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Microcosm structures

Previously, elementary particles were called particles that are part of the atom and are not decomposable into more elementary components, namely electrons and nuclei.

Later it was found that the nuclei are composed of simpler particles - nucleons (protons and neutrons), which in turn are composed of other particles. therefore elementary particles began to consider the smallest particles of matter , excluding atoms and their nuclei .

To date, hundreds of elementary particles have been discovered, which requires their classification:

- by type of interaction

- by the times of life

- the largest back

Elementary particles are divided into the following groups:

Composite and fundamental (structureless) particles

Compound particles

Hadrons (heavy) - particles participating in all kinds of fundamental interactions. They consist of quarks and are subdivided, in turn, into: mesons - hadrons with integer spin, that is, they are bosons; baryons - hadrons with half-integer spin, that is, fermions. These include, in particular, the particles that make up the nucleus of the atom - the proton and the neutron, i.e. nucleons.

Fundamental (structureless) particles

Leptons (lungs) - fermions, which have the form of point particles (ie, not consisting of anything) up to scales of the order of 10 - 18 m. They do not participate in strong interactions. Participation in electromagnetic interactions was experimentally observed only for charged leptons (electrons, muons, tau leptons) and was not observed for neutrinos.

Quarks - fractionally charged particles that make up hadrons. Not observed in a free state.

Gauge bosons - particles through the exchange of which interactions are carried out:

- photon - a particle that carries electromagnetic interaction;

- eight gluons - particles that carry strong interaction;

- three intermediate vector bosons W + , W - and Z 0, carrying weak interaction;

- graviton is a hypothetical particle that carries gravitational interaction. The existence of gravitons, although not yet proven experimentally due to the weakness of the gravitational interaction, is considered quite probable; however, the graviton is not part of the Standard Model of elementary particles.

According to modern concepts, fundamental particles (or "truly" elementary particles) that do not have an internal structure and finite size include:

Quarks and leptons

Particles that provide fundamental interactions: gravitons, photons, vector bosons, gluons.

Classification of elementary particles by lifetimes:

- stable: particles whose lifetime is very long (tends to infinity in the limit). These include electrons , protons , neutrino ... Neutrons are also stable inside nuclei, but they are unstable outside the nucleus

- unstable (quasi-stable): elementary particles are those particles that decay due to electromagnetic and weak interactions, and whose lifetime is more than 10–20 sec. These particles include free neutron (i.e. a neutron outside the nucleus of an atom)

- resonances (unstable, short-lived). Resonances include elementary particles that decay due to strong interaction. The life time for them is less than 10 -20 sec.

Particle classification by participation in interactions:

- leptons : neutrons are among them. All of them do not participate in the vortex of intranuclear interactions, i.e. not subject to strong interaction. They participate in weak interaction, and having an electric charge, they also participate in electromagnetic interaction.

- hadrons : particles that exist inside an atomic nucleus and participate in strong interactions. The most famous of them are proton and neutron .

Today known six leptons :

The same family with an electron includes muons and tau particles, which are similar to an electron, but more massive than it. Muons and tau particles are unstable and eventually decay into several other particles, including an electron

Three electrically neutral particles with zero (or close to zero, scientists have not yet decided on this) mass, called neutrino ... Each of the three neutrinos (electron neutrino, muon neutrino, tau neutrino) is paired with one of the three types of particles of the electronic family.

The most famous hadrons , protons and neutrinos, there are hundreds of relatives, which are born in a multitude and immediately decay in the process of various nuclear reactions. With the exception of the proton, they are all unstable, and they can be classified according to the composition of the particles into which they decay:

If there is a proton among the final products of particle decay, then it is called baryon

If there is no proton among the decay products, then the particle is called meson .

The confused picture of the subatomic world, which became more complicated with the discovery of each new hadron, gave way to a new picture, with the advent of the concept of quarks. According to the quark model, all hadrons (but not leptons) are composed of even more elementary particles - quarks. So baryons (in particular the proton) consist of three quarks, and mesons - from a pair of quark - antiquark.

ON THE UNDERSTANDING OF THE MOTION OF MATTER, THE ABILITY OF ITS ABILITY TO SELF-DEVELOPMENT, AND ALSO THE CONNECTION AND INTERACTION OF MATERIAL OBJECTS IN MODERN NATURE

Tsyupka V.P.

Federal State Autonomous educational institution higher professional education "Belgorod State National Research University" (NRU "BelGU")

1. Movement of matter

"An integral property of matter is motion" 1, which is a form of existence of matter and manifests itself in any of its changes. From the non-creation and indestructibility of matter and its attributes, including motion, it follows that the motion of matter exists eternally and infinitely diverse in the form of its manifestations.

The existence of any material object is manifested in its movement, that is, in any change that occurs with it. In the course of a change, some properties of a material object always change. Since the totality of all the properties of a material object, which characterizes its certainty, individuality, and peculiarity at a particular moment in time, corresponds to its state, it turns out that the movement of a material object is accompanied by a change in its states. Changing properties can go so far that one material object can become another material object. “But never a material object can turn into a property” (for example, mass, energy), and “a property - into a material object” 2, because only moving matter can be a changing substance. In natural science, the movement of matter is also called a phenomenon of nature ( natural phenomenon).

It is known that "without motion there is no matter" 3 as well as without matter there can be no motion.

The movement of matter can be quantified. The universal quantitative measure of the movement of matter, like any material object, is energy, which expresses the intrinsic activity of matter and any material object. Hence, energy is one of the properties of moving matter, and energy cannot be outside matter, apart from it. Energy is in equivalent relationship with mass. Consequently, mass can characterize not only the amount of a substance, but also the degree of its activity. From the fact that the movement of matter exists eternally and is infinitely diverse in the form of its manifestations, it inexorably follows that the energy that characterizes the movement of matter quantitatively also exists eternally (uncreate and indestructible) and is infinitely diverse in the form of its manifestations. “Thus, energy never disappears and does not appear again, it only transforms from one type to another” 1 in accordance with the change in the types of motion.

Various types (forms) of motion of matter are observed. They can be classified taking into account changes in the properties of material objects and the characteristics of their impact on each other.

The movement of the physical vacuum (free fundamental fields in the normal state) is reduced to the fact that it all the time slightly deviates in different sides from its balance, as if "trembling". As a result of such spontaneous low-energy excitations (deviations, disturbances, fluctuations), virtual particles are formed, which immediately dissolve in a physical vacuum. This is the lowest (basic) energy state of a moving physical vacuum, its energy is close to zero. But the physical vacuum can for some time in some place go into an excited state, characterized by a certain excess of energy. With such significant, high-energy excitations (deviations, perturbations, fluctuations) of the physical vacuum, virtual particles can complete their appearance and then real fundamental particles of different types break out from the physical vacuum, and, as a rule, in pairs (having an electric charge in the form of a particle and an antiparticle with electric charges of opposite signs, for example, in the form of an electron-positron pair).

Fundamental particles are single quantum excitations of various free fundamental fields.

Fermionic (spinor) fundamental fields can generate 24 fermions (6 quarks and 6 antiquarks, as well as 6 leptons and 6 antileptons), which are divided into three generations (families). In the first generation, up and down quarks (and antiquarks), as well as leptons, an electron and an electron neutrino (and a positron with an electron antineutrino), form ordinary matter (and rarely detectable antimatter). In the second generation, charmed and strange quarks (and antiquarks) and leptons muons and muonic neutrinos (and anti-muons with muonic antineutrinos) have higher mass (higher gravitational charge). In the third generation, the true and charming quarks (and antiquarks), as well as the taon leptons and the taon neutrino (and the antitaon with the taon antineutrino). Fermions of the second and third generations do not participate in the formation of ordinary matter, are unstable and decay to form fermions of the first generation.

Bosonic (gauge) fundamental fields can generate 18 types of bosons: gravitational field - gravitons, electromagnetic field - photons, weak interaction field - 3 types of "vions" 1, gluon field - 8 types of gluons, Higgs field - 5 types of Higgs bosons.

The physical vacuum in a sufficiently high-energy (excited) state is capable of generating many fundamental particles with significant energy in the form of a mini-universe.

For the substance of the microworld, movement is reduced:

to the spread, collision and transformation of elementary particles into each other;

the formation of atomic nuclei from protons and neutrons, their movement, collision and change;

the formation of atoms from atomic nuclei and electrons, their movement, collision and change, including with the jumping of electrons from one atomic orbital to another and their separation from atoms, the addition of extra electrons;

the formation of molecules from atoms, their movement, collision and change, including with the addition of new atoms, the release of atoms, the replacement of some atoms with others, a change in the order of arrangement of atoms relative to each other in a molecule.

For the substance of the macrocosm and megaworld, movement is reduced to displacement, collision, deformation, destruction, unification of various bodies, as well as to their most diverse changes.

If the movement of a material object (quantized field or material object) is accompanied by a change only in its physical properties, for example, frequency or wavelength for a quantized field, instantaneous velocity, temperature, electric charge for a material object, then such movement is referred to as a physical form. If the movement of a material object is accompanied by a change in its chemical properties, for example, solubility, flammability, acidity, then such a movement is attributed to the chemical form. If the movement concerns the change of objects of the megaworld (space objects), then such a movement is referred to as astronomical form. If the movement touches the change in the objects of the deep earth shells (the earth's interior), then such a movement is referred to as a geological form. If the movement concerns a change in the objects of the geographic envelope that unites all the surface earth envelopes, then such a movement is referred to as a geographic form. The movement of living bodies and their systems in the form of their all kinds of life manifestations is referred to a biological form. The movement of material objects, accompanied by a change in social significant properties with the obligatory participation of humans, for example, the extraction of iron ore and the production of iron and steel, the cultivation of sugar beets and the production of sugar, are referred to as a socially conditioned form of movement.

The movement of any material object can not always be attributed to any one form. It is complex and diverse. Even the physical motion inherent in material objects from quantized fields to bodies can include several forms. For example, elastic collision (collision) of two solids in the form of billiard balls includes the change in the position of the balls over time relative to each other and the table, and the rotation of the balls, and the friction of the balls against the surface of the table and air, and the movement of particles of each ball, and the practically reversible change in the shape of the balls during elastic collision, and the exchange of kinetic energy with its partial transformation into the internal energy of the balls during elastic collision, and the transfer of heat between the balls, air and the surface of the table, and the possible radioactive decay of nuclei of unstable isotopes contained in the balls, and the penetration of cosmic ray neutrinos through the balls, etc. matter and the emergence of chemical, astronomical, geological, geographical, biological and socially conditioned material objects, the forms of motion become more complex, becoming more and more diverse. Thus, in chemical movement one can see both physical forms of movement and qualitatively new, not reducible to physical, chemical forms. In the movement of astronomical, geological, geographic, biological and socially determined objects, one can see both physical and chemical forms of movement, as well as qualitatively new, not reducible to physical and chemical, respectively astronomical, geological, geographical, biological or socially conditioned forms of movement. At the same time, the lower forms of motion of matter do not differ for material objects of varying degrees of complexity. For example, the physical movement of elementary particles, atomic nuclei and atoms does not differ in astronomical, geological, geographical, biological or socially conditioned material objects.

In studying complex forms of movement, two extremes should be avoided. First, the study of a complex form of movement cannot be reduced to simple forms movement, a complex form of movement cannot be derived from simple ones. For example, biological movement cannot be derived only from physical and chemical forms of movement, while ignoring the biological forms of movement themselves. And secondly, one cannot limit oneself to studying only complex forms of movement, ignoring simple ones. For example, the study of biological movement complements well the study of the physical and chemical forms of movement that manifest themselves.

2. The ability of matter to self-development

As you know, the self-development of matter, and matter is capable of self-development, is characterized by a spontaneous, directed and irreversible step-by-step complication of the forms of moving matter.

The spontaneous self-development of matter means that the process of gradual complication of the forms of moving matter occurs by itself, in a natural way, without the participation of any unnatural or supernatural forces, the Creator, due to internal, natural reasons.

The direction of self-development of matter means a kind of canalization of the process of the gradual complication of the forms of moving matter from one of its forms that existed earlier to another form that appeared later: for any new form of moving matter, you can find the previous form of moving matter that gave it a start, and vice versa, for any previous form of moving matter, you can find a new form of moving matter that has arisen from it. Moreover, the always preceding form of moving matter existed before the new form of moving matter arising from it, the previous form is always older than the new form that emerged from it. Due to the canalization of the self-development of moving matter, a kind of series of gradual complication of its forms appears, showing in which direction, as well as through which intermediate (transitional) forms the historical development of this or that form of moving matter went.

The irreversibility of the self-development of matter means that the process of gradual complication of the forms of moving matter cannot go in the opposite direction, backward: a new form of moving matter cannot give rise to the previous form of moving matter from which it arose, but it can become a previous form for new forms. And if suddenly any new form of moving matter turns out to be very similar to one of the forms that preceded it, this will not mean that the moving matter began to self-develop in the opposite direction: the previous form of moving matter appeared much earlier, and a new form of moving matter, even and very similar to it, appeared much later and is, although similar, but a fundamentally different form of moving matter.

3. Communication and interaction of material objects

The inalienable properties of matter are communication and interaction, which are the cause of its movement. Since communication and interaction are the cause of the movement of matter, therefore, communication and interaction, like movement, are universal, that is, they are inherent in all material objects, regardless of their nature, origin and complexity. All phenomena in the material world are determined (in the sense, conditioned) by natural material connections and interactions, as well as by the objective laws of nature, reflecting the laws of communication and interaction. "In this sense, there is nothing supernatural and absolutely opposed to matter in the world." 1 Interaction, like motion, is a form of being (existence) of matter.

The existence of all material objects is manifested in interaction. For any material “object, to exist means to somehow manifest oneself in relation to other material objects, interacting with them, being in objective connections and relations with them. If a hypothetical material "object, which would not manifest itself in relation to some other material objects, would not be connected with them, would not interact with them, then it" would not exist for these other material objects. "But our assumption about him also could not be based on anything, since due to the lack of interaction, we would have zero information about him." 2

Interaction is a process of mutual influence of some material objects on others with the exchange of energy. The interaction of material objects can be direct, for example, in the form of a collision (collision) of two rigid bodies. Or it can happen at a distance. In this case, the interaction of material objects is provided by the associated bosonic (gauge) fundamental fields. A change in one material object causes excitation (deviation, perturbation, fluctuation) of the corresponding bosonic (gauge) fundamental field associated with it, and this excitation propagates in the form of a wave with a finite velocity not exceeding the speed of propagation of light in vacuum (nearly 300 thousand km / from). The interaction of material objects at a distance according to the quantum-field mechanism of the transfer of interaction is of an exchange nature, since the carrier particles transfer the interaction in the form of quanta of the corresponding bosonic (gauge) fundamental field. Different bosons as particles-carriers of interaction are excitations (deviations, perturbations, fluctuations) of the corresponding bosonic (gauge) fundamental fields: during emission and absorption by a material object, they are real, and during propagation, they are virtual.

It turns out that in any case, the interaction of material objects, even at a distance, is short-range, since it is carried out without any breaks, voids.

The interaction of a particle with an antiparticle of a substance is accompanied by their annihilation, i.e., their transformation into the corresponding fermionic (spinor) fundamental field. Moreover, their mass ( gravitational energy) turns into the energy of the corresponding fermionic (spinor) fundamental field.

Virtual particles of an excited (deviating, disturbing, "trembling") physical vacuum can interact with real particles, as if enveloping them, accompanying them in the form of the so-called quantum foam. For example, as a result of the interaction of the electrons of an atom with virtual particles of the physical vacuum, a certain shift of their energy levels in atoms occurs, while the electrons themselves perform oscillatory movements with a small amplitude.

There are four types of fundamental interactions: gravitational, electromagnetic, weak and strong.

"The gravitational interaction is manifested in the mutual attraction ... of material objects having a rest mass" 1, that is, material objects, at any large distances. It is assumed that the excited physical vacuum, which generates a lot of fundamental particles, is capable of manifesting gravitational repulsion. The gravitational interaction is carried by the gravitons of the gravitational field. The gravitational field connects bodies and particles with rest mass. For the propagation of the gravitational field in the form of gravitational waves (virtual gravitons), no medium is required. The gravitational interaction is the weakest in its strength, therefore it is insignificant in the microcosm due to the insignificance of the particle masses, in the macrocosm its manifestation is noticeable and it causes, for example, the fall of bodies to the Earth, and in the megaworld it plays a leading role due to the huge masses of the bodies of the megaworld and it provides, for example, the rotation of the moon and artificial satellites around the Earth; the formation and movement of planets, planetoids, comets and other bodies in Solar system and its integrity; the formation and movement of stars in galaxies - giant stellar systems, including up to hundreds of billions of stars, connected by mutual gravitation and common origin, as well as their integrity; the integrity of galaxy clusters - systems of relatively closely spaced galaxies bound by gravitational forces; the integrity of the Metagalaxy - the system of all known clusters of galaxies connected by the forces of gravity, as the studied part of the Universe, the integrity of the entire Universe. The gravitational interaction determines the concentration of matter scattered in the Universe and its inclusion in new development cycles.

"Electromagnetic interaction is caused by electric charges and is transmitted" 1 by photons electro magnetic field over any great distance. The electromagnetic field connects bodies and particles that have electric charges. Moreover, stationary electric charges are connected only by the electric component of the electromagnetic field in the form electric field, and mobile electric charges are connected by both the electric and magnetic components of the electromagnetic field. For the propagation of an electromagnetic field in the form of electromagnetic waves, an additional medium is not required, since "a changing magnetic field generates an alternating electric field, which, in turn, is a source of an alternating magnetic field" 2. “Electromagnetic interaction can manifest itself both as attraction (between opposite charges), and as repulsion (between” 3 like charges). The electromagnetic interaction is much stronger than the gravitational one. It manifests itself both in the microcosm, and in the macrocosm and megaworld, but the leading role belongs to it in the macrocosm. Electromagnetic interaction provides the interaction of electrons with nuclei. Interatomic and intermolecular interaction is electromagnetic, thanks to it, for example, molecules exist and the chemical form of motion of matter is carried out, bodies exist and their aggregate states, elasticity, friction, surface tension of the liquid, vision functions. Thus, electromagnetic interaction ensures the stability of atoms, molecules and macroscopic bodies.

Elementary particles with rest mass participate in weak interaction; it is carried by "vions" of 4 gauge fields. Weak interaction fields bind various elementary particles with rest mass. Weak interaction is much weaker than electromagnetic, but stronger than gravitational. Because of its short-range action, it manifests itself only in the microworld, causing, for example, most of the self-decay of elementary particles (for example, a free neutron self-decays with the participation of a negatively charged gauge boson into a proton, an electron and an electron antineutrino, sometimes a photon is also formed in this case), the interaction of a neutrino with the rest of the substance.

Strong interaction manifests itself in the mutual attraction of hadrons, which include quark structures, for example, two-quark mesons and three-quark nucleons. It is transmitted by the gluons of the gluon fields. The gluon fields bind the hadrons. This is the strongest interaction, but due to its short-range action, it manifests itself only in the microworld, providing, for example, the bond of quarks in nucleons, the bond of nucleons in atomic nuclei, ensuring their stability. The strong interaction is 1000 times stronger than the electromagnetic one and does not allow the like charged protons united in the nucleus to scatter. Thermonuclear reactions, in which several nuclei combine into one, are also possible due to strong interactions. Natural fusion reactors are stars that create all chemical elements heavier than hydrogen. Heavy multi-nucleon nuclei become unstable and fission, since their sizes already exceed the distance at which strong interaction is manifested.

"As a result of experimental studies of the interactions of elementary particles ... it was found that at high collision energies of protons - about 100 GeV - ... weak and electromagnetic interactions do not differ - they can be considered as a single electroweak interaction." 1 It is assumed that "at an energy of 10 15 GeV, a strong interaction is added to them, and at" 2 "even" higher energies of particle interaction (up to 10 19 GeV) or at an extremely high temperature of matter, all four fundamental interactions are characterized by the same strength, i.e. represent one interaction "3 in the form of" superpower ". Perhaps such high-energy conditions were at the beginning of the development of the Universe, which emerged from the physical vacuum. In the process of further expansion of the Universe, accompanied by a rapid cooling of the formed matter, the integral interaction was first divided into electroweak, gravitational and strong, and then the electroweak interaction was divided into electromagnetic and weak, i.e., into four interactions fundamentally different from each other.

LIST OF REFERENCES:

Karpenkov, S. Kh. Basic concepts of natural science [Text]: textbook. manual for universities / S. Kh. Karpenkov. - 2nd ed., Rev. and add. - M.: Academic Project, 2002 .-- 368 p.

Concepts modern natural science [Text]: textbook. for universities / Ed. V.N. Lavrinenko, V.P. Ratnikova. - 3rd ed., Rev. and add. - M.: UNITY-DANA, 2005 .-- 317 p.

Philosophical problems of natural science [Text]: textbook. textbook for graduate students and students of philosophy. and natures. fac. un-tov / Ed. S. T. Melyukhina. - M.: Higher school, 1985 .-- 400 p.

Tsyupka, VP Natural science picture of the world: the concept of modern natural science [Text]: textbook. allowance / V.P. Tsyupka. - Belgorod: IPK NRU "BelGU", 2012. - 144 p.

Tsyupka, VP Concepts of modern physics that make up the modern physical picture of the world [ Electronic resource] // Scientific electronic archive Russian Academy Natural Sciences: correspondence course. electron. scientific. conf. "Concepts of Modern Natural Science or Natural Science Picture of the World" URL: http: // site / article / 6315 (posted: 31.10.2011)

Yandex. Dictionaries. [Electronic resource] URL: http://slovari.yandex.ru/

1Karpenkov S. Kh. Basic concepts of natural science. M. Academic Project. 2002.S. 60.

2Philosophical problems of natural science. M. High School. 1985.S. 181.

3Karpenkov S. Kh. Basic concepts of natural science ... P. 60.

1Karpenkov S. Kh. Basic concepts of natural science ... P. 79.

1Karpenkov S. Kh.

1Philosophical Problems of Natural Science ... P. 178.

2Ibid. P. 191.

1Karpenkov S. Kh. Basic concepts of natural science ... P. 67.

1Karpenkov S. Kh. Basic concepts of natural science ... P. 68.

3Philosophical Problems of Natural Science ... p. 195.

4Karpenkov S. Kh. Basic concepts of natural science ... P. 69.

1Karpenkov S. Kh. Basic concepts of natural science ... p. 70.

2Concepts of modern natural science. M. UNITY-DANA. 2005.S. 119.

3Karpenkov S. Kh. Basic concepts of natural science ... p. 71.

Tsyupka V.P. ON THE UNDERSTANDING OF MOTION OF MATTER, ITS ABILITY FOR SELF-DEVELOPMENT, AND ALSO CONNECTION AND INTERACTION OF MATERIAL OBJECTS IN MODERN NATURAL SCIENCE // Scientific Electronic Archive.
URL: (date of access: 17.03.2020).

Interesting article

Recently, physicists observing another experiment at the Large Hadron Collider have finally managed to find traces of the Higgs boson, or, as many journalists call it, a "divine particle". This means that the construction of the collider has fully justified itself - after all, it was made precisely in order to catch this elusive boson.

Physicists working at the Large Hadron Collider using the CMS detector for the first time recorded the creation of two Z-bosons - one of the types of events that may be evidence of the existence of a "heavy" version of the Higgs boson. To be more precise, on October 10, the CMS detector first detected the appearance of four muons. The preliminary results of the reconstruction allowed scientists to interpret this event as a candidate for the production of two neutral gauge Z-bosons.

I think now we should digress a little and talk about what these muons, bosons and other elementary particles are. According to the standard model of quantum mechanics, the entire world consists of various elementary particles, which, in contact with each other, generate all known types of mass and energy.

All matter, for example, consists of 12 fundamental fermion particles: 6 leptons, such as an electron, muon, tau lepton, and three types of neutrinos and 6 quarks (u, d, s, c, b, t), which can be combined in three generations of fermions. Fermions are particles that can be in a free state, but quarks are not, they are part of other particles, for example, the well-known protons and neutrons.
In this case, each of the particles participates in a certain type of interactions, of which, as we recall, there are only four: electromagnetic, weak (interaction of particles during β-decay of the nucleus of atoms), strong (it kind of holds atomic nucleus) and gravitational. The latter, the result of which is, for example, gravity, is not considered by the standard model, since the graviton (the particle that provides it) has not yet been found.

With the rest of the types, everything is simpler - physicists know "by sight" the particles that take part in them. So, for example, quarks participate in strong, weak and electromagnetic interactions; charged leptons (electron, muon, tau lepton) - in the weak and electromagnetic; neutrinos - only in weak interactions.

However, in addition to these "mass" particles, there are also so-called virtual particles, some of which (for example, a photon) have no mass at all. To be honest, virtual particles are more a mathematical phenomenon than a physical reality, since no one has ever "seen" them before. However, in different experiments, physicists can notice traces of their existence, since, alas, it is very short-lived.

What are these interesting particles? They are born only at the moment of some interaction (from those described above), after which they either decay or are absorbed by some of the fundamental particles. It is believed that they, as it were, "transfer" the interaction, that is, in contact with fundamental particles, they change their characteristics, due to which the interaction, in fact, occurs.

So, for example, in electromagnetic interactions, which are best studied, electrons constantly absorb and emit virtual massless particles, photons, as a result of which the properties of the electrons themselves change somewhat and they become capable of such feats as, for example, directional movement (that is, an electric current ), or "jump" to another energy level (as occurs during photosynthesis in plants). Virtual particles work in the same way for other types of interactions.

In addition to the photon, modern physics also knows two more types of virtual particles, called bosons and gluons. For us now bosons are especially interesting - it is believed that in all interactions, fundamental particles constantly exchange them and thereby influence each other. The bosons themselves are considered massless particles, although some experiments show that this is not entirely true - the W and Z bosons can gain mass for a short time.

One of the most mysterious bosons is the Higgs boson, to detect traces of which, in fact, the Large Hadron Collider was built. It is believed that this mysterious particle is one of the most abundant and important bosons in the universe.

Back in the 1960s, the English professor Peter Higgs proposed a hypothesis according to which all matter in the Universe was created by the interaction of various particles with a certain initial fundamental principle (resulting from the Big Bang), which was later named after him. He put forward the assumption that the Universe is permeated with an invisible field, passing through which some elementary particles "grow" with some bosons, thereby gaining mass, while others, for example photons, remain unburdened by weight.

Scientists are now considering two possibilities - the existence of "light" and "hard" options. A "light" Higgs with a mass of 135 to 200 gigaelectronvolts should decay into pairs of W bosons, and if the mass of a boson is 200 gigaelectronvolts or more, then into pairs of Z bosons, which, in turn, generate pairs of electrons or muons.

It turns out that the mysterious Higgs boson is, as it were, the "creator" of everything in the Universe. Maybe that's why nobel laureate Leon Lederman once called him "the particle-god". But in the media this statement was somewhat distorted, and it began to sound like a "particle of God" or "divine particle".

How can you get traces of the presence of a "particle-god"? It is believed that the Higgs boson can be formed during collisions of protons with neutrinos in the collider's accelerating ring. In this case, as we remember, it should immediately decay into a number of other particles (in particular, Z-bosons) that can be detected.

True, the detectors cannot detect the Z-bosons themselves because of the extremely short lifetime of these elementary particles (about 3 × 10-25 seconds), however, they can "catch" muons, into which the Z-bosons turn.

Let me remind you that a muon is an unstable elementary particle with a negative electric charge and spin ½. It does not occur in ordinary atoms; before that it was found only in cosmic rays, which have speeds close to the speed of light. The lifetime of a muon is very short - it exists for only 2.2 microseconds, and then decays into an electron, an electron antineutrino and a muonic neutrino.

Artificially, muons can be produced by colliding a proton and neutrino at high speeds. However, it was not possible to achieve such speeds for a long time. This was done only during the construction of the Large Hadron Collider.

And finally, the first results were obtained. During the experiment, which took place on October 10 this year, as a result of the collision of a proton with a neutrino, the birth of four muons was recorded. This proves that the appearance of two neutral gauge Z-bosons took place (they always appear in such events). This means that the existence of the Higgs boson is not a myth, but a reality.

True, scientists note that this event in itself does not necessarily indicate the birth of the Higgs boson, since other events can lead to the appearance of four muons. However, this is the first of this type of event that can ultimately produce a Higgs particle. In order to speak with confidence about the existence of the Higgs boson in a particular mass range, it is necessary to accumulate a significant number of such events and analyze how the masses of the particles being produced are distributed.

However, whatever you say, the first step towards proving the existence of a "particle-god" has already been taken. Perhaps further experiments can provide even more information about the mysterious Higgs boson. If scientists can finally "catch" it, then they will be able to recreate the conditions that existed 13 billion years ago after the Big Bang, that is, those under which our universe was born.

Leptons are not involved in strong interactions. electron. positron. muon. neutrino is a light neutral particle participating only in weak and gravitational interactions. neutrino (#flow). quarks. carriers of interactions: photon quantum of light ...

Request "Basic Research" is redirected here; see also other meanings. Fundamental science is a field of knowledge that implies theoretical and experimental scientific research of fundamental phenomena (including ... ... Wikipedia

The request "Atomic particles" is redirected here; see also other meanings. Elementary particle is a collective term referring to micro-objects on a subnuclear scale that cannot be split into their component parts. Must have in ... ... Wikipedia

Elementary particle is a collective term referring to micro-objects on a subnuclear scale that cannot be split (or until proven) into their component parts. Their structure and behavior is studied by elementary particle physics. Concept ... ... Wikipedia

electron - ▲ fundamental particle having, element, charge electron negatively charged elementary particle with an elementary electric charge. ↓ ... Ideographic Dictionary of the Russian Language

Elementary particle is a collective term referring to micro-objects on a subnuclear scale that cannot be split (or until proven) into their component parts. Their structure and behavior is studied by elementary particle physics. Concept ... ... Wikipedia

This term has other meanings, see Neutrino (disambiguation). electron neutrino muonic neutrino tau neutrino Symbol: νe νμ ντ Composition: Elementary particle Family: Fermions ... Wikipedia

The type of fundamental interactions (along with gravitational, weak and strong), which is characterized by the participation of an electromagnetic field (see Electromagnetic field) in interaction processes. Electromagnetic field (in quantum physics… … Great Soviet Encyclopedia

One of the most ambiguous philosophies. concepts to which one (or some) of the following meanings is attached: 1) that, the defining characteristics of which are length, place in space, mass, weight, movement, inertia, resistance, ... ... Philosophical Encyclopedia

Books

• The kinetic theory of gravity and the foundations of the unified theory of matter, V. Ya. Bril. All material objects of Nature (both material and field) are discrete. They consist of elementary string-shaped particles. An undeformed fundamental string is a field particle, ...