Linguistic encyclopedic dictionary. Lexicology as a branch of linguistics: object and subject of research, main issues of lexicology Lexicology as a branch of the science of language

Question 1

Lexicology as a science about the vocabulary of the modern Russian language. Sections of lexicology

Lexicology - from Greek. leksis, leksicos - word, expression; logos - teaching. This science examines the vocabulary (lexical) composition of a language in different aspects. Lexicology examines the vocabulary of a language (lexicon) from the point of view of what a word is, how and what it expresses, and how it changes. Phraseology is adjacent to lexicology, which is often included in lexicology as a special section.

Lexicology is divided into general, particular, historical and comparative. The first, called general lexicology in English, is a section general linguistics those who study the vocabulary of any language, that which relates to lexical universals. General lexicology deals with the general laws of the structure of the lexical system, issues of the functioning and development of the vocabulary of the world's languages.

Private lexicology studies the vocabulary of a particular language. Special lexicology deals with the study of issues related to the vocabulary of one language, in our case English. Thus, general lexicology can consider, for example, the principles of synonymous or antonymic relations in a language, while specific lexicology will deal with the specific features English synonyms or antonyms.

Both general and specific problems of vocabulary can be analyzed in various aspects. First of all, any phenomenon can be approached from a synchronic or diachronic point of view. The synchronic approach assumes that the characteristics of a word are considered within a certain period or one historical stage of their development. This study of vocabulary is also called descriptive lexicology. Diachronic, or historical, lexicology (historical lexicology) studies the historical development of the meanings and structure of words.

Comparative or contrastive lexicology deals with the comparison of lexical phenomena of one language with facts of another or other languages. The purpose of such studies is to trace the ways of intersection or divergence of lexical phenomena characteristic of the languages ​​selected for comparison.

Historical lexicology traces changes in the meanings (semantics) of a single word or an entire group of words, and also examines changes in the names of objects of reality (see below about etymology). Comparative lexicology reveals similarities and differences in the division of objective reality lexical means different languages. Both individual words and groups of words can be matched.

Main tasks lexicology are:

*)definition of a word as a meaningful unit vocabulary ;

*)characteristics of the lexical-semantic system, that is, identification of the internal organization of linguistic units and analysis of their connections (semantic structure of the word, specificity of distinctive semantic features, patterns of its relations with other words, etc.).

The subject of lexicology, as follows from the very name of this science, is the word.

Sections of lexicology:

Onomasiology - studies the vocabulary of a language, its nominative means, types of vocabulary units of a language, methods of nomination.

Semasiology - studies the meaning of vocabulary units of a language, types of lexical meanings, and the semantic structure of the lexeme.

Phraseology - studies phraseological units.

Onomastics is the science of proper names. Here we can distinguish the largest subsections: anthroponymy, which studies proper names, and toponymy, which studies geographical objects.

Etymology - studies the origin of individual words.

Lexicography deals with issues of compiling and studying dictionaries. It is also often called applied lexicology.

The concept of the term “modern Russian literary language”.

Traditionally, the Russian language has been modern since the time of A.S. Pushkin. It is necessary to distinguish between the concepts of the Russian national language and the literary Russian language. The national language is the language of the Russian people, it covers all areas speech activity of people. In contrast, literary language is a narrower concept. Literary language is the highest form of existence of language, an exemplary language. This is a strictly standardized form of the popular national language. Literary language is understood as a language processed by wordsmiths, scientists, and public figures.

Question 2

The word is the basic unit of language. Signs of a word. Definition of the word. Types of words. Functions of the word

The word is the basic structural-semantic unit of language, which serves to name objects and their properties, phenomena, relations of reality, and has a set of semantic, phonetic and grammatical features specific to each language. Characteristic signs words - integrity, separability and free reproducibility in speech.

Given the complexity of the multifaceted structure words, modern researchers, when characterizing it, use multidimensional analysis and point to the sum of a variety of linguistic features:

· phonetic (or phonemic) design and the presence of one main stress;

· lexical-semantic significance words, its separation and impermeability (impossibility of additional inserts inside words without changing its value);

· idiomaticity (otherwise - unpredictability, unmotivated naming or incomplete motivation);

· Attribution to one or another part of speech.

In modern lexicology of the Russian language, it seems quite motivated short definition, proposed by D. N. Shmelev: word- this is a unit of name, characterized by completeness (phonetic and grammatical) and idiomaticity.

There are several types of words. According to the method of nomination, four types of words are distinguished: independent, auxiliary, pronominal, interjections.

Words are distinguished phonetically: single-stressed, unstressed, multi-stressed, complex.

By morphological feature There are different words: changeable, unchangeable, simple, derivative, complex.

By motivation: unmotivated and motivated.

According to semantic and grammatical criteria, words are grouped into parts of speech.

From the point of view of structural integrity, a distinction is made between integral and divisible words.

Semantically, words differ between single-valued and polysemantic, absolute and relative, requiring addition and transitive verbs. In a sentence, a word enters into subtle semantic relationships with other words and elements of the sentence (intonation, word order, syntactic functions).

FUNCTIONS OF THE WORD

communicative function

nominative function

aesthetic function

language function

communication function

message function

impact function

INFLUENCE FUNCTION. Its implementation is a voluntary function, i.e. expression of the will of the speaker; the function is expressive, i.e. messages to expressiveness; the function is emotive, i.e. expression of feelings, emotions.

FUNCTION IS COMMUNICATIVE. The purpose of the word is to serve as a means of communication and message;

FUNCTION IS NOMINATIVE. The purpose of a word is to serve as the name of an object;

COMMUNICATION FUNCTION. The main function of language, one of the aspects of the communicative function, consists in the mutual exchange of statements by members of the language community.

MESSAGE FUNCTION. The other side of the communicative function, which consists in conveying some logical content;

FUNCTION IS AESTHETIC. The purpose of the word is to serve as a means of artistic expression;

FUNCTION OF THE LANGUAGE. Using the potential properties of language means in speech for various purposes.

Question 3

Lexical meaning of the word. Structure of lexical meaning

Lexical meaning - the correlation of the sound shell of a word with the corresponding objects or phenomena of objective reality. Lexical meaning does not include the entire set of features inherent in any object, phenomenon, action, etc., but only the most significant ones that help to distinguish one object from another. Lexical meaning reveals the characteristics by which general properties for a number of objects, actions, phenomena, and also establishes differences that highlight a given object, action, phenomenon. For example, the lexical meaning of the word giraffe is defined as follows: “an African artiodactyl ruminant with a very long neck and long legs,” that is, the characteristics that distinguish the giraffe from other animals are listed.

Question 4

Types of lexical meanings

A comparison of various words and their meanings allows us to identify several types of lexical meanings of words in the Russian language.

According to the method of nomination, direct and figurative meanings of words are distinguished.

*) The direct (or basic, main) meaning of a word is a meaning that directly correlates with the phenomena of objective reality. For example, the words table, black, boil have the following basic meanings, respectively:

1. “A piece of furniture in the form of a wide horizontal board on high supports or legs.”

2. "The color of soot, coal."

3. “Burgle, bubble, evaporate from strong heat” (about liquids).

These values ​​are stable, although they may change historically. For example, the word stol in the Old Russian language meant “throne”, “reign”, “capital”.

The direct meanings of words depend less than others on the context, on the nature of connections with other words. Therefore, they say that direct meanings have the greatest paradigmatic conditionality and the least syntagmatic coherence.

*) figurative (indirect) meanings of words arise as a result of transferring the name from one phenomenon of reality to another on the basis of similarity, commonality of their characteristics, functions, etc.

So, the word table has several figurative meanings:

1. “An item of special equipment or a part of a machine of a similar shape”: operating table, raise the machine table.

2. “Food, food”: rent a room with a table.

3. “A department in an institution in charge of some special range of affairs”: information desk.

The word black has the following figurative meanings:

1. “Dark, as opposed to something lighter called white”: brown bread.

2. “Taking a dark color, darkened”: black from tanning.

3. “Kurnoy” (full form only, obsolete): black hut.

4. “Gloomy, desolate, heavy”: black thoughts.

5. “Criminal, malicious”: black treason.

6. “Not main, auxiliary” (full form only): back door in the house.

7. “Physically difficult and unskilled” (long form only): menial work, etc.

The word boil has the following figurative meanings:

1. “Manifest to a strong degree”: work is in full swing.

2. “To show something with force, to a strong degree”: seethe with indignation.

As we see, indirect meanings appear in words that are not directly correlated with the concept, but are closer to it through various associations that are obvious to speakers.

Figurative meanings can retain imagery: black thoughts, black betrayal; seethe with indignation. Such figurative meanings are fixed in the language: they are given in dictionaries when interpreting a lexical unit. In their reproducibility and stability, figurative meanings differ from metaphors that are created by writers, poets, publicists and are of an individual nature.

However, in most cases, when transferring meanings, imagery is lost. For example, we do not perceive as figurative names such as the bend of a pipe, the spout of a teapot, the running of a clock, etc. In such cases, we speak of extinct imagery in the lexical meaning of the word, of dry metaphors.

Direct and figurative meanings are distinguished within one word.

According to the degree of semantic motivation, unmotivated meanings are distinguished (non-derivative, primary), which are not determined by the meaning of morphemes in the word; motivated (derivative, secondary), which are derived from the meanings of the generating stem and word-forming affixes. For example, the words table, build, white have unmotivated meanings. The words dining room, tabletop, dining room, construction, perestroika, anti-perestroika, belet, whitewash, whiteness have motivated meanings; they are, as it were, “derived” from the motivating part, word-building formants and semantic components that help to comprehend the meaning of a word with a derived base (Ulukhanov I. S. Word-formation semantics in the Russian language and principles of its description M., 1977. pp. 100-101).

For some words, the motivation of the meaning is somewhat obscured, since in modern Russian it is not always possible to identify their historical root. However, etymological analysis establishes the ancient family connections of the word with other words and makes it possible to explain the origin of its meaning. For example, etymological analysis makes it possible to identify the historical roots in the words fat, feast, window, cloth, pillow, cloud and establish their connection with the words live, drink, eye, knot, ear, drag (envelop). Thus, the degree of motivation for one or another meaning of a word may not be the same. In addition, the meaning may seem motivated to a person with philological training, while to a non-specialist the semantic connections of this word seem lost.

According to the possibility of lexical compatibility, the meanings of words are divided into free and non-free.

The first ones are based only on subject-logical connections of words. For example, the word drink can be combined with words denoting liquids (water, milk, tea, lemonade, etc.), but cannot be combined with words such as stone, beauty, running, night. The compatibility of words is regulated by the subject compatibility (or incompatibility) of the concepts they denote. Thus, the “freedom” of combining words with unrelated meanings is relative.

Non-free meanings of words are characterized by limited possibilities of lexical compatibility, which in this case is determined by both subject-logical and linguistic factors. For example, the word to win is combined with the words victory, top, but not combined with the word defeat. You can say lower your head (look, eyes, eyes), but you cannot say “lower your hand” (leg, briefcase).

Non-free meanings, in turn, are divided into phraseologically related and syntactically determined.

The first are realized only in stable (phraseological) combinations: sworn enemy, bosom friend (the elements of these phrases cannot be swapped).

The syntactically determined meanings of a word are realized only if it performs an unusual syntactic function in a sentence. So, the words log, oak, hat, acting as a nominal part compound predicate, get the meaning “stupid person”; "stupid, insensitive person"; "a sluggish, uninitiative person, a bungler."

V.V. Vinogradov, who first identified this type of meaning, called them functionally syntactically conditioned. These meanings are always figurative and, according to the method of nomination, are classified as figurative meanings.

As part of the syntactically determined meanings of words, there are also meanings that are structurally limited, that is, those that are realized only under the conditions of a certain syntactic structure. For example, the word whirlwind with the direct meaning of “gusty” Roundabout Circulation wind" in a construction with a noun in the form genitive case takes on a figurative meaning: a whirlwind of events - “the rapid development of events.”

According to the nature of the functions performed, lexical meanings are divided into two types: nominative, the purpose of which is nomination, naming of phenomena, objects, their qualities, and expressive-synonymous, in which the predominant is the emotional-evaluative (connotative) feature. For example, in the phrase A tall man the word tall indicates great growth; this is its nominative meaning. And the words lanky, long in combination with the word man not only indicate great growth, but also contain a negative, disapproving assessment of such growth. These words have an expressive-synonymous meaning and stand among expressive synonyms for neutral word high.

Based on the nature of connections between one meaning and another in the lexical system of a language, the following can be distinguished:

1) autonomous meanings possessed by words that are relatively independent in the language system and denote mainly specific objects: table, theater, flower;

2) correlative meanings that are inherent in words opposed to each other according to some characteristics: close - far, good - bad, youth - old age;

3) deterministic meanings, i.e. those “which are, as it were, determined by the meanings of other words, since they represent their stylistic or expressive variants...” (Shmelev D. N. Meaning of a word // Russian language: Encyclopedia. M., 1979 . P. 89). For example: nag (cf. stylistically neutral synonyms: horse, horse); wonderful, wonderful, magnificent (cf. good).

Question 5

Polysemy in modern Russian language. Direct and derived lexical meaning. Types of name transfer

Polysemy(from the Greek rplkhuzmeYab - “polysemy”) - polysemy, the presence of a word (unit of language) of two or more interrelated and historically determined meanings.

In modern linguistics, grammatical and lexical polysemy are distinguished. So, the shape of the 2nd person unit. Parts of Russian verbs can be used not only in their own personal meaning, but also in a generalized personal meaning. Wed: " Well, you'll outshout everyone!" And " I won't shout you down" In such a case, we should talk about grammatical polysemy.

Often, when they talk about polysemy, they primarily mean the polysemy of words as units of vocabulary. Lexical polysemy is the ability of one word to serve to designate different objects and phenomena of reality (associatively related to each other and forming a complex semantic unity). For example: sleeve - sleeve(“part of the shirt” is “a branch of the river”). The following connections can be made between the meanings of a word:

metaphor

For example: horse - horse(“animal” - “chess piece”)

metonymy

For example: dish - dish(“type of utensil” - “portion of food”)

synecdoche

It is necessary to distinguish between polysemy and homonymy. In particular, the word “key” in the meanings of “spring” and “musical sign” are two homonyms.

Question 6

Homonymy in modern Russian language. Types of homonyms. Paronyms and paronomases

(Greek homфnyma, from homуs - identical and уnyma - name), identical-sounding units of language, in the meaning of which (unlike the meanings of polysemantic units) there are no common semantic elements. Word formation and syntactic indicators are not decisive objective criteria for distinguishing homonymy from polysemy. Lexical words arise: as a result of the sound coincidence of words of different origins, for example, “trot” (running) and “lynx” (animal); as a result of a complete divergence in the meanings of a polysemantic word, for example, “peace” (universe) and “peace” (absence of war, hostility); with parallel word formation from the same stem, for example, “troika” (horses) and “troika” (mark).

1. Sometimes words are written differently, but sound the same, due to the laws of phonetics of the Russian language: doc-dog ;cat - code ;rock horn ;pillar - pillar ;lead – carry ;spread - spread(deafening of voiced consonants at the end of a word or in the middle of it, before the subsequent voiceless consonant, leads to a coincidence in the sound of words); to become weak - to become weak ;abide – arrive ;multiply - multiply(reduction uh in an unstressed position determines the same sound of verbs), etc. Such homonyms are called phonetic homonyms, or homophones.

2. Homonymy also occurs when different words have the same sound in some grammatical form (one or more): alley(gerund participle from the verb turn pale)– alley(noun); guilt(offence) – guilt(gender singular noun wine);burners(gas) – burners(a game); ate(verb form There is)- ate(plural noun spruce);braid oblique)– braid(gender plural of noun braid);bark - bark - bark(case forms of the noun barking)– bark – bark – bark(verb inflection forms bark);varnish(t.p. singular noun varnish)– varnishes(short form of adjective tasty);my(pronoun) – my wash);three(numeral) – three (imperative mood verb rub). Such homonyms that appear as a result of the coincidence of words in individual grammatical forms are called grammatical homonyms, or homoforms.

A special group of homoforms are those words that have moved from one part of speech to another: directly(adverb) – directly(reinforcing particle); exactly(adverb) – exactly(comparative union); Although(gerund) – Although(concessional alliance) etc. Homoforms also include numerous nouns that arose as a result of substantivization of adjectives and participles. These are, for example, the names of various public catering and retail establishments, which can be read on signs while walking along the city streets: Bakery and pastry shop, Sandwich shop, Snack shop, Dumpling shop, Beer shop, Glass shop, Sausage shop, Canteen, Shashlik shop. The words of this group are distinguished from other homoforms by the fact that when inflected in both singular and plural in all case forms they have a corresponding homoform - an adjective. However a couple: noun, adjective namely homoforms, since the adjective has much more forms: singular masculine and singular neuter.

3. Homographs are words that are spelled the same but have different sounds: roast(dish) - roast(summer), flour(for pies) – flour(torment); soar(in the sky) - soar(in a saucepan); wire(diminutive to wire)- wire(delay, slowdown when doing something); that(gerund participle from the verb hide)– tAya(gerund participle from the verb melt) etc. It should be noted that not all scientists classify such words as homonyms, since their main feature - different sounds - contradicts general definition homonymy.

4. Finally, the largest and most interesting and diverse group consists of lexical homonyms, or homonyms themselves, i.e. such words that coincide with each other in all grammatical forms and regardless of any phonetic laws: Boer(drilling tool) – Boer(a representative of the people inhabiting South Africa); domino(a game) - domino(fancy dress); rook(boat) - rook(chess figure); scrap(a tool used to break ice, asphalt) – scrap(broken or suitable only for recycling, most often metal objects); sailor suit(sailor's wife) - sailor suit(a striped blouse worn by sailors); mandarin(citrus tree or its fruit) – mandarin(a major official in pre-revolutionary China); interfere(to be a nuisance) – interfere(soup in a saucepan); cartridge(combat) – cartridge(boss), etc.

paronyms noun plural h.

Words that sound similar but differ in meaning.

"advisor" and "adviser"

"base" and "basis"

paronomasia w

A stylistic figure consisting of a punning convergence of words that are consonant but have different meanings.

(paronomasia)

"He's not deaf, but stupid."

Question 7

Ways of appearance of homonyms in a language. Criteria for distinguishing the meanings of a polysemantic word and homonyms

In the process of historical development of the dictionary, the appearance of lexical homonyms was due to a number of reasons. One of them is semantic splitting, the disintegration of a polysemantic (polysemantic) word. In this case, homonyms arise as a result of the fact that initially different meanings of the same word diverge and become so distant that in modern language are already perceived as different words. And only a special etymological analysis helps to establish their previous semantic connections based on some characteristics common to all meanings. In this way, even in ancient times, the homonyms light appeared - illumination and light - Earth, world, universe.

A divergence in the meanings of a polysemantic word is observed in the language not only among native Russian words, but also among words borrowed from one language. Interesting observations are provided by a comparison of the homonymy of the etymologically identical agent - a representative of the state, organization and the agent - the active cause of certain phenomena (both words are from the Latin language).

Homonymy can be the result of a coincidence in the sound of words, for example, to speak “to speak with one’s teeth” (cf. conspiracy) and to speak (to speak, to start speaking.”

Many of the derived homonymous verbs are partial lexical homonyms: homonymy of the derived verbs fall asleep from sleep and fall asleep - from pour. The formation of such homonyms is largely due to the homonymy of word-forming affixes.

Modern science has developed criteria for distinguishing between homonymy and polysemy, which help to separate the meanings of the same word and homonyms that arose as a result of a complete break in polysemy.

A lexical method for distinguishing polysemy and homonymy is proposed, which consists in identifying synonymous connections between homonyms and polysemant. If consonant units are included in one synonymous series, then the different meanings still retain semantic proximity and, therefore, it is too early to talk about the development of polysemy into homonymy. If their synonyms are different, then we have homonymy. For example, the word root 1 in the meaning "indigenous" has synonyms original, basic; A root 2 in the meaning of “root question” is a synonym main. The words main and main are synonymous, therefore, we have two meanings of the same word. Here's another example; word thin 1 "in the meaning of "not well-fed" forms a synonymous series with adjectives skinny, frail, lean, dry, A thin 2 - "deprived" positive qualities" - with adjectives bad, bad, bad. The words skinny, puny, etc. are not synonymized with the words bad, nasty. This means that the lexical units under consideration are independent, that is, homonymous.

A morphological method is used to distinguish between two similar phenomena: polysemantic words and homonyms are characterized by different word formation. Thus, lexical units that have a number of meanings form new words using the same affixes. For example, nouns bread 1 - "cereal" and bread 2 - “a food product baked from flour”, form an adjective using a suffix -n-; Wed respectively: grain shoots And bread smell. Different word formation is characteristic of homonyms thin 1 and thin 2. The first one has derivative words thinness, lose weight, skinny; the second - worsen, deterioration. This convinces us of their complete semantic isolation.

Homonyms and polysemantic words, in addition, have different forms; Wed thin 1 - thinner, thin 2 - worse .

A semantic way of distinguishing these phenomena is also used. The meanings of homonym words always mutually exclude each other, and the meanings of a polysemantic word form one semantic structure, maintaining semantic proximity, one of the meanings presupposes the other, there is no insurmountable boundary between them.

However, all three methods of distinguishing polysemy and homonymy cannot be considered completely reliable. There are cases when synonyms for different meanings of a word do not enter into synonymous relationships with each other, when homonym words have not yet diverged during word formation. Therefore, there are often discrepancies in defining the boundaries of homonymy and polysemy, which affects the interpretation of some words in dictionaries.

Homonyms, as a rule, are given in separate dictionary entries, and polysemantic words - in one, with the subsequent selection of several meanings of the word, which are given under numbers. However, in different dictionaries sometimes the same words are presented differently.

So, in the “Dictionary of the Russian Language” by S. I. Ozhegov the words put- “to place something, somewhere, somewhere” and put- “to decide, to decide” are given as homonyms, and in the “Dictionary of the Modern Russian Language” (MAC) - as ambiguous. The same discrepancy exists in the interpretation of other words: duty- "duty" and duty- “borrowed”; okay- “harmony, peace” and okay"structure of a musical work"; glorious- "famous" and glorious- “very good, cute.”

Question 8

Semantic field. Lexico-semantic group. Hyponymy as a special type of relationship between semantic field units

Semantic field- a set of linguistic units united by some common semantic feature. This is a combination of linguistic units carried out according to content (semantic) criteria.

To organize the field, the dominant in the field is identified.

Dominant- a word that can serve as the name of the field as a whole. The dominant is included in the field.

There are fields synonymous And hyponymic. In a synonymous field, the dominant is included in the field along with other members of this field. If the dominant rises above other elements of the field, then such a field is called hyponymic.

The differential semantic feature is seme.

One of the classic examples of a semantic field is a field of color terms, consisting of several color series ( red – pink – pinkish – crimson ; blue – blue – bluish – turquoise etc.): the common semantic component here is “color”.

The semantic field has the following basic properties:

1. The semantic field is intuitively understandable to a native speaker and has a psychological reality for him.

2. The semantic field is autonomous and can be identified as an independent subsystem of the language.

3. Units of the semantic field are connected by one or another systemic semantic relationships.

4. Each semantic field is connected with other semantic fields of the language and, together with them, forms a language system.

Lexico-semantic group- a set of words belonging to the same part of speech, united by intralinguistic connections based on interdependent and interconnected elements of meaning. So, to the lexical-semantic group of the lexeme Earth words include:

planet - globe - world;

soil - soil - layer;

possession - estate - estate - estate;

country - state - power.

Hyponymy (from the Greek ьрб - below, below, under and bputa - name) is a type of paradigmatic relations in the lexicon that underlies its hierarchical organization: the opposition of lexical units that correlate with concepts, the volumes of which intersect, for example. a word with a narrower semantic content (hyponym; see) is opposed to a word with a broader semantic content (hyperonym, or superordinate). The value of the first is included in the value of the second, for example. the meaning of the word birch is included in the meaning of the word tree.

Question 9

Synonymy in modern Russian language. Types of synonyms. Synonym functions

Synonyms are words that sound different, but are the same or very close in meaning: necessary - necessary, author - writer, brave - brave, applaud - clap etc. It is usually customary to distinguish two main groups of synonyms: conceptual, or ideographic, associated with the differentiation of shades of the same meaning (enemy - enemy, wet - damp - wet), and stylistic, associated primarily with the expressive-evaluative characteristics of a particular concept (face - mug, hand - hand - paw) .

A group of synonyms consisting of two or more words is called a synonymous series. There may be synonymous series of nouns (work – labor – business – occupation); adjectives (wet – wet – damp); verbs (run - hurry - hurry); adverbs (here - here); phraseological units (pour from empty to empty - carry water with a sieve) .

In a synonymous row it usually stands out leading word(dominant), which is the bearer of the main meaning: cloth – dress – suit – outfit .

Synonymous relations permeate the entire language. They are observed between words (everywhere - everywhere), between a word and a phraseological unit (rush - run headlong), between phraseological units (neither this nor that - neither fish nor meat) .

The synonymous wealth of the Russian language includes various types synonyms, For example:

lexical synonyms, i.e. synonymous words;

phraseological synonyms, i.e. synonymous phraseological units;

syntactic synonyms, for example:

1) union and non-union complex sentences: I learned that the train arrives at six o'clock. - I found out: the train arrives at six o'clock;

2) simple sentences With dissociated members and complex sentences: A sandy shore strewn with shells spread out in front of me. - In front of me lay a sandy shore, which was strewn with shells;

3) compound and complex sentences: The messenger did not come, and they asked me to carry the letter. -The messenger did not come, so they asked me to carry the letter.

Exists also a special type of synonyms - contextual synonyms. These are words that are not synonyms in themselves, but become synonyms in a certain context, for example:

A strong wind flies freely over a wide distance... So it picked up thin flexible branches - And trembled leaves, talked, made noise, rushed about emerald scattering in the azure sky.

Synonyms play very well important role in language, because, conveying subtle shades, different sides concepts, they make it possible to more accurately express a thought, to more clearly imagine a specific situation.

The stylistic functions of synonyms are varied. The common meaning of synonyms allows you to use one word instead of another, which diversifies speech and makes it possible to avoid the annoying use of the same words.

The substitution function is one of the main functions of synonyms. Writers take great care to avoid annoying repetition of words. Here, for example, is how N. Gogol uses a group of synonymous expressions with the meaning “to talk, to converse”: “The visitor [Chichikov] somehow knew how to find his way in everything and showed himself to be an experienced socialite. Whatever the conversation was about, he always knew how to support it: whether it was about a horse farm, he said and about the horse farm; they were talking about good dogs, and here he is reported very sensible comments, interpreted whether regarding the investigation carried out by the treasury chamber, he showed that he was not unaware of the judicial tricks; whether there was a discussion about a billiard game - and in a billiard game he did not miss; did they talk about virtue, and about virtue reasoned he did very well, even with tears in his eyes; about making hot wine, and he knew the use of hot wine; about customs overseers and officials, and he judged them as if he were an official and an overseer.”

Synonyms can also perform the function of opposition. Alexander Blok, in an explanatory note for the production of “The Rose and the Cross,” wrote about Gaetan: “... not eyes, but eyes, not hair, but curls, not mouth, but lips.” The same with Kuprin: “He, in fact, did not walk, but dragged along, without lifting his feet from the ground.”

Question 10

Antonymy in modern Russian language. Semantic classification of antonyms (M. R. Lvova, L. A. Novikova - to choose from). Functions of antonyms

Antonyms are words of the same part of speech with opposite lexical meaning: question - answer, stupid - smart, loud - quiet, remember - forget. They are usually opposed on some basis: day And night - by time, easy And heavy– by weight, up And at the bottom– by position in space, bitter And sweet- to taste, etc.

Antonymy relationships can exist between words (North South), between words and phraseological units (win - lose), between phraseological units (to win - to lose) .

There are also different root and same root antonyms: poor - rich, fly - fly .

A polysemantic word with different meanings can have different antonyms. So, the antonym of the word easy meaning “insignificant in weight” is an adjective heavy, and in the meaning “easy to learn” – difficult .

Main function antonyms(And linguistic And contextual speech) is an expression of opposition, which is inherent in the semantics of such oppositions and does not depend on the context.

The opposite function can be used for different stylistic purposes:

· to indicate the limit of manifestation of a quality, property, relationship, action:

· to actualize a statement or enhance an image, impression, and so on;

· to express an assessment (sometimes in comparative terms) of the opposing properties of objects, actions, and others;

· to affirm two opposing properties, qualities, actions;

· to affirm one of the opposed signs, actions or phenomena of reality by denying the other;

· to recognize a certain average, intermediate quality, property, etc., possible or already established between two words that are opposite in meaning.

Question 11

Vocabulary of the modern Russian language from the point of view of its origin. Borrowed vocabulary. Adaptation of borrowed vocabulary in modern Russian language

The vocabulary of the modern Russian language has gone through a long development process. Our vocabulary consists not only of native Russian words, but also of words borrowed from other languages. Foreign language sources replenished and enriched the Russian language throughout the entire process of its historical development. Some borrowings were made in ancient times, others - relatively recently.

The replenishment of Russian vocabulary proceeded in two directions.

1. New words were created from word-forming elements existing in the language (roots, suffixes, prefixes). This is how the original Russian vocabulary expanded and developed.

2. New words poured into the Russian language from other languages ​​as a result of economic, political and cultural ties of the Russian people with other peoples.

The composition of Russian vocabulary from the point of view of its origin can be schematically presented in the table.

Borrowed are words that came into the Russian language from other languages different stages its development. Reason borrowing are close economic, political, cultural and other ties between peoples.

Getting used to the Russian language, which is foreign to them, borrowed words undergo semantic, phonetic, morphological changes, changes in morphemic composition. Some words (school, bed, sail, loaf, chandelier, club) fully mastered and live according to the laws of the Russian language (that is, they change and behave in sentences like native Russian words), and some retain the features borrowing(that is, they do not change and do not act as agreed words), such as indeclinable nouns (avenue, kimono, sushi, haiku, kurabye).

Stand out borrowing: 1) from Slavic languages(Old Church Slavonic, Czech, Polish, Ukrainian, etc.), 2) from non-Slavic languages ​​(Scandinavian, Finno-Ugric, Turkic, Germanic, etc.).

Yes, from Polish borrowed words: monogram, hussar, mazurka, tradesman, guardianship, courage, jam, allow, colonel, bullet, donut, draw, harness; from Czech: polka(dance), tights, robot; from Ukrainian: borscht, bagel, kids, grain grower, schoolboy, chaise.

From German language came the words: sandwich, tie, decanter, hat, package, office, percentage, share, agent, camp, headquarters, commander, workbench, jointer, nickel, potatoes, onions.

From Dutch borrowed maritime terms: , harbor, pennant, berth, sailor, yard, rudder, fleet, Flag, navigator, boat, ballast.

The French language left a significant mark on the Russian vocabulary. From it, words for everyday use entered the Russian language: suit, jacket, blouse, bracelet, floor, furniture, office, buffet, salon, toilet, chandelier, lampshade, service, broth, cutlet, cream; military terms: captain, sergeant, artillery, attack, march, salute, garrison, sapper, landing, squadron; words from the field of art: stalls, play, actor, intermission, plot, repertoire, ballet, genre, role, stage.

In the last decade, in connection with the development of computer technology, the Russian language has included large quantities words, borrowed from in English: floppy disk driver, converter, cursor, file. Began to be used more actively borrowed words, reflecting changes in the economic and socio-political life of the country: summit, referendum, embargo, barrel, ecu, dollar. |

Loan words are recorded in etymological dictionaries of the Russian language.

Many new words come from other languages. They are called differently, most often - borrowings. The introduction of foreign words is determined by contacts between peoples, which necessitates the naming (nomination) of new objects and concepts. Such words may be the result of innovation of a particular nation in any field of science and technology. They can also arise as a result of snobbery and fashion. There are also linguistic reasons: for example, the need to express polysemantic Russian concepts with the help of a borrowed word, to replenish the expressive means of language, etc. All words, getting from the source language into the borrowing language, go through the first stage - penetration. At this stage, words are still connected with the reality that gave birth to them. IN early XIX century, among the many new words that came from the English language were, for example, tourist and tunnel. They were defined in the dictionaries of their time as follows: a tourist - an Englishman traveling around the world (Pocket Dictionary of foreign words included in the Russian language. Published by Ivan Renofants. St. Petersburg, 1837), a tunnel - in London, an underground passage under the bottom of the Thames River (there same). When a word has not yet taken root in the borrowing language, variants of its pronunciation and spelling are possible: dollar, dollar, dollar (English dollar), for example: “By January 1, 1829, in the Treasury of the United States North America was 5,972,435 dollars"1 At this stage, even a foreign language reproduction of the word in writing is possible. In Pushkin’s “Eugene Onegin”: “Before him there is a bloody roast-beef, / And truffles, the luxury of youth...” (Chapter I, XVI) Let us note that the word truffles, written in Russian, seems to Pushkin to be a gradually mastered word. foreign language, thanks to frequent use in oral and written form, it takes root, it external shape acquires a stable form, the word is adapted according to the norms of the borrowing language. This is the period of borrowing, or entering the language. At this stage, the strong semantic (meaning-related) influence of the source language is still noticeable.

At the stage of mastering a foreign word among native speakers of one language, folk etymology begins to take effect. When a foreign word is perceived as incomprehensible, they try to fill its empty sound form with the content of a close-sounding and close-in-meaning native word. A famous example is spinzhak (from the English pea-jacket - jacket) - an unfamiliar word, correlated in the popular consciousness with the word back. Final stage penetration foreign word into a borrowing language - rooting, when a word is widely used among native speakers of the recipient language and is completely adapted according to the rules of the grammar of that language. It is included in a full-fledged life: it can acquire words of the same root, form abbreviations, acquire new shades of meaning, etc.

Question 12

Tracing as a special type of borrowing. Exoticisms and barbarisms

In lexicology tracing paper(from fr. calque- copy) is a special type of borrowing foreign words, expressions, phrases. In the Russian language, there are two types of crippled words: derivational and semantic.

Derivative tracing paper- these are words obtained by “morphemic” translation of a foreign word into Russian. Kalka usually does not feel like a borrowed word, since it is composed of native Russian morphemes. Therefore, the real origin of such words is often unexpected for the person who first learns it. So, for example, the word “insect” is a tracing paper from Latin insectum (in-- on the-, sectum- insect).

Among other word-forming cripples we can note such words as chronicler , painting(from Greek); hydrogen , adverb(from Latin); performance , peninsula , humanity(from German); subdivision , concentrate , impression , influence(from French), skyscraper (English) skyscraper), semiconductor (from English. semiconductor). Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth - literal translation from Latin into Polish the word Republic and translated into Russian - “common cause”

There is partial tracing: in the word workaholic (eng. workaholic) only the first part of the word is traced.

Semantic tracing paper- these are Russian words that received new meanings under the influence of the corresponding words of another language as a result of literalism in translation. So, for example, the meaning of “to evoke sympathy” of the word touch came from French. The origin of the meaning “vulgar, unwitty” in the word flat .

Exoticisms- a group of foreign language borrowings denoting objects or phenomena from the life of another, usually an overseas people. Unlike other barbarisms, due to their persistent ethnic association, ecosticisms, with rare exceptions, are not fully assimilated and usually remain on the periphery of the vocabulary of the language. Close to exoticism are localisms, dialectisms and ethnographisms, which describe the life realities of a subethnic group as part of a larger people (for example, the Széklers (Székelys) and Csangó (people) as part of the Hungarian people). Cooking and music are especially distinguished by their exotic vocabulary (the concepts of baursak, salsa, taco, tam-tam, merengue, etc.)

Exoticisms are, in principle, translatable; in extreme cases, they can be translated descriptively, i.e. using expressions (for example, the English “nesting doll” to describe the Russian concept of “matryoshka”). However, due to the lack of an exact equivalent, their brevity and uniqueness are lost during translation, so exoticisms are often borrowed entirely. Having entered the literary language, for the most part they still remain on the periphery of the vocabulary, in its passive reserve. Exoticism also comes and goes in fashion. In modern print and electronic media, including Russian-language ones, the problem of abuse of exotic vocabulary often arises. Thanks to cinema, some exotic concepts have spread quite widely and are often used in an ironic, figurative meaning (shawarma, hara-kiri, samurai, tomahawk, machete, yurt, wigwam, tent, harem, etc.)

Foreign language inclusions (barbarisms)- these are words, phrases and sentences located in a foreign language environment. Foreign language inclusions (barbarisms) are not mastered or are incompletely mastered by the language receiving them.

Question 13

Native vocabulary

The words of the original vocabulary are genetically heterogeneous. They distinguish Indo-European, Common Slavic, East Slavic and Russian proper. Indo-European are words that, after the collapse of the Indo-European ethnic community (the end of the Neolithic era), were inherited by the ancient languages ​​of this language family, including the common Slavic language. Thus, for many Indo-European languages, some kinship terms will be common (or very similar): mother, brother, daughter; names of animals, plants, food products: sheep, bull, wolf; willow, meat, bone; actions: take, carry, command, see; qualities: barefoot, shabby, and so on.

It should be noted that even during the period of the so-called Indo-European linguistic community, there were differences between the dialects of different tribes, which, due to their subsequent settlement and distance from each other, increasingly increased. But the obvious presence of similar lexical layers of the very basis of the dictionary allows us to conditionally speak about a once unified basis - the proto-language.

Common Slavic (or Proto-Slavic) are words inherited by the Old Russian language from the language of the Slavic tribes, which by the beginning of our era occupied a vast territory between Pripyat, the Carpathians, the middle reaches of the Vistula and Dnieper, and later moved to the Balkans and to the east. It was used as a single (so called conventionally) means of communication until approximately the 6th-7th centuries AD, that is, until the time when, due to the settlement of the Slavs, the relative linguistic community also disintegrated. It is natural to assume that during this period there were territorially isolated dialect differences, which later served as the basis for the formation of separate groups of Slavic languages: South Slavic, West Slavic and East Slavic. However, in the languages ​​of these groups, words that appeared during the common Slavic period of development of language systems stand out. Such in Russian vocabulary are, for example, names associated with flora: oak, linden, spruce, pine, maple, ash, rowan, bird cherry, forest, pine forest, tree, leaf, branch, bark, root; cultivated plants: peas, poppy, oats, millet, wheat, barley; labor processes and tools: weaving, forging, flogging, hoe, shuttle; dwelling and its parts: house, canopy, floor, roof; with domestic and forest birds: rooster, nightingale, starling, crow, sparrow; food products: kvass, jelly, cheese, lard; names of actions, temporary concepts, qualities: mutter, wander, divide, know; spring, evening, winter; pale, neighbor, violent, cheerful, great, evil, affectionate, dumb, and so on.

East Slavic, or Old Russian, are words that, starting from the 6th-8th centuries, arose only in the language Eastern Slavs(that is, the language Old Russian people, ancestors of modern Ukrainians, Belarusians, Russians), united by the 9th century into a large feudal ancient Russian state - Kievan Rus. Among the words known only in East Slavic languages, names of various properties, qualities, actions can be distinguished: blond, selfless, lively, cheap, musty, vigilant, brown, clumsy, gray, good; flounder, seethe, wander, fidget, start, shiver, boil, chop, sway, while away, rumble, swear; kinship terms: uncle, stepdaughter, nephew; everyday names: gaff, twine, rope, stick, brazier, samovar; names of birds, animals: jackdaw, finch, kite, bullfinch, squirrel, viper, cat; units of counting: forty, ninety; words with a temporary meaning: today, after, now and many others.

Actually, Russian are all words (with the exception of borrowed ones) that appeared in the language after it became, first independent language Russian (Great Russian) nationality (from the 14th century), and then the language of the Russian nation (the Russian national language was formed during the 17th-18th centuries).

Actually, many different names for actions are Russian: coo, influence, explore, loom, thin out; household items, food: top, fork, wallpaper, cover; jam, cabbage rolls, kulebyaka, flatbread; natural phenomena, plants, fruits, animals, birds, fish: blizzard, ice, swell, bad weather; bush; Antonovka; muskrat, rook, chicken, chub; names of the sign of an object and the sign of an action, state: convex, idle, flabby, painstaking, special, intent; suddenly, ahead, seriously, completely, briefly, in reality; names of persons by occupation: driver, racer, mason, fireman, pilot, typesetter, serviceman; names of abstract concepts: summary, deception, circumlocution, neatness, caution and many other words with the suffixes -ost, -stvo and so on.

Question 14

Old Slavonicisms

A special group of borrowed words consists of Old Church Slavonicisms. This is the customary name for words that came from the Old Church Slavonic language, ancient language Slavs In the 9th century. this language was a written language in Bulgaria, Macedonia, Serbia, and after the adoption of Christianity it began to spread to Rus' as a written, book language.

Old Slavonicisms have distinctive features. Here are some of them:

1. Disagreement, i.e. combinations ra, la, re, le in place of the Russian oro, olo, ere, barely (enemy - enemy, sweet - malt, milky - milky, breg - shore).

2. Combinations ra, la at the beginning of the word in place of the Russian ro, lo (work - farmer, rook - boat).

3. The combination of railway in place (stranger - stranger, clothes - clothes, driving - driving).

4. Shch in place of the Russian h (lighting - candle, power - can, burning - hot).

5. Initial a, e, yu instead of Russian l, o, y (lamb - lamb, one - one, young man - taken away).

6. In the Russian language there are quite a lot of morphemes of Old Church Slavic origin: - suffixes eni-, enstv-, zn-, tel-, yn- (unity, bliss, life, guardian, pride);

Suffixes of adjectives and participles: eish-, aish-, ash-, ush-, om-, im-, enn- (kindest, bitterest, burning, running, driven, kept, blessed);

Prefixes: voz-, from-, niz-, through-, pre-, pre- (to give, to vomit, to overthrow, excessively, to despise, to prefer);

First part difficult words: good, godly, evil, sin, great (grace, God-fearing, slander, fall from grace, generosity).

Many of the Old Slavonic words have lost their bookish connotation and are perceived by us as ordinary words of everyday speech: vegetables, time, sweet, country. Others still retain a stylistic connotation of “sublimity” and are used to give special expressiveness to speech (for example, A. Pushkin’s poem “Anchar” or “Prophet”, M. Lermontov’s poem “The Beggar”, etc.).

Question 15

Vocabulary of the modern Russian language from the point of view of active and passive stock

Based on frequency, active and passive vocabulary are distinguished.

PHRASEOLOGY, a linguistic discipline that studies stable idiomatic (in the broad sense) phrases - phraseological units; the set of phraseological units of a particular language is also called its phraseology.

Most often, phraseological units are understood as stable phrases of the following types: idioms ( kick your ass ,drink bitter ,lead by the nose ,shot sparrow ,till I drop ,to the fullest); collocations ( pouring rain ,decide ,grain of truth ,pose a question); proverbs ( the quieter you go, the further you'll get ,don't get in your own sleigh); sayings ( It is for you ,grandmother ,and St. George's Day ;the ice has broken!); grammatical phraseological units ( almost ;near ;whatever it was); phrase schemes ( X he is in Africa too X ;to all X's ;X as X).

The term " phraseological unit"In relation to the term "phraseology" as a discipline that studies the corresponding means of language, there is no objection. But it is inaccurate as a designation of the linguistic means themselves, which are the object of phraseology; it is enough to compare the relationships between established terms: phoneme - phonology, morpheme - morphology, lexeme - lexicology (cf. phraseme - phraseology).

In educational and scientific literature Attempts have been made to define the concept of a phraseological object. For example, the following definition is given: “a ready-made whole expression with a known and given value in advance is called phraseological turn, or idiom" Signs of phraseological units: direct meaning, figurative meaning, ambiguity, emotional richness.

Phraseological turnover - is a reproducible linguistic unit of two or more stressed words, holistic in its meaning and stable in its composition and structure.

In this case, the following features are highlighted: reproducibility, stability of composition and structure, constancy of the lexical composition. The presence of at least two words in a unit, stability of word order, impenetrability of most phraseological units.

Question 20

Lexico-grammatical classification of phraseological units

Classification of phraseological units by composition.

One of the most characteristic features phraseological turn as a reproducible linguistic unit is the constancy of its composition. Taking into account the nature of the composition of phraseological units (specific features of the words forming them), N.M. Shansky identified two groups of phraseological units:

phraseological phrases formed from words of free use belonging to the active vocabulary of the modern Russian language: “out of the blue, in an hour a teaspoon, a friend of life, take a look, green melancholy, stand with your chest, take you by the throat”;

phraseological turns with lexical-semantic features, that is, those in which there are words of related use, words that are outdated or with a dialectal meaning: “goosebumps, found a shock, a byword, in the arms of Morpheus, upside down, doted on the soul, fraught with consequences smash into pieces like chickens in cabbage soup.”

5. Classification of phraseological units by structure.

As reproducible linguistic units, phraseological units always act as a structural whole of a composite nature, consisting of words that are different in their morphological properties and are in different syntactic relationships. According to the structure of phraseological units, N.M. Shansky divided into two groups:

Corresponding to the offer

Matching word combinations

Phraseological phrases that correspond in structure to the sentence.

Among phraseological units that correspond in structure to a sentence and in meaning, N.M. Shansky distinguishes two groups:

Nominative - phraseological units that name this or that phenomenon of reality: “the cat cried, his hands can’t reach it, the chickens don’t peck, no matter where they look, the trail has disappeared,” acting as some member of the sentence;

Communicative - phraseological units that convey entire sentences:

“happy people don’t watch the clock, hunger is not an auntie, grandmother said in two, they carry water for angry people, their heads are spinning, I found a scythe on a stone, don’t sit in your own sleigh, you can’t spoil the porridge with butter,” used either independently or as part of a structural more complex sentence.

Phraseological phrases that correspond in structure to a combination of words.

N.M. Shansky identifies the following typical groups of combinations

. "adjective + noun"

A noun and an adjective can be semantically equal and both are meaning-forming components: “golden fund, beaten hour, white night, Siamese twins, retroactively.”

The meaning-forming component is the noun, the adjective is used as an insignificant member that has an expressive character: “a garden head, a pea jester, Babylonian pandemonium, green melancholy.”

. “noun + genitive form of the noun”

Such phraseological units in meaning and syntactic functions are equivalent to a noun: “an open secret, an apple of discord, a point of view, a gift of words, a palm.” Words in such expressions are semantically equal.

. “noun + prepositional case form of the noun”

These phraseological units are lexico-grammatically correlative with the noun, in all of them the dependent components are unchangeable, and the supporting ones form various case forms and have a strictly ordered order of components: “fighting for life, running in place, it’s in the bag - Czech. ruka je v rukave, caliph for an hour, art for art’s sake.”

. “preposition + adjective + noun”

According to the lexical and grammatical meaning and syntactic use in a sentence, these phraseological units are equivalent to an adverb, their constituent words are semantically equal, the order of the components is fixed: “at the bottom of the barrel, in seventh heaven, with a clear conscience, according to old memory, from time immemorial.”

. “prepositional case form of the noun + genitive case form of the noun”

These phrases can be adverbial or attributive; they fix the order of arrangement of the components of the phraseological unit: “forever and ever, to the depths of the soul, in the costume of Adam, in the arms of Morpheus, in the prime of life, worth its weight in gold.”

. “prepositional case form of a noun + prepositional case form of a noun”

Phraseologisms of this group are equivalent in lexical and grammatical meaning and syntactic functions to adverbs, in them nouns are tautologically repeated, the words forming them are semantically equal, the order of the components is fixed: “from dawn to dusk, from cover to cover, from year to year, from ship to the ball, from young to old.”

. "verb + noun"

Phraseologisms of this group are mainly verbal-predicative and act as a predicate in a sentence; the order of the components and their semantic relationship can be different: “cast a fishing rod, take root, burst into laughter, remain silent, prick up your ears.”

. "verb + adverb"

Phraseological units are verbal and act as a predicate in a sentence; the components are always semantically equal; the order of the components can be direct or reverse: “to see through, to get into trouble, to break into pieces, to go to waste.”

. "gerund + noun"

Phraseologisms of this type are equivalent to an adverb; in a sentence they act as circumstances, the order of the components is fixed: “headlong, reluctantly, folded arms, carelessly.”

. "constructions with coordinating conjunctions"

The components of a phraseological unit are homogeneous members sentences expressed in words of the same part of speech, the order of the components is fixed: “entirely and completely, without a rudder and without sails, here and there, at random, oohs and sighs.”

. "constructions with subordinating conjunctions"

According to the lexical and grammatical meaning, such phraseological units are adverbial units, in which the order of the components is fixed; at the beginning there is always a conjunction: “like snow on your head, even if a stake is on your head, even if the grass does not grow, like two peas in a pod, like a cow’s saddle.”

. "constructions with negation not"

According to the lexical and grammatical meaning, such phraseological units are verbal or adverbial, perform the function of a predicate or adverbial in a sentence, the components are semantically equal with a fixed order of arrangement: “not sparing the belly, not slurping salty, not timid, not at ease, not of this world "

Question 21

Polysemy and homonymy in phraseology

Most phraseological units are characterized by unambiguity: they have only one meaning, their semantic structure is quite monolithic, indecomposable: a stumbling block is “obstacle”, to have one’s head in the clouds is “to indulge in fruitless dreams”, at first glance - “at first impression”, to be perplexed - “to cause extreme difficulty, confusion,” etc.

But there are phraseological units that have several meanings. For example, the phraseological unit wet chicken can mean: 1) “a weak-willed, ingenuous person, a weakling”; 2) “a person who looks pitiful, depressed; upset about something”; fool around - 1) “do nothing”; 2) “behave frivolously, fool around”; 3) "do stupid things."

Polysemy usually arises in phraseological units that have retained partially motivated meanings in the language. For example, the phraseological unit baptism of fire, which originally meant “first participation in battle,” began to be used in a broader meaning, indicating “the first serious test in any matter.” Moreover, polysemy is easier to develop in phraseological units that have a holistic meaning and are correlated with phrases in their structure.

Modern language is characterized by the development of figurative, phraseological meaning of terminological combinations: specific gravity, center of gravity, fulcrum, birthmark, bring to the same denominator, etc.

Homonymous relations between phraseological units arise when phraseological units of identical composition appear in completely different different meanings: take word 1 - “to speak at a meeting on your own initiative” and take word 2 (from someone) - “to receive a promise from someone, an oath of something.”

Homonymous phraseological units can appear in a language if figurative expressions are based on different signs of the same concept. For example, the phraseological unit let the rooster in the meaning - “start a fire, set fire to something” goes back to the image of a fiery red rooster, reminiscent of a flame in the color and shape of the tail (a variant of the phraseological unit - let the red rooster); The phraseological unit let (give) a rooster in the sense of “make false sounds” was created on the basis of the similarity of the singer’s voice, breaking on a high note, with the “crowing” of a rooster. Such homonymy is the result of a random coincidence of components that form phraseological units.

In other cases, the source of phraseological homonyms becomes the final break in the meanings of polysemantic phraseological units. For example, the meaning of the phraseological unit tiptoe - “walk on the tips of your toes” served as the basis for the appearance of its figurative homonym walk on tiptoe - “to curry favor, to please someone in every possible way.” In such cases, it is difficult to draw the line between the phenomenon of polysemy of phraseological units and homonymy of two phraseological units.

Special mention should be made of the so-called “external homonymy” of phraseological units and free phrases. For example, the phraseological unit soap your neck means “to teach (someone), punish”, and the semantics of the free combination soap your neck is completely motivated by the meanings of the words included in it: You need to do it well soap your neck child to wash off all the dirt. In such cases, the context suggests how one or another expression should be understood - as a phraseological unit or as a free combination of words that appear in their usual lexical meaning; for example: A heavy and strong fish rushed... under the shore. I began bring it out into the open(Paust.). Here the highlighted words are used in their literal meaning, although the metaphorical use of the same phrase has also become entrenched in the language - bringing the phraseology to the surface.

However, since free phrases are fundamentally different from phraseological units, there is no reason to talk about homonymy of such expressions in the exact meaning of the term: this is a random coincidence of linguistic units of different orders.

Question 22

Synonymy and antonymy in phraseology

Phraseologisms that have a similar or identical meaning enter into synonymous relationships: smeared with the same world - two boots of a pair, two birds of a feather; There are countless numbers - at least a dime a dozen, that the sand of the sea is like uncut dogs. Like lexical units, such phraseological units form synonymous rows, which may include corresponding lexical synonyms of the same row; cf.: to leave with a nose - to leave in the fool, to deceive, to avert [someone's] eyes, to rub glasses on [someone], to take on a gun and: to deceive - to fool, to deceive, to bypass, to deceive, to deceive, to fool. The wealth of phraseological, as well as lexical, synonyms creates enormous expressive capabilities of the Russian language.

Phraseological synonyms may differ from each other in stylistic coloring: leave no stone unturned - bookish, inflict reprisals - commonly used, cut like a nut - colloquial, set pepper - colloquial; far away - commonly used, in the middle of nowhere - colloquial. They may not have semantic differences: a shot sparrow, a grated roll, but they may differ in shades of meaning: distant lands, where Makar did not drive his calves; the first means “very far”, the second means “to the most remote, remote places where they are exiled as punishment.”

Phraseological synonyms, like lexical ones, can also differ in the degree of intensity of the action, the manifestation of the attribute: shed tears - shed tears, drown in tears, cry your eyes out (each subsequent synonym names a more intense action compared to the previous one).

Some phraseological synonyms may repeat some components (if phraseological units are based on different images, we have the right to call them synonyms): game not worth it candles - made of sheepskin not worth it , set bath - set pepper, hang head - hang nose, drive dogs - drive quitter.

Phraseological variants should be distinguished from phraseological synonyms, the structural differences of which do not violate the semantic identity of phraseological units: don't hit face down in the dirt - don't hit face down in the dirt throw fishing rod - abandon fishing rod; in the first case, phraseological variants differ in the grammatical forms of the verb, in the second - in the so-called “variant components”.

Phraseological units that are similar in meaning but differ in compatibility and are therefore used in different contexts are also not synonymized. Thus, phraseological units with three boxes and chickens do not peck, although they mean “a lot,” are used in speech differently: the first is combined with the words slander, babble, promise, the second - only with the word money.

Antonymic relations in phraseology are less developed than synonymous ones. The antonymy of phraseological units is often supported by their antonymic connections lexical synonyms: seven spans in the forehead (smart) - can’t invent gunpowder (stupid); blood with milk (ruddy) - not a drop of blood in the face (pale).

A special group includes antonymic phraseological units that partially coincide in composition, but have components that are opposed in meaning: with a heavy heart - with a light heart, not one of the brave ten - not one of the cowardly ten, turn your face - turn your back. Components that give such phraseological units the opposite meaning are often lexical antonyms (heavy - light, brave - cowardly), but can receive the opposite meaning only as part of phraseological units (face - back)

Question 23

Semantic classification of phraseological units by V. V. Vinogradov

V.V. Vinogradov, also basing his classification on various types of stability, as well as motivation, identified three main types of phraseological units:

*)Phraseological adhesions or idioms - these include phraseological units in which no motivation can be traced. They act as equivalents to words. Examples of phraseological adjuncts or idioms include such expressions as headlong, upside down, etc.

*) Phraseological unities - phraseological unities include motivated phraseological units that have a common inextricable meaning that arises as a result of the merging of the meanings of the components, for example: bend into a ram's horn, give a hand, etc. In this group V.V. Vinogradov also includes phrases-terms: nursing home, exclamation point, etc.

*)Phraseological combinations - these include phrases that include a component that characterizes a phraseologically related meaning that manifests itself only within a strictly defined range of concepts and their verbal meanings.

These restrictions are created by the laws inherent in a particular language, for example: to goggle, but you cannot say: to goggle; refuse flatly, but one cannot say flatly agree, etc. [Vinogradov, 1986].

Classification V.V. Vinogradova is often criticized for the fact that it does not have a single classification criterion. The first two groups - fusion and unity - are distinguished on the basis of the motivation of the phraseological unit, and the third group - phraseological combinations - is distinguished on the basis of the limited compatibility of the word.

N.M. Shansky adds one more to the above types of phraseological units - phraseological expressions. By them he understands phrases that are stable in composition and control, which are not only articulated, but also consisting of words with a free meaning; for example, you love to ride, you love to carry sleds, the spool is small, but expensive, etc. [Shansky 1964]

The selection of phraseological expressions seems quite logical, because while retaining their direct meaning, these lexical combinations are very different high degree sustainability.

Lexicology (from the Greek lexikos - relating to the word and logos - teaching) is a section of linguistics that studies the vocabulary of a language, its vocabulary.

The subject of lexicology is the word. And its object is the definition of the word as the basic unit of language.

The main objectives of lexicology are:

Finding out the connection between the meaning of a word and a concept, highlighting various types meanings of words;

Characteristics of the lexical-semantic system, i.e. identification of the internal organization of linguistic units and analysis of their connections (semantic structure of a word, specificity of distinctive semantic features, patterns of its relations with other words, etc.);

Establishment of various types of systemic relations that exist within various groups of vocabulary, determination of those objective (including syntactic) indicators that unite words (in certain meanings).

Lexicology studies the stylistic differentiation of vocabulary, individual thematic and lexical-semantic groupings of words, their relationship with each other and the relationship of units within these groupings. From the point of view of stylistic differentiation, words, firstly, may belong to certain functional types of speech. Secondly, there are a significant number of words in the language that give speech a “high” or “low” character.

In addition, in lit. the language includes words that retain dialect coloring, and in artistic literature (chap. ed. for the purpose of speech characteristics characters) slang words and expressions are also used.

Studying the vocabulary of a language in its systemic connections, lexicologists take into account that, being designations of objects and phenomena of extra-linguistic reality, words naturally reflect the connections that exist between objects and phenomena of reality itself. At the same time, words are units of language and between them there are actual linguistic connections: they are united into certain lexical-semantic groups, in each language in their own way they articulate certain segments of reality (for example, in the Russian language - the names of hills: mountain, hill, hillock, mound, hill, etc., verbs of motion: go, ride, fly, swim, crawl, etc. - do not find full correspondence in other languages).

One of the main tasks of lexicology is to clarify those semantic oppositions that exist between different words, incl. synonymous and antonymous; It is precisely the opposition of the meanings of different words that makes it possible to identify the essential semantic features that determine the given meaning of the word (for example, the common semantic element of the words mountain and hill is “hill,” which allows them to be compared; the essential differential feature for them is the sign of size).

In lexicology, stable combinations of words are also studied, which are dissected names of individual objects and phenomena of reality and are equivalents of words. These combinations relate to phraseology, which is included in lexicology as one of its sections (by some researchers, however, it is considered an independent section of the science of language).

Since you are reading this article, you are doing it for yourself. scientific work– a thesis, article, master's thesis or graduate work.

Writing a thesis to order is carried out taking into account all the requirements of your university and the recommendations of your HP. All of our authors-performers are university teachers, Candidates of Science, as well as Doctors of Science in some disciplines. Please note that only adults (over 30 years old) and responsible people work for us. And this is a real indicator of the high quality of theses and other types of scientific work written for you.

In order to place an order for writing a thesis, you do not need to be distracted from the process of studying or permanent work, just fill out an application on our website and in the shortest possible time the author will begin writing a custom thesis for you.

Individual approach and high quality We guarantee our work!

Object and subject of lexicology

Units of the lexical-semantic system

Specifics of the lexical-semantic system

Main problems of lexicology

Sections of lexicology

Literature

_______________________________________________

1. Object and subject of lexicology

Lexicology(Greek lexis'word', lexikos'vocabulary', logos‘teaching, science’) – a branch of linguistics that studies vocabulary language (vocabulary) in its current state And historical development.

Branches of linguistics that study different tiers of the language system actually have two objects:

unit appropriate level, its nature and properties,

system of units, the relationships between these units.

Objects of lexicology- This

word as a lexical unit (LE),

vocabulary(vocabulary) as a set of words, organized and structured in a certain way.

The word is the object of various linguistic disciplines. Each of them views the word from a certain angle, i.e. with a common object has its own item:

studied in phonetics sound side words,

in morphemics – structure words,

word formation – ways of education words,

in morphology – grammatical forms And grammatical meanings words,

in syntax - connection methods words and forms of words into phrases and sentences [SRYA, p. 165].

Word like grammatical unit– this is a system of all its forms with their grammatical meanings; word like lexical unit, or unit of a dictionary, is a formally expressed system of all its lexical meanings [Russian grammar, p. 453].

In lexicology, a word is considered

in terms of its subject-conceptual content

and as a unit of vocabulary of a language.

Word wing , for example, is of interest here

but as Name:

the organ of flight in birds, insects, and also some mammals;

the bearing plane of an aircraft or other moving vehicle;

rotating blade of a windmill wheel;

tires over the wheel of a carriage, car, etc.;

side extension, outbuilding;

extreme (right or left) part of the combat formation;

extreme (right or left) group of any organization.

b) how unit of the lexical system, which is in certain relationships with other lexical units, for example, as part of Class names of bird body parts along with words tail, beak etc.

Opposition grammatical forms of words(word forms) in the same meaning ( wing, wing, wing...) is insignificant for lexicology. This is the subject of studying grammar.

On the contrary, the study of the similarities and differences of semantic variants of the same word in the entire system of their forms ( wing, wing, wing...‘organ of flight’; wing, wing, wing...‘carrying plane’, etc.) is one of the most important tasks of lexicology [SRYa, p. 165].

However, when studying words in lexicology, it is impossible to completely ignore grammar, since vocabulary and grammar are closely related.

1. Units of the lexical-semantic system

Word- a sound or complex of sounds that has meaning and employee name objects and phenomena of reality [SRYASH, p. 165].

The definition states iconic nature words and his function.

A word, as opposed to a phoneme, is sign:

there is also a material side to it - sound or spelling(phonographic shell),

and the ideal side - meaning.

Main function words - nominative(lat. nominatio ‘naming, denomination’). Most words called objects, their characteristics, quantity, actions, processes are meaningful and independent.

Words name not only specific objects, but also concepts about these objects arising in the minds of speakers.

With the word correlate all language units:

phonemes And morphemes make up the structure of a word,

phrases And offers consist of words.

This gives grounds for some scientists to say that the word is central unit of language.

Since a word is a complex and multidimensional phenomenon, the term word polysemantic and indefinite: it denotes

and words like vocabulary units(linguistic units);

and words like units of speech, text(words with specific meanings and specific grammatical forms).

For example, in a sentence Man is man's friend

three words in specific grammatical forms

And two words as vocabulary units: Human And Friend[Kodukhov, p. 184].

The word is called and unambiguous words and individual meanings polysemantic words

To refer to these different objects, lexicology uses clearer terms.

The most common term is lexical item(LE)

Lexical unit is a unit of the lexical level of a language that has bilateral character, grammatical form and performing nominative function.

Term lexical item is ancestral in relation to terms token And lexical-semantic variant:

┌─────────┴─────────┐

lexeme lexico-semantic

Token(Greek lé xis ‘word, expression’) is a unit of the lexical level of language, which is a collection all forms and meanings of one word[≈ LES, p. 257; ERYA, p. 207].

Those. lexeme is two-way unit 1 :

token = –––––––––––––––––––––––

expression plan

Term token usually used only in relation to words significant parts of speech.

Lexico-semantic variant(LSV) – one of the lexical meanings of the lexeme, expressed by the phonographic shell.

Otherwise: LSV– a lexeme in one of its meanings. Those. LSV is also bilateral unit. LSV of one token

differ in their lexical meanings(LZ)

and coincide in form (sound and graphic expression).

For example, sleeve –

piece of clothing covering the hand ( short sleeves);

branch from the main river channel ( right branch of the Volga);

hose for supplying liquids, bulk or viscous substances, gases ( firehose).

All these values ​​are connected by the relationship semantic productivity(native speakers are aware of the connection between these meanings), so the identity of the word is not violated.

Token is a system of interconnected LSV:

lexeme = LSV 1 + LSV 2 + LSV 3

If the word definitely, it is presented one LSV:

stomp‘noise, sounds from kicks when walking’.

Term "lexical unit" is also used in relation to token, and in relation to LSV, if there is no need to differentiate them.

LE, lexeme and LSV are linguistic units, because represent set of meanings and forms.

IN speeches these abstract units are realized in specific units, because is selected every time one meaning and one form:

Dress with shortsleeves .

Specific implementation lexemes or LSV in speech (text) are called:

lex(A) (the term is not very commonly used),

word form– a word in a certain grammatical form (the term comes from grammar),

word usage is a relatively new term.

Lexicology is a science that focuses on the vocabulary of a particular language. It has its own laws and categories. This science deals with various aspects of words, as well as their functions and development.

Concept

Lexicology is a science that studies the vocabulary of a language and its features. The subject of this section of linguistics is the following:

• Functions of lexical units.
• The problem of the word as a basic component of language.
• Types and types of lexical units.
• Structure of the vocabulary of the language.

This is not a complete list of what lexicology studies. This science deals with the issues of replenishment and expansion of the vocabulary, and also examines the connections and contradictions between lexical units.

Object of study

The word and its meaning are the basis for many sciences. These issues are dealt with by morphology, as well as various areas of word formation. However, if in these sciences words are a means of studying grammatical structures or studying various models for different options word formation, what lexicology studies is used directly to understand the specifics of the words themselves. Lexical units are considered not just as a collection of letters and sounds, but are an integral system that has its own connections, functions, categories and concepts. This is the object of study of lexicology. She considers not individual words, but the entire vocabulary as something whole and inseparable.

This approach has its own characteristics. This allows us to categorize not only words, but also stable phrases that have a certain analytical role.

Word problem

Lexicology of the modern Russian language focuses on the object and subject of its study. Since a word is considered as a certain unit that has connections between its form and content, it is considered in three main aspects:

• Structural. The form of the word, its structure and constituent components are studied.
• Semantic. The meaning of lexical units is considered.
• Functional. The role of words in speech and in the general structure of language is explored.

If we talk about the first aspect, then lexicology is a science that establishes specific criteria for determining the difference and identity of individual words. To do this, lexical units are compared with phrases, and an analytical structure is developed that allows one to establish word invariants.

As for the semantic aspect, this is dealt with by a separate science - semasiology. It studies the connection between a word and a specific object. This is important for lexicology. She studies the word and its meaning, as well as its individual categories and types, which allows us to distinguish such concepts as monosymy (univocality) and polysymy (ambiguity). Lexicology also studies the reasons that lead to the appearance or loss of a word's meaning.

The functional aspect considers a lexical unit as an object that is associated with other similar elements and builds an entire system of language. The important role here is the interaction of vocabulary and grammar, which, on the one hand, support, and on the other hand, limit each other.

Concept of vocabulary

Lexicology considers words as a system that consists of several subsystems. Lexical units form groups that are different in volume, form and content. This is part of what lexicology studies. Vocabulary is studied simultaneously in two aspects: as group relations between individual units and their correct arrangement in relation to each other. Thanks to this, vocabulary can be divided into separate categories. For example, homonyms, paronyms, synonyms, antonyms, hyponyms, etc.

Additionally, almost any branch of linguistics, including Russian or English lexicology, studies larger groupings of words, which are called fields. This is usually based on the core of the field, for example a certain number keywords, and the boundaries themselves, which represent various paradigmatic, semantic, grammatical or other types of relationships with these lexical units.

Sections of lexicology

Like any other science, lexicology has its own system of disciplines that are responsible for certain aspects of its object and subject of study:

• Semasiology. Deals with the meanings of words and phrases.
• Onomasiology. Study the procedure for naming objects and phenomena.
• Etymology. Explores the origins of words.
• Onomastics. Deals with proper names. This applies to both people's names and place names.
• Stylistics. Study the meaning of words and expressions of a connotative nature.
• Lexicography. Deals with ways of organizing and compiling dictionaries.
• Phraseology. Explores phraseological units and persistent expressions.

Sections of lexicology have their own categories, as well as the object and subject of study. In addition, there are some types of this science. In particular, we are talking about general, particular, historical, comparative and applied lexicology. The first type is responsible for the general patterns of vocabulary, including its structure, stages of development, functions, etc. Private lexicology deals with the study of a specific language. The historical type is responsible for the development of words in connection with the history of the names of objects and phenomena. Comparative lexicology examines words in order to identify relationships between different languages. The latter type is responsible for processes such as speech culture, translation features, linguistic pedagogy and lexicography.

Categories of lexical items

The vocabulary of any language is diverse and heterogeneous. Accordingly, categories are identified that have their own distinctive features and features. Russian lexicology foresees the following subtypes:

• By scope: commonly used words and lexical units that are used in special situations (science, poetry, vernacular, dialects, etc.).
• According to emotional load: neutral and emotionally charged units.
• By historical development: neologisms and archaisms.
• According to its origin and development: internationalisms, borrowings, etc.
• In terms of functionality - active and passive lexical units, as well as occasionalisms.

Given the constant development of language, the boundaries between words are unclear, and they can move from one group to another.

Problems

Like any other science, lexicology deals with solving certain problems. Modern experts highlight the following:

• Frequency of words in the text.
• The difference between lexical units in writing and in spoken language.
• Possibilities of words that allow you to create new names for objects and phenomena.
• Changing vocabulary meanings.

Science also studies the combinability of words at different levels: semantic and lexical.

Ways to replenish your vocabulary

Lexicology deals with the study of nomination options. This refers to various ways and methods of expanding vocabulary. For this purpose, both the internal resources of a particular language and the use of lexical units from other languages ​​can be used. There are the following ways to replenish vocabulary:

• Word formation is the creation of new words.
• Constructing new meanings for existing words: polysemy, transfer of meanings, etc.
• Formation of persistent phrases.
• Borrowing.

These methods are typical for any language, but in each specific case they have their own characteristics and distinctive features.

Methods

For its needs, lexicology uses general linguistic research methods. These include:

• Distribution. Responsible for determining the scope of a lexical unit, the number of meanings, etc.
• Substitution. Studies the phenomena of synonymy and variation of words.
• Component method. Responsible for splitting lexical units into individual components, and also deals with their general structure.
• Transformation. It is used in the process of word formation to determine the main component of a word.
• It is used to determine the frequency of use of lexical units, as well as to calculate their semantic, paradigmatic and other types of connections.

Information obtained using these methods is also used in other sciences, including psycholinguistics, neurolinguistics, as well as a number of social disciplines.

Lexicology(from Greek lexikos -‘verbal, dictionary’ (from lexis -‘word’) and logos -‘teaching’) is a branch of linguistics, the object of study of which is the vocabulary of a particular language. This section examines words in various aspects that determine the main directions of lexicology. A related branch of linguistics is phraseology; she learns set expressions which are usually called phraseological units.

From point of view object studies distinguish general And private lexicology.

General lexicology studies the patterns of construction of the lexical system that are universal for all languages, which are determined by the action paradigmatic, syntagmatic And derivational relations between units. The purpose of their analysis is to study the principles of organization of lexical groupings of varying degrees of complexity, in the description of which close attention is paid to understanding the semantic structure of polysemantic words. In any language, words are differentiated in terms of their stylistic coloring, origin, and belonging to the active or passive stock.

Private lexicology explores the lexical system of a specific language, in this case Russian. When studying it, in addition to general lexical issues, it is necessary to take into account the lack of conversion as a way of forming words (cf. English and Chinese languages), which determines the emphasized hierarchy of Russian lexical paradigms; take into account the leading role of nouns in the organization of the lexical system; pay attention to layers of synonyms and antonyms, an extensive stylistic system. An important aspect private lexicology of the Russian language is the study of the sociolinguistic originality of the elements of the lexical-phraseological system.

IN depending on method studies highlight historical (diachronic) And descriptive (synchronous) lexicology.

Historical (diachronic) lexicology examines vocabulary from the point of view of its origin and development.

Descriptive (synchronic) lexicology characterizes the relations of the lexical system at the present stage of its existence and development. Within the framework of synchronic lexicology of the Russian language, the following are studied:

• A) semasiology(from Greek semasia -‘designation’) is a section of private lexicology, within which the structure of the meaning of a word is considered, taking into account its reflection of extra-linguistic reality, and the typology of meanings is characterized in terms of the functions they perform. Along with the term semasiology a synonymous designation is used semantics, however, this polysemantic word also has a different meaning - meaning(words, phraseological units, grammatical units);
• b) onomasiology(from Greek opota -‘name’) is a section of lexicology that studies the process of nomination, in particular, methods of nomination, types of lexical and phraseological units used for this purpose, and the relationships between them. Within the framework of onomasiology, phenomena such as synonymy, antonymy, conversion, homonymy, paronymy.

Sociolinguistics studies words from the point of view of their use by various social groups, taking into account the communicative situation. This section of lexicology explores the layer of extraliterary vocabulary in terms of its differences from stylistically marked vocabulary literary language; looks at words from the point of view of their origin as well as their historical perspective, i.e. belonging to active and passive stock.

Related to sociolinguistics etymology(from Greek etymon- “truth, the basic meaning of a word’), the object of study of which is the origin of specific words based on dictionaries and linguistic sources. Associated with sociolinguistics and onomastics(Greek onomastikos -‘the art of giving names’), the science of proper names. It includes sections such as anthroponymy- study of personal names of people from the point of view of their origin and functioning in modern language; toponymy- study of names of geographical objects.

The following are in the development stage:

• A) pragmony, exploring patterns of product nomination (pragmopim(from pragma -‘thing, product’) - product or verbal trademark);
• b) ergonomics, researching the names of institutions and organizations (ergonyms(from Greek ergon- ‘business, labor, activity’) - names of business associations of people, including organizations, enterprises).

The last two sections are related not only to synchronic, but also to diachronic lexicology.

Besides phraseology, important linguistic areas closely related to lexicology are lexicography And phraseography.