” Now she could act, quite consciously and definitely. In addition, Catherine managed to make Russians think about state freedom, political rights, religious tolerance, the harm of torture, and the equality of all subjects in the face of the Law. Work in the Commission was for many a school of citizenship, where personal gain gave way to the desire for the good of the state, where feelings of patriotism and national identity were awakened.

In 1765 In the interests of the nobility, the Free Economic Society (VEO), one of the oldest in the world and the first in Russia, was established. It was founded by large landowners who, in the conditions of the growth of the market and commercial agriculture, sought to rationalize agriculture and increase the productivity of serf labor. The activities of VEO contributed to the introduction of new crops, new types of agriculture, and the development of economic relations.

In the field of industry and trade, Catherine II (decree of 1767 and manifesto

1775) proclaimed the principle of freedom of enterprise. The nobility, including the middle nobility, took the path of feudal entrepreneurship, and the number of patrimonial manufactories began to grow. The growth of peasant manufactures turned out to be to the advantage of the nobility, since many peasant entrepreneurs were serfs. Also, in the second half of the 18th century. The consolidation of the Russian merchant class into an estate is completed. Commercial and industrial people are beginning to realize their importance in the economy and social life of the country. At the beginning of Catherine’s reign in Russia there were 655 industrial

new enterprises, by the end of more than 2000.

In 1765, the State Land Survey, begun in 1754 by Elizaveta Petrovna, was continued. General surveying was all-imperial and obligatory for landowners. It was accompanied by a study of the economic situation

countries. All plans contained " economic notes"(about the number of souls, about quitrent and corvee, about the quality of lands and forests, about crafts and industrial enterprises, about memorable places, etc.). Unique collection of plans and maps general survey includes about 200 thousand storage units. Results of the general survey before October revolution remained the basis of civil law relations in the field of land law in Russia.

In 1775, an extensive legislative document “Establishment for the Management” was published.

provinces." In accordance with this document, a new administration came into force

tive-territorial division, major changes were made to local government.

The country was divided into 50 provinces (300-400 thousand inhabitants), each of which consisted

from 10 – 12 counties (20-30 thousand inhabitants). All newly formed provinces and districts received

whether a uniform structure based on a strict separation of administrative, fi-

financial and court cases. At the head of the province was the governor appointed by Catherine II.

torus The provincial board, consisting of a vice-governor, two provincial councilors and a provincial prosecutor, headed by the governor, exercised executive power and was in charge of all affairs. Many large villages were converted into district towns. In the district, power belonged to the police captain elected by the noble assembly. In cities, the position of mayor, appointed by the government, was introduced. State revenues were in charge of the Treasury Chamber (treasury income and expenses, state property, farming, monopolies, etc.). The Treasury Chamber was headed by the Vice-Governor. To make it more convenient to pay taxes, a Treasury was opened in each county town. The provincial prosecutor was in charge of all judicial institutions. A court was established in each district city, and a high court in the provincial city. A system of estate courts was created: for each estate (nobles, townspeople, state peasants) its own special judicial institutions. Some of them introduced the principle of elected lay judges. In the provincial cities, a Conscience Court was established to resolve lawsuits and to try insane criminals and unintentional crimes. IN county towns There was also the so-called Noble Guardianship - a body that dealt with the affairs of young nobles and noble widows. For the urban population, the Orphans' Court played the same role. In the provincial cities there was also an Order of Public Charity - a special body that was in charge of education (schools), charity (shelters, almshouses) and healthcare (hospitals, pharmacies). The center of gravity in control moved to places. There was no longer a need for a number of boards - they were abolished; the Military, Naval, Foreign and Commerce Collegiums remained. The local government system created by the provincial reform survived until 1864, and the administrative-territorial division introduced by it survived until the October Revolution.

In 1785, Catherine issued her most important legislative acts - grants of letters to the nobility and cities. A third charter was also prepared - state

ny peasants, but political circumstances did not allow it to be put into effect. For

For the Russian nobility, a charter meant the legal consolidation of almost all the rights and privileges they had. The charter granted to the cities formalized the rights and privileges of the “third estate” - the townspeople. The city estate was divided into six categories, received limited rights of self-government, elected the mayor and members of the city

Duma. The main significance of the diplomas was associated with the implementation of the most important of the goals of the Ekathe-

Rinin’s reforms – the creation in Russia of full-fledged estates of the Western European type

In the last years of her life, Catherine II continued to develop plans for serious

formations. However, she did not have time to complete her reform program.

In my opinion, Catherine II’s policy is best characterized by the words: “She loves

carried out reforms, but gradual ones, transformations, but not drastic ones, without breaking” P.A. Vyazemsky.

Serfdom

If it were necessary to name five or six concepts that most succinctly characterize

Catherine's reign, the word "serfdom" would certainly have been among

them. After all, it was under Catherine II that Russian serfdom reached its development

apogee and acquired those very disgusting features that so outraged Radishchev and

Decembrists. For historians, this continues to be a paradox that is difficult to explain.

How could it happen that it was during the reign of the “enlightened” monarch,

development, undoubtedly liberal, marked by an unprecedented flowering of Russian culture,

has the degree of unfreedom of the majority of the country's population increased as never before?

During the reign of Peter III, a number of legislative acts were adopted: Manifesto on freedom

ty of the nobility; the restriction on the transfer of peasants introduced by Peter I was eliminated

from one county to another; the right to enroll as a merchant is limited for peasants by the presence

This allowed factory owners to purchase peasants for factories without land. This measure finally established the monopoly of the nobility on the ownership of serfs (although still not in the form of a positive law, but by prohibiting other categories of the population from owning them). By

Essentially, with these legislative acts, Peter III made a kind of revolution in

system social relations Russia: a new socio-political reality has emerged

which from now on and over the next hundred years determined the development of the country.

Catherine was a staunch opponent of serfdom, considering it inhumane.

disgusting and contrary to human nature itself. Her papers preserved many sharp high-

statements on this matter, as well as discussions about various options for eliminating the

fasting. However, she did not dare to do anything specific in this area, due to

a well-founded fear of a noble rebellion and another coup. The Empress understood that by doing so she would contrast herself with the support of the throne - the nobility, who were not ready

give up your own privileges.

Without taking this into account, it is impossible to understand the empress’s apparent inactivity regarding

cessation of serfdom. But was she really so inactive? Catherine for 34 years

successfully resisted the pressure of the nobility, which insisted on legislative registration of its property rights to peasant souls. She tried to act around

in other ways and offered members of the Russian Free Economic Society a public

personally discuss the situation of the peasants, hoping to make their subjects at least realize

to reveal the political danger and immorality of serfdom.

She also took more drastic measures. Catherine forbade free people

for the peasants and freed peasants to re-enter serfdom. According to her

By order for newly established cities, the government bought out serfs and turned them into townspeople. Children of serfs accepted into state care

sent to orphanages and became free. Catherine was preparing a decree, agreeing

but to whom the children of serfs born after 1785 were considered free. She also dreamed of implementing another project - it would lead to the gradual liberation of the peasants during the transfer of estates from one hand to another. On the other hand, its attempts to limit

for example, the sale of peasants without land was not successful.

However, in practical terms, it is clear that in order to ease the pressure of the nobility on the authorities, it was necessary to find a counterweight to it. Only the third could become such a counterweight

estate. The perspicacious and wise Catherine, apparently, understood this well and a lot

done in this direction. But her capabilities were limited.

There is another way to look at this. After all, the abolition of serfdom essentially meant

a change in the political system (which happened in 1860), and in order for the environment

Catherine wanted this; it was necessary for the features of a systemic crisis to become so obvious that

they could no longer be ignored. Catherine's reign was a time of internal

early stability and foreign policy victories. The crisis was still far away.

Foreign policy

Following Peter I, Catherine believed that Russia should take an active position

on the world stage, to pursue an offensive, and to a certain extent aggressive, policy.

Having ascended the throne, she broke the alliance agreement concluded by Peter III with Prussia.

this. Thanks to her efforts, Duke E.I. was restored to the Courland throne. Biron.

In 1763, relying on the support of Prussia, Russia achieved the election of its protege Stanislav August Poniatowski to the Polish throne.

Under Catherine II, new methods began to be used diplomatic work. Catherine took the matter of political propaganda abroad very broadly. This goal is pursued

This included, in particular, her own correspondence with Voltaire, Grimm, Diderot and other representatives of the “Enlightenment era.” At the same time, Catherine closely monitored foreign publications that could bring harm to Russia or to her personally as the empress. She managed to stop the printing of Ruliere's book about the 1762 coup. New diplomatic techniques include inviting foreign diplomats to participate in the empress’s trips around Russia, for example in 1785 to inspect the waterway from the Baltic Sea to the Volga and in 1787 to the Crimea.

The strengthening of Russia worried large European countries - England, Austria, France, and they began to make efforts to push Russia and Turkey together and thereby weaken them both. In the end, this led to a long and bloody war between Russia and Turkey (1768-1774), from which Russia emerged victorious. The war ended with the signing of peace in the summer of 1774 in the village of Kuchuk-Kainardzhi on the Danube. As a result, Türkiye recognized the independence of Crimea. In countries subject to Ottoman Empire, Russian consulates were opened, the Turkish government guaranteed freedom to practice the Christian religion in its possessions, and Georgia was freed from the heaviest tribute of young men and women sent to Turkey. But the main thing is that Russia received access to the Black Sea: the right to have its own fleet, the right to unhindered navigation in the Black Sea and the right of passage through the Bosporus and Dardanelles straits. In subsequent years, Russian positions in Crimea and the Caucasus were strengthened, which ended in 1783 with the inclusion of Crimea into the Russian Empire and the signing of the Treaty of Georgievsk with the Kartli-Kakheti king Irakli II, which ensured the presence of Russian troops in Georgia, and subsequently its annexation to Russia. The vast territories of the Northern Black Sea region went to Russia. They received the name Novorossiya. Catherine’s talented favorite, G.A., was appointed governor. Potemkin. He took up the development of this region and the construction of the Black Sea Fleet.

In 1787, Catherine, accompanied by a brilliant retinue, foreign diplomats, the Austrian emperor and the Polish king, traveled to Crimea. In 4 years, Potemkin turned Novorossiya into a flourishing land. In Turkey, Catherine’s journey was regarded as Russia’s desire to further expand its borders in the south at the expense of Turkish territories (although there were such ideas in the form of the Greek project, Russia did not intend to enter into a second war with Turkey). In 1787 Turkish Sultan announced Russia

this war. The second war with Turkey began (1787-1791). Almost simultaneously, a war with Sweden began (1788-1790), which was trying to achieve revenge for the defeat in Northern

war. However, Russia successfully dealt with both opponents. In the winter of 1791, the Peace of Yassy was signed with Turkey, confirming the terms of the Kyuchuk-Kainardzhi Peace. Turkey recognized Crimea as the possession of Russia, as well as Russian patronage of Georgia, established by the Treaty of Georgievsk in 1783. Russia included the territories between the Bug and Dniester rivers, as well as Taman and Kuban.

During the time of Catherine II, the collapse of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth (Poland) could be expected any day now, because by the second half of the 18th century. Poland has become unviable

state. The Prussian king put forward a plan for the dismemberment of Poland and offered Russia

join him. Catherine II considered it expedient to preserve a united Poland,

but then decided to use Poland’s weakness and return those ancient Russian lands that

rye were captured by it during the period feudal fragmentation. In 1772, 1793, 1795 Austria, Prussia, and Russia made three divisions of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. So as a result of these

partitions, Russia returned Belarus, Right Bank Ukraine, Volyn, and also received new territories - Lithuania and Courland. Ethnically Polish regions were not annexed to Russia.

Catherine initially reacted decisively to the events in revolutionary France.

with a certain amount of sympathy, seeing in them the result of the unreasonable despotic policy of the French

Tsuz kings. However, after the execution of Louis XVI, she saw danger in the revolution

for all of Europe.

The foreign policy results of Catherine's 34-year stay on the throne were

significant territorial acquisitions and the final consolidation of Russia’s status great power. The country began to play one of the leading roles in world politics.

ke, which allowed him to influence in his interests the resolution of almost any inter-

dunard questions. All this made it possible in the 19th century to further expand the boundaries

the faces of the empire. Essentially, it was during Catherine’s era that a “united and non-

divisible" empire with inexhaustible human and economic resources and endless

them with vast expanses that swallowed up any conqueror.

Culture and education

An important part of the internal policy of the autocracy under Catherine II were measures aimed at spreading education and educating subjects in the spirit of idealism.

catch of Enlightenment. Through the care of the empress, institutions were established, cadet corps And

educational homes. But Catherine’s main merit in this area can be considered the first

extensive experience in creating a system of general primary education, not limited

class barriers (with the exception of serfs). Special rule

The government commission developed a program for the creation of two-year schools in the counties and

four-class - in provincial cities. During the reign of Catherine II there was a

Women's education began in Russia. In 1764, Smol-

ny institute. Total k early XIX V. there were 550 different educational institutions in the country

ny institutions in which 62 thousand people studied.

The social composition of students in secondary schools was extremely diversified.

eye Children of artisans, peasants, artisans, and soldiers predominated in public schools.

dates, sailors, etc. The age composition of students in the same classes was also different.

Both children and 22-year-old men were trained. Those who completed the training course were able to

to write, knew basic information from arithmetic and geometry.

A significant role in the development of education in Russia was played by soldiers’ schools – general

educational schools for soldiers' children. Soldiers' children made up the bulk of

su students of Moscow and St. Petersburg universities. To the type of soldiers

There were also national military schools opened in the second half of the 18th century. on Se-

faithful Caucasus (Kizlyar, Mozdok and Ekaterinograd).

The second type of schools are closed noble educational institutions: private boarding houses, gentry corps, institutes for noble maidens, etc., in total more than 60 educational institutions.

ny, where more than 4.5 thousand noble children studied. In the gentry corps (Land,

Naval, Artillery, Engineering) trained mainly officers for the army

To the third type educational institutions include theological seminaries and schools. There were 66 of them, and 20 thousand people studied there. These were also class schools, pre-

designated for children of the clergy.

A small number, about 20, of special schools (mining, medical, teaching, navigating, surveying, commercial, etc.), as well as founded in 1757. Academy

arts and in 1773 - Ballet school, represented the fourth type of educational institutions. Although they educated about 1.5 thousand people, they played important role in training specialists, which Russia especially needed.

It is noteworthy that under Catherine II, the organization of medical care to the population became possible.

relied on the state. The medical commission, established in 1763, and orders on-

public charity were to oversee the medical unit in the empire and prepare

medical workers. Every city was required to have a hospital and a pharmacy where patients

They were offered medications prescribed by the doctor. By order of Catherine, psychiatric hospitals were opened. Since there were not enough doctors, they were sent from abroad and Russian doctors and surgeons were trained, at the same time factories of surgical instruments were founded. She by example laid the foundation for vaccination by inoculating herself and her son Pavel with smallpox, specially called for this purpose.

from England by the doctor Thomas Dimsdam.

Russian science is making a big step forward. In 1783 a special Russian

Academy for the study of language and literature.

The Academy of Sciences in St. Petersburg at this time became the center of Russian science, and its authority grew in the international arena. All outstanding scientific discoveries are connected with it.

tiya XVIII century in Russia. The Academy had well-equipped physical and chemical

technical laboratories, anatomical theater, museum, printing house, workshops, art

Khiv, library, published periodical scientific publications. For 1768-1774. Aka-

Demia conducted five geographical expeditions that made a valuable contribution to the study

geography of the country. The Academy of Sciences began publishing Russian chronicles, 20 volumes of “Ancient Russian Vivliofika” were published; sources on Russian history were actively published (by N.I. Novikov). The following were published: the first edition of Lomonosov's works and the six-volume Dictionary of the Russian Academy, containing explanations of 43 thousand words of the Russian language. The Academy also organized publicly accessible courses in the main branches of science. At this time, the number of Russian scientists increased significantly, among them the outstanding naturalists I.I. Lepekhin and N.Ya. Ozeretskovsky, astronomer S.Ya. Razumovsky, mineralologist V.M. Severgin, prominent historians M.M. Shcherbatov and I.N. Boltin.

Thanks to the activities of the prominent Russian scientist M.V. Lomonosov came to Russian science: Barsov, Zabelin, Sofronov, Kotelnikov, Desnitsky and others. Invention

and technology were presented by outstanding self-taught mechanics I.I. Polzunov,

I.P. Kulibin, K.D. Frolov.

The development of folk art has achieved particular success. Serf masters and re-

artisans created amazingly beautiful palace interiors. At this time you receive

development of such types of artistic crafts as Gzhel ceramics, great-

Tyug niello, Kholmogory bone carving, Vologda lace, porcelain and crystal from Russian factories, jewelry.

Russian masters also advanced in architecture. In 1760 in Russia the architectural

tour style - classicism. The spread of classicism is associated with the intensification of state urban planning policy. New cities were founded, construction in old ones was revived. Regular plans and designs for model houses were sent out from

Petersburg throughout the country. The largest representatives in the architecture of the 18th century. were V.I. Bazhenov, M.F. Kazakov, I.E. Starov.

Sculpture also reached its peak. All its main types developed: relief, statue, portrait bust, easel works. At that time it was known

There are such sculptors as M.I. Kozlovsky, E. Falcone, F.G. Gordeev, F.F. Shchedrin,

F.F. Shubin.

In the second half of the 18th century. All genres of literature have developed: poetry, drama,

turgy, prose. Writers worked in line with classicism, sentimentalism, romanticism,

at the end of the century the beginnings of the realistic method appeared. Prominent writers Catherine-

Ninsky time there were the poet Derzhavin and the satirist Fonvizin, N.M. Karamzin, A.N. For the sake of it. The poet and playwright Alexander Sumarokov enjoyed fame. Voltaire called him “The Glory of his Fatherland.”

Perhaps the only Russian monarch, Catherine II, is quite professional

mastered the pen and tried her hand at drama, journalism and historical literature.

kaniyah. No other Russian sovereign left such a huge writing to his descendants.

great heritage, like Catherine II. In 1767 the empress translated with her assistants

Kami condemned in France for censorship reasons Marmontel’s book “Veliza-

ries" and after that began to actively encourage translations of foreign fiction.

rature, scientific and philosophical works. Catherine II, who began publishing the magazine “Everything”

what kind of stuff,” called on writers to take up her initiative. In January 1783 empress

Tsa signed a decree allowing the establishment of “free” printing houses. A book, magazine, newspaper become an element of everyday life more of people. From January 1783 By

September 1796 13 printing houses were opened in both capitals, and another 11 were opened in the provinces. The first public library in Russia was opened in St. Petersburg. By the end

In the 1980s, there were already 15 state libraries, and the number of private book collections was growing.

F. Volkov created the first public theater in Russia in Yaroslav, which was later transferred to St. Petersburg. Later, theaters arose on the Field of Mars, Petrovsky and

other. At the same time, serf theaters arose in the estates of both the capital and provincial nobility. The most famous was the Sheremetev theater in Ostankino, Prince Yusupov in Arkhangelsk. Theater in the 18th century. laid the foundations of Russian drama. In Russia, steps were taken in the creation of Russian symphonic music, the first

operas, ballet begins to develop.

Already in the first years of her stay in power, Catherine began to buy entire quantities abroad.

lectures: bought libraries, graphic and numismatic collections (offices),

lectures on painting and sculpture; invited European artists to decorate her yard -

cities and cities. Its agents throughout Europe sought out art objects. Among the famous

Catherine's acquisitions - the Diderot and Voltaire libraries. In a relatively short period of time,

sparing no expense, she bought unique painting collections of such patrons as Brühl in Dresden and Crozat in Paris, which included masterpieces by Raphael, Poussin, Van Dyck,

Rubens, Rembrandt and other famous painters. Ermi-

Tazh is the richest collection of art collections at the palace. For example, the empress

Her entourage followed. At this time, many private collections of life were being formed.

write up and large libraries, including the famous collections of the Sheremetevs, Golitsyns,

Bezbordko, Stroganovs, Vorontsovs and others. Russian is also encouraged national school painting. Since the late 1760s, the first art exhibitions and auctions of paintings have been held, and the talents of A.P. have blossomed. Antropova, I.P. Argunova, F.S. Rokotova, V.G. Levitsky, V.L. Borovikovsky, A.P. Losenko.

Conclusion

The years of the reign of Catherine II (1762-1796) are truly recognized as the “Golden Age of Catherine”. She is rightfully considered one of the brightest personalities Russian history. Many historians consider it hypocritical, pointing out the discrepancy between the ideas of “enlightened absolutism” and serfdom reality Russia XVIII century. I see no contradiction between her ideals and actions. In my opinion, the explanation for this order is

The fact is that for Russia at that time her ideas were too progressive, and their rapid implementation would have led to an inevitable revolution.

great government reforms. “Catherine II,” wrote Karamzin, “was the true successor-

the greatness of Petrov and the second educator of Russia. The main thing is this unforgettable

new monarch, is that she softened the autocracy without losing its power.” At this time, almost the entire internal structure of the empire was transformed, increased

the power of the Russian army and navy under the leadership of “Catherine’s eagles” - Potemkina, Rumyan-

Tsev, Suvorov, Kutuzov, Ushakov, Orlov. As a result of successful wars, annexations were

The Black Sea region, Crimea, the Kuban region, Eastern Georgia, half of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth with Belarus and Western Ukraine are not included. During the reign of Catherine the Great, Russian culture, education and science flourished, new educational institutions, academies, libraries and printing houses opened. From a note by the head of the Collegium of Foreign Affairs A.A. Bezborodko from 1781 it follows that during the 19 years of his reign “there were 50

provinces organized in a new way, 144 cities were built, 30 conventions and treaties were concluded, 78 victories were won in wars, 88 “remarkable legislative and constituent decrees” and 123 decrees “for national relief” were issued. To this we must add that, according to the calculations of V.O. Klyuchevsky, Catherine “conquered from Poland and Turkey lands with a population of up to 7 million souls of both sexes, so that the number of inhabitants of the empire from 19 million in 1762. increased by 1796. to 36 million, the army from 162 thousand people was strengthened to 312 thousand, the fleet, in 1757. consisting of 21 battleships and 6 frigates, in 1790. considered in his composition

ve 67 battleships and 40 frigates, the amount of state revenues from 16 million rubles. rose to 69 million, that is, it more than quadrupled, industrial successes were expressed in the increase in the number of factories from 500 to 2 thousand, successes foreign trade ball-

Tiy - in increasing imports and exports from 9 million to 44 million rubles, Black Sea, Catherine and created - from 390 thousand in 1776. up to 1,900 thousand rubles. in 1796, the growth of internal defense

This was marked by the issue of coins worth 148 million rubles over the 34 years of his reign, while in the 62 previous years only 97 million were issued.”

Historians also say that Catherine’s efforts aimed at encouraging

social activity of the classes, especially the nobility, laid the foundations of civil

society in Russia, and under Catherine, Russia became one of not only the most powerful and developed, but also “civilized” countries in the world.

Literature

1. Klyuchevskoy V.O. Historical portraits., M., 1990
2. Borzakovsky P. Empress Catherine the Great., M.: Panorama, 1991
3. Brickner A. The History of Catherine the Second., M,: Sovremennik, 1991
4. Rakhmatulin M. (Doctor of History) Empress Catherine II
5. International Conference “Catherine the Great” 1996

A. Kamensky A.B. Once again about Catherine II and serfdom

b. Komissarenko A.I. Activities of the commission for the preparation of secularization

church land ownership

1762-1796

Period 1762-1796 – years of reign of Empress CatherineII.

Sophia Frederica Augusta of Anhalt-Zerbst,The daughter of a poor German prince, the future Empress of All Russia, came to Russia by accident as a 15-year-old girl. Klyuchevsky wrote thatEmpress Elizaveta Petrovnadischarged her from Germany “with the sole purpose of obtaining a spare heir for the Russian throne.” « Either I will die or I will reign,”- she decided understanding how great the stakes are, what the future awaits her in case of success or failure. Catherine became Great, and Russia during the 34 years of her reign turned into one of the most powerful states.

The ideas of the Enlightenment were spreading in Europe at this time. These ideas were familiar to Catherine from correspondence with Voltaire and Diderot, and with youthful enthusiasm she set the goal of bringing them to life. Due to the peculiarities of the country’s development and autocratic aspirationsCatherineII, policyenlightened absolutism in Russia took on a peculiar character.

Let's call the historical figures of this period the veryempress and leader of the peasant warE. I. Pugacheva.

Two opposites can be distinguishedprocess , manifestedatEkaterinaII: liberalization of power and the turn from liberalization to absolutism. At the same time, it is impossible to precisely identify the period when this turn occurs, although at first the liberal features of “enlightened absolutism” are quite clearly visible.

Having seized power as a result of the coup, Catherine had to retain it and strengthen it. Knowledge of the history of the “era of palace coups” in Russia made her understand how dependent the monarch was on the top of the nobility. She begins to “pander” to the nobility in every possible way, like her predecessors in palace coups.For the sake of the latter, a decree was adopted (1763), according to which the peasants themselves had to pay the costs associated with the suppression of their protests, and the decree of 1765 allows landowners to exile their peasants without trial to Siberia for hard labor with these peasants counted as recruits.

To strengthen her own power, she weakens the Senate. In 1763 it was divided into 6 departments, deprived of legislative powers and became the highest judicial body. So the Senate turned into a tool in the hands of the empress.

The idea of ​​implementing the policy of “enlightened absolutism” does not leave her. In 1767 The empress convenes the Legislative Commission, before which she is going to voice the thoughts set out in her own “Order”, so that the Commission draws up a new set of laws in the spirit of the policy of “enlightened absolutism”. After listening to the speeches and requests of deputies that did not go beyond the needs of the class, she realized that she would not find understanding with them. Taking advantage of the outbreak of war with Turkey, Catherine stopped the work of the commissions and did not return to them after that. Now the empress began to rule autocratically.

It was in the convening of the Statutory Commission that the ideas of “enlightened absolutism” most clearly manifested themselves. Within the framework of this policy, one can name the secularization of church lands (1764), the establishment of the Free Economic Society (1765), financial reform (1769), the opening of the Noble and Merchant Bank (1786), permission for everyone to start weaving mills and engage in crafts, open free printing houses, development of women's education, an attempt to create a system secondary school etc. Along with this, to please the nobility, Catherine tightened serfdom: in 1767. prohibited peasants from complaining about landowners.

I guess, thatcomparison of two such personalities like EkaterinaIIand Emelyan Pugachev, it is quite natural from the point of view that both grasped the main requirement of the time - the need for change, each on its own scale. They were almost the same age, both active and ambitious, both failed in their initial plans. Pugachev’s decrees corresponded to the aspirations of the people: they promised the peasants land and freedom, exemption from taxes and conscription. He was in his early 30s and took part in Seven Years' War, then wandered around Russia for a long time and in 1773 declared himself Emperor PeterIII. This was especially dangerous for Catherine, because in a certain sense she, too, was an impostor, having taken the throne from her husband and son. The flames of the popular uprising engulfed vast territories of the Volga region and the Urals. These events frightened and rallied the upper classes to the authorities. Having hastily made peace with Turkey, Catherine sent an army against the rebels. Pugachev was defeated and executed.

Peasants' War became a pretext for strengthening autocracy, the necessity of which the empress never doubted. The uprising showed the weakness of local authorities.In the same 1775 Catherine carries out provincial reform. For ease of administration, the country was divided into 50 provinces, and power functions were divided between different bodies. The governor was responsible for implementing the decrees of the supreme power and maintaining order, the vice-governor was responsible for finances, the Judicial Chambers became relatively independent, the Order of Public Charity was responsible for education, medicine and charitable institutions. Control over local officials was exercised by the governor general . The local administration took the form of zemstvo self-government, under the control of government officials and elected representatives of the nobility.In 1785, the Charter became a confirmation of the free nobility. Nobles were now exempt from compulsory service, corporal punishment, and confiscation of property. The main thing: they received the privilege to create noble meetings- district and provincial, which had direct access to the supreme power. It can be argued that the nobility as a class finally took shape right now. And the final turn to the right is evidenced by the liquidation of the hetmanate in Left Bank Ukraine, the spread of serfdom here, its reaction to the Great French Revolution and the growth of opposition sentiments within the country, strengthening of censorship, andrestA.N. Radishchev and book publisher and N.I. A etc.The basic ideas of Diderot and Voltaire were forgotten: forms of government were not abolished, and people did not become equal.

The connection between the processes is obvious . Carrying out a tough internal policy based on the inviolability of the absolute monarchy, supporting the nobles as her main support, Catherine, by the logic of events, had to strengthen the enslavement of the peasants, which caused popular indignation in 1773-1775. Taking certain steps towards the development of society along the path of anti-feudal reforms, shepreserved and strengthened the absolute monarchy, as well as serfdom.Russian historian 19th century A. G. Brikner, who studied study of the process of Europeanization of Russia, noted that she acted successfully as a mediator between progress and culture Western Europe, on the one hand, and the way of life of Russia, on the other .

Grade. This period in the history of the state occupies a special place as the heyday of Russia; it is not by chance that it is called the Catherine era; the personality of the empress left a special imprint on it. Most historians, such as V. Klyuchevsky, N. Karamzin, give a positive assessment of the monarch’s activities, emphasizing the significant successes that allowed Russia to subsequently take its rightful place not only in Europe, but also in the world. IN. Klyuchevskywrites that mmaterial resources have increased in enormous proportions. The state territory has almost reached its natural borders; of the 50 provinces into which Russia was divided, 11 were acquired during the reign of Catherine. The country's population increased from 19-20 million people of both sexes to 34 million, and the amount of government revenue quadrupled. Russia's international authority has grown. On the contrary, moral means have become weaker, social division has become even sharper.

ABSTRACT

On the topic of: Catherine II (Great)

prepared by: _________________________

student of class "_"

Municipal educational institution _secondary school No. _

checked by: history teacher

_______________

Plan

Introduction

1. Accession.

2. Main board.

3. Last years reign of the empress.

Conclusion

Bibliography

Introduction

1725 After the rise in the level of literacy of the population, after the enlightenment of Russian society, after victories in so many great wars - in the Seven Years' War, in the Polish, in the Russian-Turkish, in the Russian-Swedish - and after the grandiose transformations of Peter the Great, Russia had partially returned to the Time of Troubles, by that time when the country had no legal ruler. Peter I died before he could appoint a successor. As a result, numerous palace coups began. Whoever was in power: Catherine I, and Peter II, and Anna Ioannovna, and Ivan Antonovich, and Elizaveta Petrovna, and Peter III...

But then Catherine II came to power for 34 long years. The palace coups are over.

1 . Accession and beginning of reign

Almost nothing is known about Catherine the Great’s childhood. She was born on April 24, 1729. The wife of Peter III, born Princess of Anhalt-Zerbst, she was naturally gifted with a great mind, strong character; on the contrary, her husband was a weak man, poorly brought up. Not sharing his pleasures, Catherine devoted herself to reading and soon moved from novels to historical and philosophical books. A select circle formed around her, in which her greatest confidence was enjoyed first by Saltykov, and then by Stanislav Poniatovsky, later the King of Poland. Her relationship with Empress Elizabeth was not particularly cordial: when Catherine’s son, Paul, was born, the Empress took the child to her place and rarely allowed the mother to see him. Elizabeth died on December 25, 1761; with the accession of Peter III to the throne, Catherine’s position became even worse. The tsar's public attacks on his wife, threats to send her to a monastery and remove his son from inheriting the throne could not go unnoticed. A conspiracy was brewing in the guard in favor of Catherine. On June 28, 1762, Peter III was overthrown and arrested, and a week later he was killed in a drunken brawl by A.G. Orlov. It was the fifth palace coup since the death of Peter the Great. The coup on June 28 brought Catherine to the throne. The harsh school of life and enormous natural intelligence helped the new empress herself to get out of a very difficult situation and lead Russia out of it. The treasury was empty; the monopoly crushed trade and industry; factory peasants and serfs were worried about rumors of freedom, which were renewed every now and then; peasants from the western border fled to Poland. Under such circumstances, Catherine ascended the throne, the rights to which belonged to her son. But she understood that her son would become a plaything on the throne, like Peter II.

Catherine's penetrating gaze stopped equally attentively on the phenomena of life both at home and abroad. Having learned two months after her accession to the throne that the famous French encyclopedia had been condemned by the Parisian parliament for atheism and its continuation was prohibited, Catherine suggested that Voltaire and Diderot publish the encyclopedia in Riga. This proposal alone won over the Russian Empress. the best minds, which then gave direction to public opinion throughout Europe.

In the autumn of 1762, Catherine was crowned and spent the winter in Moscow. In the summer of 1764, Second Lieutenant Mirovich decided to elevate to the throne Ioann Antonovich, the son of Anna Leopoldovna and Anton-Ulrich of Brunswick, who was kept in the Shlisselburg fortress. The plan failed - Ivan Antonovich, during an attempt to free him, was shot by one of the guard soldiers; Mirovich was executed by court verdict.

In 1764, Prince Vyazemsky, sent to pacify the peasants assigned to the factories, was ordered to investigate the question of the benefits of free labor over hired labor. The same question was proposed to the newly established Economic Society. First of all, the issue of the monastery peasants, which had become especially acute even under Elizabeth, had to be resolved. At the beginning of her reign, Elizabeth returned the estates to monasteries and churches, but in 1757 she, along with the dignitaries around her, came to the conviction of the need to transfer the management of church property to secular hands. Peter III ordered that Elizabeth's instructions be fulfilled and the management of church property be transferred to the board of economy. Inventories of monastery property were carried out extremely crudely under Peter III. When Catherine II ascended the throne, the bishops filed complaints with her and asked for the return of control of church property to them. She, on the advice of Bestuzhev-Ryumin, satisfied their desire, abolished the board of economy, but did not abandon her intention, but only postponed its execution; She then ordered that the 1757 commission resume its studies. It was ordered to make new inventories of monastery and church property, but the clergy were dissatisfied with the new inventories; The Rostov Metropolitan Arseny Matseevich especially rebelled against them. In his report to the Synod, he expressed himself harshly, arbitrarily interpreting church historical facts, even distorting them, and making comparisons offensive to Catherine. The Synod presented the case to the Empress in the hope that Catherine would show her usual gentleness this time; the hope was not justified: Arseny's report caused such irritation in Catherine that they had not noticed in her either before or since. She could not forgive Arseny for comparing her with Julian and Judas and the desire to make her out to be a violator of her word. Arseny was sentenced to exile to the Arkhangelsk diocese, to the Nikolaev Korelsky Monastery, and then, as a result of new accusations, to deprivation of the monastic dignity and lifelong imprisonment in Revel.

The following incident from the beginning of her reign is characteristic of Catherine. The matter of allowing Jews to enter Russia was reported. The new empress said that to begin her reign with a decree on the free entry of Jews would be a bad way to calm minds; It is impossible to recognize entry as harmful. Then Senator Prince Odoevsky suggested looking at what Empress Elizabeth wrote in the margins of the same report. Catherine demanded a report and read: “I do not want selfish profit from the enemies of Christ.” Turning to the prosecutor general, she said: “I wish this case to be postponed.”

2. Main years of the reign

The increase in the number of serfs through huge distributions to the favorites and dignitaries of the populated estates, the establishment of serfdom in Little Russia completely remains a dark stain on the memory of the empress. One should not, however, lose sight of the fact that the underdevelopment of Russian society at that time was evident at every step. So, when Catherine decided to abolish the torture and proposed this measure to the Senate, the senators expressed fear that if the torture was abolished, no one, going to bed, would be sure whether he was alive when he got up in the morning. Therefore, Catherine, without publicly abolishing torture, sent out a secret order that in cases where torture was used, judges would base their actions on the tenth chapter of the Order, in which torture was condemned as a cruel and extremely stupid matter. At the beginning of the reign of Empress Catherine, an attempt was renewed to create an institution reminiscent of the Supreme Privy Council or the Cabinet that replaced it, in a new form, under the name of the permanent council of the empress. The author of the project was Count Panin. Feldzeichmeister General Vilboa wrote to the Empress: “I do not know who the drafter of this project is, but it seems to me as if, under the guise of protecting the monarchy, he is subtly leaning more towards aristocratic rule.” Vilboa was right; but Catherine herself understood the oligarchic nature of the project. She signed it, but kept it under wraps and it was never made public. Thus, Panin’s idea of ​​a council of six permanent members remained just a dream; The empress's private council always consisted of rotating members. Knowing how the transition of Peter III to the side of Prussia irritated public opinion, Catherine ordered Russian generals to maintain neutrality and thereby contributed to ending the war.

The internal affairs of the state required special attention: what was most striking was the lack of justice. Catherine expressed herself energetically on this matter: “extortion has increased to such an extent that there is hardly the smallest place in the government in which a trial could be conducted without being infected by this ulcer; is anyone looking for a place - pay; whether someone defends himself against slander - defends himself with money; Whether anyone slanderes anyone, he backs up all his cunning machinations with gifts.” The Empress was especially amazed when she learned that within the current Novgorod province they were taking money from peasants for swearing allegiance to her. This state of justice forced Catherine to convene a commission in 1766 to publish the Code. The Empress handed over the Order to this commission, which was to guide it in drawing up the Code. The order was drawn up based on the ideas of Montesquieu and Beccaria. Polish affairs, the first Turkish war that arose from them, and internal unrest suspended Catherine’s legislative activity until 1775.

Polish affairs caused the divisions and fall of Poland: according to the first partition of 1773, Russia received the current provinces of Mogilev, Vitebsk, part of Minsk, that is, most of Belarus. The first Turkish war began in 1768 and ended in peace in Kucuk-Kaynarji, which was ratified in 1775. According to this peace, the Porte recognized the independence of the Crimean and Budzhak Tatars; ceded Azov, Kerch, Yenikale and Kinburn to Russia; opened free passage for Russian ships from the Black Sea to the Mediterranean; granted forgiveness to Christians who took part in the war; allowed Russia's petition in Moldovan cases.

During the first Turkish war, a plague raged in Moscow, causing a plague riot; in the east of Russia an even more dangerous rebellion broke out, known as the Pugachevshchina. In 1770, the plague from the army entered Little Russia; in the spring of 1771 she appeared in Moscow; Commander-in-Chief Count Saltykov left the city to the mercy of fate. Retired General Eropkin voluntarily took upon himself the difficult responsibility of maintaining order and easing the plague through preventive measures. The townsfolk did not follow his instructions and not only did not burn the clothes and linen of those who died of the plague, but they hid their very death and buried them in the outskirts. The plague intensified: in the early summer of 1771, 400 people died every day. The people crowded in horror at the Barbarian Gate in front of the miraculous icon. The infection from crowding of people, of course, intensified. The then Moscow Archbishop Ambrose, an enlightened man, ordered the icon to be removed. A rumor immediately spread that the bishop, together with the doctors, had conspired to kill the people. The ignorant and fanatical crowd, mad with fear, killed the worthy archpastor. Rumors spread that the rebels were preparing to set fire to Moscow and exterminate doctors and nobles. Eropkin, with several companies, however, managed to restore calm. In the last days of September, Count Grigory Orlov, then the closest person to Catherine, arrived in Moscow, but at this time the plague was already weakening and stopped in October. This plague killed 130,000 people in Moscow alone.

The Pugachev rebellion was raised by the Yaik Cossacks, dissatisfied with the changes in their Cossack life. In 1773, the Don Cossack Emelyan Pugachev took the name of Peter III and raised the banner of rebellion. Catherine entrusted the pacification of the rebellion to Bibikov, who immediately understood the essence of the matter; It’s not Pugachev that’s important, he said, it’s the general displeasure that’s important. The Yaik Cossacks and the rebellious peasants were joined by the Bashkirs, Kalmyks, and Kyrgyz. Bibikov, giving orders from Kazan, moved detachments from all sides to more dangerous places; Prince Golitsyn liberated Orenburg, Mikhelson - Ufa, Mansurov - Yaitsky town. At the beginning of 1774, the rebellion began to subside, but Bibikov died of exhaustion and the rebellion flared up again: Pugachev captured Kazan and moved to the right bank of the Volga. Bibikov's place was taken by Count P. Panin, but did not replace him. Mikhelson defeated Pugachev near Arzamas and blocked his path to Moscow. Pugachev rushed to the South, took Penza, Petrovsk, Saratov and hanged nobles everywhere. From Saratov he moved to Tsaritsyn, but was repulsed and at Black Yar was again defeated by Mikhelson. When Suvorov arrived to the army, the impostor barely held on and was soon betrayed by his accomplices. In January 1775, Pugachev was executed in Moscow.

Since 1775, the legislative activity of Catherine II resumed, which, however, had not stopped before. Thus, in 1768, the commercial and noble banks were abolished and the so-called assignation, or change, bank was established. In 1775, the existence of the Zaporozhye Sich, which was already tending to fall, was terminated. In the same 1775, the transformation of provincial government began. An institution was published for the management of provinces, which was introduced for twenty whole years: in 1775 it began with the Tver province and ended in 1796 with the establishment of the Vilna province. Thus, the reform of provincial government, begun by Peter the Great, was brought out of a chaotic state by Catherine and completed by her. In 1776, she commanded the word in petitions slave replace with a word loyal subject .

By the end of the first Turkish war, Potemkin, who strived for great things, became especially important. Together with his collaborator Bezborodko, he compiled a project known as the Greek one. The grandeur of this project - after destroying the Ottoman Porte, restoring the Greek Empire, placing Konstantin Pavlovich on the throne - pleased Catherine. An opponent of Potemkin's influence and plans, Count N. Panin, tutor of Tsarevich Paul and president of the College of Foreign Affairs, in order to distract the Empress from the Greek project, presented her with a project of armed neutrality in 1780. Armed neutrality was intended to protect the trade of neutral states during the war and was directed against England, which was unfavorable for Potemkin’s plans. Pursuing his broad and useless plan for Russia, Potemkin prepared an extremely useful and necessary thing for Russia - the annexation of Crimea.

In Crimea, since the recognition of its independence, two parties were worried - Russian and Turkish. Their struggle gave rise to the occupation of Crimea and the Kuban region. The Manifesto of 1783 announced the annexation of Crimea and the Kuban region to Russia. The last Khan Shagin-Girey was sent to Voronezh; Crimea was renamed the Tauride province; Crimean raids stopped. It is believed that as a result of the raids of the Crimeans, Great and Little Russia and part of Poland from the 15th century. before 1783, it lost from three to four million of its population: captives were turned into slaves, captives filled harems or became, like slaves, in the ranks of female servants. In Constantinople, the Mamelukes had Russian nurses and nannies. In the XVI, XVII and even in the XVIII centuries. Venice and France used shackled Russian slaves purchased in the markets of the Levant as galley laborers. Pious Louis XIV I tried only to ensure that these slaves did not remain schismatics. The annexation of Crimea put an end to the shameful trade in Russian slaves. Following this, Irakli II, the king of Georgia, recognized the protectorate of Russia.

The year 1785 was marked by two important legislative acts: the Charter of the nobility and the city regulations. The charter on public schools of August 15, 1786 was implemented only on a small scale. Projects to found universities in Pskov, Chernigov, Penza and Yekaterinoslavl were postponed. In 1783 it was founded Russian Academy for studying native language. The founding of the institutions marked the beginning of women's education. Orphanages were established, smallpox vaccination was introduced, and the Pallas expedition was equipped to study the remote outskirts.

Potemkin's enemies interpreted, not understanding the importance of acquiring Crimea, that Crimea and Novorossiya were not worth the money spent on their establishment. Then Catherine decided to explore the newly acquired region herself. Accompanied by the Austrian, English and French ambassadors, with a huge retinue, in 1787 she set off on a journey. The Archbishop of Mogilev, Georgy Konissky, met her in Mstislav with a speech that was famous by her contemporaries as an example of eloquence. The entire character of the speech is determined by its beginning: “Let us leave it to the astronomers to prove that the earth revolves around the sun: our sun moves around us.” In Kanev, Stanislav Poniatovsky, King of Poland, met the Russian Empress; near Keidan - Austrian Emperor Joseph II. He and Ekaterina laid the first stone of Ekaterinoslav, visited Kherson and examined what Potemkin had just created Black Sea Fleet. During the journey, Joseph noticed the theatricality in the situation, saw how people were hastily herded into villages that were supposedly under construction; but in Kherson he saw the real deal - and gave justice to Potemkin.

3 . The last years of the Empress's reign

The Second Turkish War under Catherine II was fought in alliance with Joseph II, from 1787 to 1791. In 1791, on December 29, peace was concluded in Iasi. For all the victories, Russia received only Ochakov and the steppe between the Bug and the Dnieper. At the same time, there was, with varying happiness, a war with Sweden, declared by Gustav III in 1789. It ended on August 3, 1790 with the Peace of Werel.

During the second Turkish war, a coup took place in Poland: on May 3, 1791, a new constitution was promulgated, which led to the second partition of Poland in 1793, and then to the third in 1795. Under the second partition, Russia received the rest of the Minsk province, Volyn and Podolia, and the third - Grodno Voivodeship and Courland. In 1796, in the last year of Catherine's reign, Count Valerian Zubov, appointed commander-in-chief in the campaign against Persia, conquered Derbent and Baku; his successes were stopped by the death of the empress. The last years of the reign of Catherine II were darkened, from 1790, by a reactionary direction. Then the French Revolution broke out, and the pan-European, Jesuit-oligarchic reaction entered into an alliance with our reaction at home. Her agent and instrument was Catherine’s last favorite, Prince Platon Zubov, together with his brother, Count Valerian. European reaction wanted to drag Russia into the struggle with revolutionary France - a struggle alien to the direct interests of Russia. Catherine spoke kind words to the representatives of the reaction and did not give up a single soldier. Then the undermining of her throne intensified: accusations were renewed that she was illegally occupying the throne belonging to Pavel Petrovich. There is reason to believe that in 1790 an attempt was being made to elevate Pavel Petrovich to the throne. This attempt was probably connected with the expulsion of Prince Frederick of Württemberg from St. Petersburg. The reaction at home then accused the empress of allegedly being excessively free-thinking. The basis for the accusation was, among other things, permission to translate Voltaire and participation in the translation of “Belisarius,” Marmontel’s story, which was found anti-religious, because it did not indicate the difference between Christian and pagan virtue.

Catherine grew old, there was almost no trace of her former courage and energy - and so, under such circumstances, in 1790 Radishchev’s book “Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow” appeared with a project for the liberation of the peasants, as if written out from the published articles of her Order. The unfortunate Radishchev was punished by exile to Siberia. Perhaps this cruelty was the result of the fear that the exclusion of articles on the emancipation of peasants from the Order would be considered hypocrisy on the part of Catherine. In 1792, Novikov, who had served so much in Russian education, was imprisoned in Shlisselburg. The secret motive for this measure was Novikov’s relationship with Pavel Petrovich. In 1793, Knyazhnin suffered cruelly for his tragedy “Vadim”. In 1795, even Derzhavin was suspected of being a revolutionary for his transcription of eighty-one psalms, entitled “To Rulers and Judges.”

In 1795, the first agreement was concluded between England and Russia to send troops to France. Russia was supposed to field a 60,000-strong army led by Suvorov, and England provided the financial means to wage the war. However, on November 6, 1796, Empress Catherine died, and the campaign did not take place.

Conclusion

Thus ended the educational reign of Catherine the Great, which had raised the national spirit.

The domestic policy of Catherine II was contradictory. Conducted in the interests of the noble landowners - the support of the autocratic monarchy, it could not but cause protest from the population.

During the reign of Catherine II, two contradictory processes were observed in the socio-economic development of the country. On the one hand, the development of new forms of economy based on wage labor and market relations increased. On the other hand, the preservation of the serfdom system placed a heavy burden on the country's economy, especially on the peasant economy. Hence the contradictory nature of the results economic development. High results were only where the influence of serfdom was less. All this testified to the need to change the very foundations of the dominant feudal-serf system.

The foreign policy of Catherine the Great led to significant growth of Russian territories. It included Right Bank Ukraine and Belarus, the southern Baltic states, the Northern Black Sea region, and many new territories on Far East and in North America. Residents of the Greek islands swore allegiance to the Russian Empress and North Caucasus. Russia's population increased from 22 million to 36 million people. Another important result of Catherine II’s foreign policy was the beginning of Russia’s transformation from a great European power to a great world power. The Russian fleet sailed the expanses of the Mediterranean Sea, the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans, supporting by the force of his guns foreign policy Russia in Europe, Asia and America.

However, the greatness of Russia cost its people a colossal effort and enormous material and human losses.

Bibliography

1. Danilov A. A., Kosulina L. G. HISTORY OF RUSSIA.

2. The end of the 16th – 18th centuries. Moscow, 2004

3. Shalaeva G.P. Kashinskaya L.V. Kolyadich T.M. Sitnikov V.P. ALL ABOUT EVERYONE. Moscow, 1997

4. encyclopedic Dictionary. Ed. Brockhaus and Efron vol. XI “B”, St. Petersburg, 1894