Lesson "Argumentation: types and structure." Preparing for the Unified State Exam in the Russian language: Argumentation of one’s own position Argumentation of one’s position

Lesson in 11th grade

Lesson objectives:

1) to consolidate the skills of working on understanding a literary text, the author’s position on the problem raised by him in preparation for an essay on the assignment formulated in demo version Unified State Exam in Russian (Part C);

2) develop the ability to evaluate each paragraph of an essay according to the first four criteria;

3) improve the writing of all parts of the essay according to the criteria.

Equipment: worksheet, texts work of art, criteria for evaluating an essay-reasoning

During the classes.

1.Org. moment. Mark those who are absent.

2. Statement of the topic and purpose of the lesson.

Guys, I want to start our lesson with lines from Yevgeny Yevtushenko’s poem “There are no uninteresting people...”:

What do we know about brothers, about friends,

And we are talking about our own father,

Knowing everything, (n..) we know (n..) what.

Spelling warm-up.

Explain spelling and punctuation.

Make an outline of 1 sentence.

Give syntactic characteristics of sentence 2 (orally).

Find the inversion in sentence 2.

How can you correlate the lines of this poem with the literary text offered to you at home for analysis? What problem do they have in common? (the problem of people’s indifferent attitude towards each other).

Let's read the text. (pre-prepared student).

3.Checking D\Z.

Please remind me of the composition of the essay - reasoning.

What is the problem?(This is the subject of discussion, the question on which the author discusses.)

What problems are identified in this text??(the problem of an indifferent attitude towards the people around you, the problem of a merciful attitude towards your neighbor, P the problem of the influence of art on the human soul).

We focused on the problem of a person’s indifferent attitude towards others. How did you formulate the problem of the text? Read it.

The next paragraph of our essay is a comment on the problem. What comment did you make? I suggest you check out this piece of essay. How did Ksyusha cope with this task?

Please, what errors did you see? What are the disadvantages of this work? What are the positive aspects? -Evaluate the work according to the K2 essay criteria.

Exchange work with your desk neighbor. Evaluate your friend’s work according to K2 criteria and fill in the appropriate column.

The next stage in writing an argumentative essay is to argue your own position.

PHYS. JUST A MINUTE

4.Explanation of new material.

In order to formulate your own position, it is not enough to just formally state your opinion: I agree (disagree) with the author’s opinion. Your position should be formulated in a separate sentence. For example: I agree with the author’s opinion: a person’s speech is an indicator of his intellectual and moral development. Indeed, sometimes speech “says” more about a person than his face, clothes and much more.

Argument structure.How to argue your position?

In this part of the work, you must strictly follow the rules for constructing an argumentative text.

The purpose of argumentation is to convince of something, to strengthen or change an opinion. For this, a logically coherent system of evidence is used.A typical (complete) argument is constructed according to a scheme in which three parts are distinguished:

Thesis (a position that needs to be proven);

Argumentation (evidence, arguments);

Micro-output

From the thesis to the arguments, you can ask the question “Why?”, and the arguments answer: “Because...”, that is, between the thesis and arguments, a logical and grammatical connection must also be established between individual arguments.

There are arguments worth 2 points: examples from fiction; examples from journalistic literature; examples from scientific literature.

Such arguments presuppose a reference to the author and the title of the work. It is also necessary to indicate specific characters, their actions, words, thoughts that demonstrate the connection of the work you are mentioning with the problem under consideration.

There are arguments worth 1 point: examples from life, personal observations and conclusions, references to authority, proverbs, sayings, examples from films.

5. Argumentation of one’s own position on the source text.

- Guys, is it possible to take lines from E. Yevtushenko’s poem, which we worked with at the beginning of the lesson, as one of the arguments?

In which works of fiction does the problem of people's indifference arise? (Andrei Platonov “Yushka”, K. Oboishchikov and his poem “Neighbor”, Alexander Isaevich Solzhenitsyn “Matrenin’s Dvor”)

Using the information received, write a fragment of your essay. (at this time the teacher checks the comments of 2 students)

6. Reading by students of the received fragments (2 people) and discussion according to K4 criteria

Assessing the argumentation of one’s own position according to criteria K4 (Work in pairs).

7. Lesson summary.

What does it mean to argue your position?

What should you remember when choosing your arguments?

8.Grading for work in class.

9.Students turn in worksheets for review.

10. D\Z. select arguments for the thesis: Art creates good people, shapes the human soul. (Pyotr Tchaikovsky)

Commentary on d/z.

One of the problems of Sergei Kachalkov’s text, which we mentioned in the previous lesson: the influence of art on people’s souls. I suggest you select arguments for the thesis: “Art creates good people, shapes the human soul.” (Pyotr Tchaikovsky). Remember that arguments from the reader's experience carry more weight. I suggest you look at a few slides of the presentation, which I hope will help you have a positive attitude towards completing your homework. (showing slides with paintings by various artists).

Worksheet for Russian language lesson 11th grade ___________________________________________

Last name, first name

Topic: Argumentation of one's own position. Types and structure of arguments.

1. Spelling warm-up.

What do we know about brothers and friends?

What do we know about our unity?

And about our own father we

Knowing everything (n..) we know (n..) what.

Evgeny Yevtushenko “There are no uninteresting people...”

Explain spellings, restore missing punctuation marks.

Make an outline of 1 sentence.

_____________________________________________________________________________

Give (orally) a syntactic description of 2 sentences.

What is inversion? Find the inversion in sentence 2. What is the purpose of inversion?

How can you correlate the lines of this poem with the literary text that you analyzed at home? What problem do they have in common?

2. Reading the text by Sergei Kachalkov.

Remember the composition of the essay - reasoning.

3.Checking D\Z. (Evaluation of each fragment of the essay is based on criteria K1-K3).

4. PHYS. JUST A MINUTE

5. Explanation of new material.

Argument structure

Thesis (a position that needs to be proven);

Argumentation (evidence, arguments);

Micro-output

6. Argumentation of your own position SCORE:__K4-_______

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CHAPTER 4

ARGUMENTATION OF OWN POSITION

NOTE! It is not enough to just formally state your opinion:I agree (disagree) with the author. Your position, even if it coincides with the author’s, must be formulated in a separate sentence.

For example: Thus, the author seeks to convey to the reader the idea that nature has long been in need of the help of each of us.I completely agree with the author and also believe that humanity should reconsider its consumer attitude towards nature.

Your position must then be supported by two arguments. In this part of the work, strictly follow the rules for constructing an argumentative essay.
Reasoning

Thesis

(a position that needs to be proven)

Argumentation

(evidence, arguments)

Conclusion

(Grand total)

Argumentation- this is the presentation of evidence, explanations, examples to substantiate any idea in front of listeners (readers) or interlocutors.

Arguments- this is evidence given in support of the thesis: facts, examples, statements, explanations - in a word, everything that can confirm the thesis.

An important element the arguments are illustrations, i.e. examples to support the argument. For example:

Thesis	A person’s speech is an indicator of his intellectual and moral development.
Argument 1	Indeed, sometimes speech will say more about a person than his face, clothes and much more.
Illustration for argument 1	For example, among my close friends there are no people whose speech is peppered with rude words. I am convinced that every such word carries a “negative charge”. And who would like to hear from loved one anything offensive to the ears.
Argument 2	The author’s correctness is also confirmed by the experience of fiction. It is no coincidence that writers have always considered a character's speech as the most important way of characterizing him.
Illustration for argument 2	Let us at least remember Porfiry Golovlev, the hero of the novel by M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin “Gentlemen Golovlevs”. Judushka (that’s his nickname!) doesn’t use foul language at all; on the contrary, at every step he throws out “affectionate” diminutive words (“cabbage”, “lamp”, “maslitse”, “mama”). However, throughout his speech, the hypocritical soul of a man for whom there is nothing more valuable than money and property is revealed.
Conclusion	Thus, nothing characterizes a person better than his speech.

TYPES OF ARGUMENTS:

brain teaser, or rational, - these are arguments that appeal to human reason, reason (scientific axioms, laws of nature, statistical data, examples from life and literature);
psychological arguments– arguments that evoke certain feelings, emotions in the addressee and form a certain attitude towards the described person, object, phenomenon (emotional conviction of the writer, appeal to universal human values etc.).

There are also other classifications arguments, for example:

rational (logical): real facts, statistics, laws of nature, regulations official documents;
illustrative: specific examples from life, examples from works of art, speculative examples;
references to authority: opinions outstanding people, quotes from authoritative sources, eyewitness opinions, public opinion.

Various methods of argumentation are possible: supportive And refuting.

At supporting argument the student agrees with the author’s opinion and provides arguments confirming the author’s thesis. For example:

THESIS

The Russian language and Russian culture form an inextricable unity.

__________________________________________________________

Argument 1 Argument 2

The connection between language and culture is obvious to everyone. We must not forget that in

thinking person. It is no coincidence that D.S. Likhachev turning points in history

in the book of essays “Native Land” he named the language native speech, native language become

the main wealth of the nation. In fact, all that spiritual support that

spiritual culture is unthinkable without language and speech and ensures the unity of the nation. Exactly

which not only create a special “cultural”, I.S. wrote about this. Turgenev in

layer", but also reflect the moral state of the prose poem "Russian Language"

people. (“Without you, how not to fall into despair

at the sight of what is happening at home").

Remember also the famous lines

poems by A. Akhmatova

"Courage", written in terrible

years of the Great Patriotic War:

“But we will save you, Russian speech,

great Russian word" It seems to me that in

this work is especially bright

the idea of the importance of Russian sounds

language for every Russian.

_______________________________________________________________

CONCLUSION

Yes, the Russian language is rich and magnificent,

and the task of each of us is to join

to this wealth and increase it.

At refuting argumentation the student does not agree with the author and, formulating his own position on the problem, puts forward a counterthesis (thesis opposite to the author’s), the truth of which he proves with two examples. For example:

Thesis: In war, value is realized human life.

Counterthesis: I cannot agree with the author: very often people who find themselves in inhumane conditions of war generally lose moral guidelines and cease to perceive life (especially that of others) as an unconditional value.

Argument 1: As an example, we can cite the people of the “lost generation” - this is what the West calls young front-line soldiers who fought in 1914 - 1918, regardless of the country for which they fought, and returned home morally or physically crippled. They are also called “unaccounted casualties of war.” After returning from the front, these people could not live a normal life again. After experiencing the horrors of war, everything else seemed petty and unworthy of attention to them.

Argument 2: Confirmation of my thoughts can be found in fiction. In 1930 – 1931, the German writer Erich-Maria Remarque created the novel “Return”, in which he talks about the return to their homeland after the First World War of young soldiers who can no longer live normally. Remarque describes the situation in which these people found themselves. When they returned, many of them found craters instead of their previous homes; most lost their relatives and friends. The war made them tough and cynical, destroying everything they previously believed in.

Conclusion: Thus, any war rather destroys all moral values than allows one to realize their significance. The history of two world wars serves as a dire warning for all those who think that war is just a nerve-wracking adventure that allows them to more acutely experience the fullness of life.
To prove the same thesis, you can use "arguments for a promise" (contain an indication of the positive consequences of accepting the thesis) or "arguments for the threat"(point to Negative consequences acceptance or non-acceptance of the thesis). For example:

Thesis

Good speech is an indicator of a person’s intellectual and moral development.

Argument to the promise

An opinion about a person is largely determined by the way he speaks. Good speech indicates well-readness, internal culture, and developed logic of thinking. For many specialties, oral and writing are a prerequisite professional growth. Any manager, consultant, translator, secretary is required to be able to quickly and competently draw up documents, maintain business conversations, to answer phone calls. Thus, good speech will always help a person of any profession achieve success.

Argument to the threat

Confirmation of the author’s thoughts can be found in the article by D.S. Likhachev “Learning to speak and write.” Dmitry Sergeevich emphasizes that speech is an indicator of a person’s culture, and mentions people who do not speak, but “spit words.” In fact, behind these “spitting words” lies ordinary cowardice and spiritual emptiness. “Speak so that I can see you,” the ancient Greek philosopher Socrates aptly said. Indeed, each of us should think about how our interlocutors see us, what they hear in our speech.

Arguments worth 2 points:

examples from fiction;
examples from journalistic literature;
examples from scientific (popular science) literature.

These arguments always involve reference to the author and title of the work; you must also indicate specific characters, their actions, words, thoughts that demonstrate the connection of the work of art you are mentioning with the problem considered in the source text. For example: M. Gorky wrote very emotionally and expressively about the problem of humanism in the story “The Old Woman Izergil”. Danko, the hero of one of the legends, sacrificed his life to save his people. He appeared just when people needed help, and led them, desperate and embittered, through the forest to freedom. The feat of Danko, who tore his heart out of his chest to illuminate the path to freedom, is a stunning example of true humanism and boundless love for people.

When giving examples from journalistic or scientific (popular science) literature, do not forget to indicate not only the name of the author, but also the title of the note, article, essay and, if possible, the name of the publication in which this material was published. For example: 1. On the problem of the influence of television on modern Russian society TV journalist Oleg Ptashkin reflects in an article “Trash-TV” published on the websitewww . gazeta . ru . According to the author, modern television in Russia is experiencing an acute crisis - a crisis of ideas and meaning. Those who create television programs do not think at all about the public benefit. The journalist is concerned that modern media promotes lack of spirituality and immorality, teaching people the idea that a normal life for the sake of family, children, and success at work is the lot of losers. The author is convinced that the main task of modern television is education: it should teach people to honor family, parents, and cultural traditions. Only then will television contribute to the revival of spirituality. 2. People who do not give in to life’s difficulties, who boldly face the truth, are the masters of their destiny. Historian Lev Gumilyov in his work “Ethnogenesis and the Biosphere of the Earth” called such people passionaries. Among them are many great historical figures, famous military leaders, fighters for freedom and human rights, and each of them contributed to the development of society.

Arguments worth 1 point:

examples from life;
own observations and conclusions;
speculative examples;
references to authorities;
proverbs and sayings, aphorisms (given without explanation);
examples from films.

Examples from life . Be careful with this type of argument because it is often unconvincing. For example: A good example The problems with this text are some of my classmates. Obviously, they were raised too little, and they were not accustomed to work from childhood, so they do nothing.

Look more convincing observations of people's lives and society as a whole , since individual facts in such examples are generalized and drawn up in the form of certain conclusions: I believe that empathy and compassion are instilled in people from childhood. If a child was surrounded by care and affection, then, as he grows up, he will give this goodness to others.

Supposed examples are thoughts about what might happen under certain conditions: I cannot imagine my life without books: without textbooks that help us understand the world, without fiction that reveals the secrets of human relationships and shapes moral values. Such a life would be incredibly poor and boring.

ARGUMENT STRUCTURE

2. Logical transition: It is no coincidence that Russian writers and poets in their works repeatedly turned to the theme of the homeland and created amazing images of our homeland - Russia.

3. Argument: A.S. Pushkin, M.Yu. Lermontov, N.A. Nekrasov, S.A. Yesenin, A.A. Blok - all these poets showed readers Russia from different sides, with its advantages and disadvantages, but above all - with great love to your Fatherland. I especially remember the lines from the poem by S.A. Yesenina:

If the holy army shouts:

“Throw away Rus', live in paradise!”

I will say: “There is no need for heaven,

Give me my homeland."

4. Micro-output: This is probably one of the poet’s most striking declarations of love for his homeland, which should not leave us, citizens of Russia, indifferent.

TYPICAL ARGUMENTATION ERRORS

1 . There are no arguments.	The absence of arguments, as a rule, indicates ignorance of the requirements for an argumentative essay and inattentive reading of the assignment for part C.
2 . The student’s “argument” does not develop the thesis, but paraphrases and repeats it(and therefore is not an argument).	It's hard to disagree with the author. I also believe that compassion is most important quality person, because everyone must learn to help their neighbor and have compassion for him.
3. Argumentation is replaced by an expression of one’s attitude towards the author, characters, and events of the source text.	I accept the author's position. I really liked the story about the horse described by Yu. Trifonov. It was a beautiful and free animal that everyone admired. The animal did not deserve the cruel reprisal that was inflicted on it.
4. Own argumentation is replaced by an analysis of the arguments used by the author. Instead of giving his own examples, the student examines in detail the argumentation used by the author. Such reasoning is possible in a commentary or when presenting the author’s position, but will not be accepted by the expert as your argument.	I completely agree with the position of the author of the text: people do not always appreciate historical figures. Firstly, the author cites as an example the fate of the Russian commander Barclay de Tolly, who was not understood and not appreciated by his contemporaries. Secondly, the text tells the story of the titan Prometheus, who stole fire for people, from which they made stew.(Note the speech defect in the last sentence.)
5. Deviation from the thesis manifests itself in the fact that the author of the essay, imperceptibly for himself, moves away from the idea he is proving, and begins to write about what he knows, and not about what needs to be proven.	I know that not all books are created equal. The covers of many of them are bright and colorful, they promise you unprecedented pleasure. In my opinion, all these promises will not lead to good things, and, as they say, there is only free cheese in a mousetrap. It is so indeed. Such situations have happened in my life. Once they promised me a free prize. I believed in a miracle, but then I had to pay for everything. These are the prizes! ( Disappointment in the “free prize” turned out to be more important for the author of the essay than the logic of the presentation of thoughts.)
6. The arguments do not correspond to the stated thesis. The lack of ability to construct a coherent, logically structured text often manifests itself in the fact that the essay turns into a certain set of thoughts that are practically unrelated to each other.	I completely share the author’s opinion: a person who cares not only about himself is unlikely to ever be left alone. I can cite the example of the famous writer Lev Nikolaevich Tolstoy. During his lifetime he was a count; in his youth he was characterized by familiarity and frivolity. But over the years, people change and accumulate life “baggage”. Towards the end of his life, dramatic changes occurred in his consciousness: he began to live modestly, there were no paintings on the walls. The house lacked the previous rich decoration, but the main thing was that this man was constantly working on himself.(Please note that the author of the essay treats the facts of Tolstoy’s biography very freely, and, in addition, the given “facts” do not confirm the stated thesis.)
7. Ethically incorrect presentation of arguments. Sometimes, when entering into an argument with the author, students show disrespect for the position of the interlocutor, which significantly reduces the persuasiveness of the arguments and leads to the loss of points for violation of ethical correctness.	So I’ve been sitting on the Internet at home for about a year and in a comfortable chair loading my brain with useful information, and not running around like this author through dusty and inconvenient libraries, choose the Internet yourself or sit in an inconvenient library.(We deliberately preserved the spelling and punctuation of the author of the essay. Judge for yourself: is there really so much useful information“downloaded” into his brain?)

TYPICAL ERRORS OF STUDENTS IN ARGUMENTATION

Let's look at some examples of unsuccessful argumentation of the thesis “Works of mass literature have negative impact on spiritual development person".

Example from an essay

Lesson " Argumentation: types and structure »

Lesson topic: Argumentation: types and structure

Lesson objectives:

– educational: give the concept of argumentation, the types and structure of arguments, show ways of selecting arguments;

– developing: develop the ability to analyze, identify a text problem, generalize and draw conclusions;

– educational: encourage students to be active,bring up communicative culture students

Lesson type : speech development lesson.

Lesson type : combined.

Methodical techniques: logical-structural analysis of a sample text,identification structural components argumentation, identifying the main problem of the text, the author’s position and formulating one’s own thesis on the identified problem.

Basic Concepts : text problem, commentary, author’s position, argumentation own opinion.

Equipment : PC, multimedia projector, handouts (texts).

References:

Dolinina T.A. Russian language. How to write an essay in Unified state exam. – M.: Iris-press, 2009. – 128 p.

Egoraeva G.T. Russian language. Commentary on the main problem of the text. Argumentation. Universal materials With methodological recommendations, solutions and answers. – M.: Publishing House “Exam”, 2013. – 318 p.

Rhetoric. Grade 11: Tutorial For secondary school/ Ed. T.A. Ladyzhenskaya. – M.: Yuventa Publishing House; Publishing house "Balass" 2004. – 224.:

Lesson plan:

1. Organizational moment.

2. Working on the topic of the lesson:

3. Consolidation of the studied material. Workshop on the topic of the lesson.

4.Homework

5. Summarizing. Reflection.

During the classes

1. Organizational stage.

introduction teachers.

Hello guys! We will devote our lesson to talking about arguing our own opinion. We will look at its types and features, and get acquainted with the methods of selecting arguments.

2. Work on the topic of the lesson.

1) Updating basic knowledge.

Please remind me of the composition of the argumentative essay. (Problem – Commentary on the problem – Author’s position – Own opinion – Argument 1 – Argument 2 - Conclusion ).

Remember: what is the purpose of reasoning? (Prove the truth of any position (thesis).

2) Introduction to the concept of argumentation and its components.

Teacher:In order to formulate your own position, it is not enough to just formally state your opinion:I agree (disagree) with the author's opinion. Your position should be formulated in a separate sentence. For example: I agree with the author’s opinion: a person’s speech is an indicator of his intellectual and moral development.

Argument structure. How to argue your position?

An argument is a thought or position that is used to prove the truth or falsity of a thesis. Argumentation is a process of proof.The purpose of argumentation is to convince of something, to strengthen or change an opinion. For this, a logically coherent system of evidence is used. A typical (complete) argument is constructed according to a scheme in which three parts are distinguished:

thesis (a position that needs to be proven);

argumentation (evidence, arguments);

micro-output.

There are arguments worth 2 points: examples from fiction; examples from journalistic literature; examples from scientific literature.

There are arguments worth 1 point: examples from life, personal observations and conclusions, references to authority, proverbs, sayings, examples from films.

There are certain types of arguments:

brain teaser (scientific findings, statistics, laws of nature, provisions of legal laws, official documents, eyewitness accounts);

illustrative (literary example);

speculative (references to authority: opinion of a scientist, philosopher).

3. Consolidation of the studied material. Workshop on the topic of the lesson.

Exercises to understand the structural and semantic features of reasoning and the structure of argumentation: logical-structural analysis of a sample text, identifying the structural components of argumentation.

Read the text. Consider the diagram for it.

There are still people who treat art, especially music, as entertainment. What a huge misconception this is!

“I would regret it if my music only entertained listeners. I tried to make them better,” wrote the wonderful German composer XVIII century Handel.

“To strike fire from the hearts of people” - this is what the great Beethoven strove for.

The genius of Russian music, Tchaikovsky, dreamed of “bringing consolation to people.”

How these words resonate with the words of Pushkin, amazing in their simplicity and clarity: “And for a long time I will be so kind to the people that I awakened good feelings with the lyre!..”

As the poet accurately defined the highest purpose of art - to awaken feelings in people! And this applies to all types of art, including music - the most emotional art.

Music is a large and serious part of life, a powerful means of spiritual enrichment. (According to D. Kabalevsky)

Treating music as entertainment is a huge misconception.

since since since since since since

Music makes people better people

Music strikes fire from hearts

Music brings people comfort

Music awakens good feelings

Music is a powerful means of spiritual enrichment

What information did you get from this text? What is this text about?

Do you agree that the circuit is done correctly? Justify your opinion. Are there possible scheme options?

Tell us about the role of arguments (arguments, conclusions) in revealing the main idea: how do they help the transmitted information become complete? What arguments does the author use?

Will the work done help you retell the text?

Read the text and complete the tasks.

Chekhov grew up in Taganrog, a multilingual port city and at that time a bustling center of international trade on the Sea of Azov. The writer's father, Pavel Yegorovich, was a remarkable man: he painted, played the violin, loved singing, and led a church choir. And all his life he remembered with admiration the steppe, on which he drove herds of cattle from a young age. However, trying at all costs to become one of the people, provide for his family, give his children an education, he went into commerce and opened a shop in Taganrog. Lacking the ability to trade, he suffered constant failures in his business. Maybe that’s why the father in the family often became irritable and rude. Many years later, Chekhov wrote to his brothers: “... despotism and lies have distorted our childhood to such an extent that it is sickening and scary to remember. Remember the horror and disgust we felt during that time, when my father started a riot at dinner because of too salty soup or scolded my mother as a fool. Father can now never forgive himself for all this.”

Anton Chekhov and his older brothers sat for hours in the shop from an early age, often toiled until late at night in the church choir, which their father led, and on holidays, rising before dawn, they went to sing in church. Pavel Yegorovich constantly used spanking as an educational tool.

And yet it was a friendly family. The father's intemperance was softened by the mother's warmth. All the children - five sons and a daughter - were attached to their parents and to each other. And everyone was gifted. The family loved invention, jokes, and appreciated art.

(M. Kachurin)

1. Name the problems that the author raises in this text.

2. What category does this problem fall into?

A) philosophical

B) psychological

B) moral

D) environmental

4. Homework : In the works of which writersXIX- XXhas this problem been going on for centuries? Name their works. Formulate your opinion and provide arguments.

5. Summing up. Reflection.

Thus, arguing your own opinion on an issue is a very important criterion for assessing your written work.

– What new did you learn in the lesson?

– What did you learn in the lesson?

Today you learned thatthe argument must correspond to what is asserted (the argument must prove exactly what is asserted); the argument must be convincing. The argument, the given example, should not just act as a vivid narrative or descriptive microtext, but prove or disprove this or that statement.

Identification of the author's position is assessed according to the KZ criterion. Let us recall that the author’s position is the conclusion to which the author comes when thinking about a problem. The author's position can be obvious when the text gives a direct assessment of the described facts and events, sounds like a call to the reader. But it often happens that the author’s position is not expressed. Then identifying it requires the ability to see hidden meaning, understand irony, reveal complex metaphors etc. Another difficulty is to distinguish between the position of the author and the hero-narrator. Note that if a hero commits bad deeds or expresses thoughts that contradict generally accepted moral standards, then the author most likely does not approve of such a hero and his attitude to life. Author's position

Model constitutions will help formulate the author's position: The author's position is as follows: ... The author believes that ... The author strives to convey to the reader the idea that ... The author convinces us that ... The text proves the idea that ... The main idea of the text is that... Although the author's position is not expressed explicitly, the logic of the text convinces the reader that...

One of them is the question of harmony. problem For many centuries, humanity has been troubled by many “eternal” questions. One of them is the question of harmony. So, what is harmony and what is the role of this concept in human life and society? Ya. Katin is thinking about this complex problem. It would seem that the author used the word harmony only once. The noun equilibrium is used much more often in the text. However, if at the beginning of the passage we are talking about a sense of balance in the body, then at the end the author writes specifically about harmony - in the spiritual life of a person in society, in nature, in the Universe: “ecologists are concerned about balance on our planet... astrophysicists admire the balance in stellar systems ..." We note with sad surprise that Katin writes with admiration about balance as a comprehensive concept. And we notice with sad surprise that although a person sees harmony and consistency in the life of nature, harmony does not always reign in our spiritual and mental life. And how there is a lack of harmony in today’s world, shaken by political crises and military conflicts! I think I think that the author’s position can be formulated as follows: all living things strive for balance - “a balance of internal and external forces", which helps to survive. Man, like any living organism, is a part of nature, and the natural desire for harmony should guide man and society on the path of truth, justice and goodness. Essay fragment

Attention! In the 2009 demo version, criterion K4 was changed, dedicated to the student’s argumentation of his opinion on the problem. To get maximum points, you must use arguments from scientific, fiction or journalistic literature that demonstrate the student’s erudition and erudition. Argumentation is the presentation of evidence, explanations, examples to substantiate any idea in front of listeners (readers) or an interlocutor. Arguments are evidence given in support of a thesis: facts, examples, statements, explanations - in a word, everything that can confirm the thesis. Thesis in essay on the Unified State Exam is the author's position on the issue under consideration. Arguments should confirm or refute the author's opinion. There are different types of arguments (logical, psychological, illustrative). Argumentation of your own opinion

Types of arguments Logical arguments are arguments that appeal to human reason, to reason. These include: scientific axioms; provisions of laws and official documents; laws of nature, conclusions confirmed experimentally; expert opinions; quotes from authoritative sources; eyewitness testimony; statistical data; examples from life or fiction.

Psychological arguments are arguments that evoke certain feelings in the addressee; emotions form a certain attitude towards the person, object, or phenomenon being described. These include: the emotional conviction of the writer; links to authoritative sources (quotes, aphorisms, proverbs); examples that evoke an emotional response from the addressee; an indication of the positive or negative consequences of accepting the author's thesis; appeal to universal human moral values (compassion, conscience, honor, duty, etc.).

Thesis A person’s speech is an indicator of his intellectual and moral development. Argument 1 Indeed, sometimes speech “says” more about a person than his face, clothes and much more. Illustrations for argument 1 For example, among my close friends there are no people whose speech is peppered with rude words. I am convinced that every such word carries a “negative charge”. And who would want to hear something offensive to the ears from a loved one? Arguments 2 The author’s correctness is confirmed by the experience of fiction. It is no coincidence that writers have always considered a character's speech as the most important way to reveal his character. Illustrations for argument 2 Let us at least remember Porfiry Golovlev, the hero of the novel by M.E. Saltykova-Shchedrin"Messrs. Golovlevs." Judas (that’s his nickname!) doesn’t use foul language at all; on the contrary, at every step he throws out “affectionate” diminutive words (cabbage, lamp, butter, mamenka). However, throughout his speech, the hypocritical soul of a man for whom there is nothing more valuable than money and property is revealed. Conclusion Thus, nothing characterizes a person better than his speech. Illustrative arguments. An important element of argumentation is illustrations, i.e. examples to support the argument.

Essay fragment I completely agree with the author. Indeed, many books provide insight into complex world human personality. Thus, the greatest Russian writers of the 19th century L.N. Tolstoy and F.M. Dostoevsky created psychologically deep, multifaceted images of heroes in his books, revealing for readers the innermost secrets of the human soul. The spiritual searches and delusions of Rodion Raskolnikov, Pierre Bezukhov, Andrei Bolkonsky are examples of the intense life of the human personality, allowing us to come closer to understanding what a person is, how his soul lives. In addition, books are what unites us all into a certain cultural community: for example, educated people of any country are familiar with the works of Dante, Cervantes, Shakespeare, Dostoevsky - the best books, included in the treasury of human thought. These works constitute the “memory of humanity”, store the lessons of the past, the experience of many generations, allowing us to better understand the world and yourself. EXAMPLE 1. Thesis: a book is the most important tool that helps a person to understand the world around him and himself.

Refuting argumentation In refuting argumentation, two options are possible: 1) the student selects two arguments that refute the truth of the author’s position, and in conclusion formulates a counterthesis (a thought opposite to the author’s); 2) formulating his own position on the problem, the student puts forward a counterthesis and proves its truth with two arguments.

Essay fragment I cannot agree with the author. It seems to me that there is no point in contrasting a computer and a book. Firstly, with the advent computer technology the book simply took on a new form. For example, electronic media have made books more convenient. Suffice it to remember that the information in thirty volumes of the Bolshoi Soviet encyclopedia Fits on two laser discs! And numerous audiobooks made it possible to hear already well-known and new works performed by professional artists. Secondly, in new form the book has become more accessible. Thanks to the power of the Internet Electronic libraries can be used without leaving home. Artistic or educational book You can download it to your phone and read it on the train or subway. And on several disks you can take your entire home library with you! So, an ordinary book and a computer are different shapes storing information, and everyone chooses for themselves the one that suits their habits and needs. EXAMPLE 2. Thesis: a computer cannot replace a book.

Analysis of errors Typical errors of argumentation: the student considers one problem, but gives arguments related to another problem in the text; the thoughts presented are not arguments for the thesis put forward; only examples (often hastily invented) are given as arguments, without explaining their connection with the thesis; in the part of the essay devoted to argumentation, the first and second arguments are not distinguished; there are no transitions between arguments; no output.

Fragments of essays I cannot but agree with the author’s opinion, because the writer’s point of view is expressed quite convincingly. As own example I can give you the following case: before choosing a serious profession, I think through this decision very carefully, I read a lot of books. (The given example has no relation to the thesis and is not an argument). It seems to me that books will soon disappear because people are reading less. Cinema is what people pay more attention to. But for now, more and more new books are being published and new authors are appearing. This means books will bring us more and more joy. (The reasoning not only does not correlate with the thesis, but also reveals an internal contradiction: the last sentence contradicts the first). Firstly, the huge sea of books confronts the young man with the problem of choice. Secondly, I’m even scared to imagine the absence of a literature teacher in my life. Without him, I would never have been able to comprehend a small part of what is contained in classical literature. (The first argument needs an example, an explanation. The second is not related to the thesis). EXAMPLE 3. Thesis: works of mass literature have a destructive effect on the spiritual development of a person.

In my life, I also came across magazines and novels that attracted me with their covers, but as soon as I read them, I was overcome by a feeling of boredom. One day I went to the country and took with me new magazines that I had recently bought. When I started leafing through them and then reading them, I didn’t become interested, I just flipped through the pages. (One may doubt that the described case is a confirmation of the thesis.) I agree with the author's opinion, because in our country there should not be novels and advertising that would turn people's heads. For example, I witnessed such a case. A neighbor lives in the same house with me. He read an advertisement in the newspaper. It said that you could win a car for just a thousand rubles. He fell for this advertisement, sending a thousand rubles, but received nothing in return. He was simply scammed. Therefore, I believe that you cannot trust advertising; it is better not to read it at all. (Substitution of the thesis. The author of the essay deviates from the thesis, arguing about the dangers of advertising. Poor speech is sprinkled with slang words - an ethical mistake). The author, in my opinion, increases this problem. I don’t think that novels and thrillers of this type are harmful to the body, but they can develop people’s fantasies and simply move away from all problems and affairs. (Poor speech, speech errors prevent the author of the essay from correctly expressing his thoughts in the form of a reasonable argument). Unfortunately, examples of arguing one’s own position using references to artistic, scientific or journalistic texts are much less common.

Fragments of essays I completely agree with the author: it is impossible to imagine the life of a society in which there is no sympathy, compassion for one’s neighbor. It was the love of humanity that brilliant Russian writers, such as Leo Tolstoy, taught their readers. Tolstoy's favorite heroes are for real kind and merciful natures. Remember Pierre Bezukhov, who, like the author of the novel “War and Peace,” built schools and hospitals for peasants. Remember Natasha Rostova, who convinces her family to give carts to the wounded. These actions of the heroes are an example of a sincere desire to help people and make the lives of others easier. I am sure that the desire to help someone who is in trouble is a natural need normal person. We strive to come to the aid of friends and family who find themselves in difficult situations. Our state and other countries send humanitarian aid to areas affected by natural disasters or military conflicts. All this gives each of us confidence that we are not alone in this world, that the humane element is still alive in man. EXAMPLE 4. Thesis: the ability to sympathize and compassion is the most important quality of a person.

Semantic integrity The text is determined by how well thought out the composition of the work is. Composition is the structure of an essay, the relationship of its individual parts and the relationship of each part to the entire essay as a single whole. Traditionally, three parts of the essay are distinguished: 1) introduction, in which the problem of the text is usually formulated; 2) the main part, which includes commentary, the author’s position, the writer’s own position and arguments; 3) a conclusion that summarizes the results.

Various composition options are possible. However, it is best to structure the work in accordance with the criteria by which it will be checked: 1) Introduction. 2) Formulation of the problem. 3) Comment. 4) Author's position. 5) Your opinion (agree/disagree with the author’s position). 6) First argument. 7) Second argument. 8) Conclusion. All parts of the work must be interconnected and flow smoothly into one another. To do this, it is necessary to determine the course of development of thought, to think through the logical transitions between parts. Each part should start on a new line. The lack of connections between paragraphs is a typical flaw in essays, for which points are deducted according to the K5 criterion. In addition, typical errors include deviations from the topic, disproportion of parts, violation of the sequence of thoughts, lack of connection between sentences.

Working on the introduction It is important to remember that the main purpose of the introduction is to lead to the formulation of the problem. This can be done in various ways. 1. Problematic question. 1. Problematic question. Can a computer replace a book? This is the problem that attracted the author. General information on the issue under discussion. 2. General information on the problem under discussion. The development of human civilization has long crossed the line beyond which the harmonious coexistence of nature and man remains. Today, when water and air are polluted, rivers dry up, forests disappear, animals die, people look to the future with alarm and are increasingly thinking about the tragic consequences of their activities. The text by V. Peskov is also devoted to the problem of ecology...

Link to an authoritative opinion on an issue close to the issue being discussed 3. Link to an authoritative opinion on an issue close to the issue being discussed. problem. Psychologists say that television addiction is a real disease for many people. modern society. Indeed, it is difficult for each of us to imagine our life without TV. What role does television play in a person’s life? What does TV bring to our home - good and evil? V. Soloukhin thought about this problem. Addressing the reader in order to evoke certain things in his memory 4. Addressing the reader in order to evoke certain things in his memory life situations related to the text problem. life situations related to the text problem. Have you ever silently walked past unbelted young guys swearing in in public places? Remember: have you always corrected people who offended someone who was younger or weaker? Of course, in the lives of each of us there were cases when it was necessary to intervene, intercede, help, but we preferred calm inaction. The author raises the problem of people's indifference to the evil around them.

Creating a certain emotional mood. 5. Creating a certain emotional mood. Childhood experiences are probably one of the most precious and significant memories in human life. The places with which the formation of personality is associated remain forever in memory, and more than once we mentally return to this world, colored with bright colors. What role does the memory of a person play in a person’s life? home, about your homeland? The author reflects on this problem. Description of feelings, thoughts, impressions that arose after 6. Description of feelings, thoughts, impressions that arose after reading the text. reading text. After reading F. Iskander’s text, I remembered all the best moments of my childhood: trips with friends out of town, victories at sports competitions, summers at a holiday camp... How many bright childhood memories the memory holds! Why is childhood especially significant for a person? What role does childhood play in the lives of each of us? This problem attracted the attention of the author.

A quotation from the source text (or other source) related to the problem under consideration 7. A quotation from the source text (or other source) related to the problem under consideration. problem. "Can you imagine modern world devoid of a printed sign? - writes Yuri Bondarev, inviting his readers to reflect on the problem of the meaning of the book in human life and society. After reading the text by Dmitry Sergeevich Likhachev, I involuntarily remembered the famous phrase of Socrates: “Speak so that I can see you,” since the author’s focus is on the problem of speech as a reflection of a person’s personality. Appeal to the facts of the author’s biography, his views, beliefs. 8. Appeal to the facts of the author’s biography, his views, beliefs. Academician Dmitry Sergeevich Likhachev, literary critic and public figure, in his speeches and journalistic works always stated that spiritual and material culture is the highest value of life. The above text touches on the problem put forward by D.S. Likhachev, - the problem of cultural ecology. In any case, the speech should not be very voluminous; it should be organically connected with the content of the main part in meaning and stylistically.

Working on the conclusion Like the introduction, the conclusion should be organically connected with the main text. Let's look at different ways to write a conclusion. Generalization of the author's main thoughts 1. Generalization of the author's main thoughts is the most typical and logical ending of an essay. Thus. A. Likhanov raises an issue that is important for each of us, calls for preserving childhood in the soul, not leaving a joyful, child-like perception of life in the past. But the world around us is truly beautiful. It’s just that, as people grow up, they often forget about this. Interrogative sentence, including a rhetorical question, 2. An interrogative sentence, including a rhetorical question, at the end of an essay also returns the reader to the problem of the text, emphasizing its relevance. Fiction gives us countless treasures of the human spirit! Does any of us have the right to refuse this? priceless gift?

3. Appeal, appeal to the reader. 3. Appeal, appeal to the reader. So, before you turn on the TV and immerse yourself in a wonderful, but unreal world, think about whether there are people around you who need consolation, help, or just a kind, living word. Remember: you are surrounded by a genuine world, full of sounds, colors, sensations. Think: who do you want to be - the creator of your life or just a spectator? 4.Use of quotation. 4. Using a quote. In conclusion, I want to turn again to the thought of the ancient Greek philosopher Socrates. So, talk to me, my new interlocutor, so that I can see you, so that I understand what kind of person you are and what I can expect from you! It should be remembered that not every quote will be appropriate in the conclusion. This should be a statement that sufficiently fully expresses the thoughts of the author. It is appropriate to use a small fragment that contains keywords text or quotation from another source that accurately reflects the position of the author of the source text.

According to the K7-K12 criteria, the literacy of the essay is assessed - compliance with language norms. Of course, the work must be written correctly. It is noteworthy that many errors (especially punctuation) can be explained by haste when copying into a clean copy, so it is important to correctly rewrite into a clean copy, so it is important to correctly allocate the time allotted for the exam. Typically, test authors advise spending 1.5 hours to complete the test part and the same amount to work on the essay. I think that a well-prepared student to perform test tasks minutes are enough. The remaining time should be devoted to the creative part.

Factual errors Separately, it should be said about factual errors - distortion of information about events, objects, persons mentioned in the text of the essay. The following types of factual errors are usually encountered: 1. Distortion of facts contained in the text; 2. Incorrect characterization of the example, phenomenon discussed in the text; 3. Incorrect presentation of facts not mentioned in the source text, which students use in a detailed answer (biographical facts of the author or hero of the text, last name dates, authorship of the named works, etc.). As we can see, the main reasons for the appearance of factual errors are inattentive reading of the source text, as well as the student’s narrow-mindedness.

To summarize, you can give students a few useful tips. 1. You should not rewrite sentences from task B8, devoted to the means of expressiveness of the source text. Remember that the text of this assignment is printed in the materials for essay reviewers, and rewritten sentences are excluded from the word count (the recommended length of the essay is at least 150 words). there is no need to specifically analyze the means of expression used in the text (especially since this has already been done in task B8). In the commentary, one can pay attention to particularly striking, persistently repeated linguistic means that attract the reader’s attention to the main thoughts of the text, but a simple listing of the techniques used by the author (“the author masterfully uses series homogeneous members", etc.) not only does not decorate the work, but also violates the logic of the development of thought.

3. Check if you have written down the author's last name correctly. Unfortunately, surnames are often distorted in essays, even famous writers and publicists. 4. Be careful when determining the genre of the text: do not rush to call it a “story” or “article”, since you can assume the text, fragment, excerpt. actual error. It is better to use the words text, fragment, excerpt. 5. When formulating a problem and the author’s position, try to avoid complex author’s metaphors. It is better to express the corresponding thoughts in your own words. 6. It is not necessary to indicate the style of speech to which the text belongs. Typically, sentences like Text belong to the journalistic style, as they say, “hang in the air” and remain unrelated to the subsequent thoughts of the essay. Much less common are justified references to the style of speech, when the stylistic form of the text is associated with its The author does not accidentally turn to the journalistic style, because the content: The author does not accidentally turn to the journalistic style, because he is concerned about this social problem, How…

7. If you use the author's neologism, be sure to enclose it in quotation marks, otherwise in your text this word will look like a grammatical error. 8. Observe ethical standards: do not use rude, abusive, slang words (I don’t understand how one can lead to such nonsense (I don’t understand how one can lead to such nonsense, etc.), refrain from (I can give my example a classmate who is distinguished by rare insults (I can give an example of my classmate, who is distinguished by rare stupidity), stupidity), do not be too categorical, arrogant, do not brag. Remember that ethical correctness is separately assessed by an expert only in black gel 9. Write your essay carefully, legibly. handwriting and only with black gel paste. Experts check scanned copies of works. Text written with a ballpoint pen is lost during scanning.

When entering into a discussion, we always use a specific strategy appropriate to the situation, sometimes without even thinking about it. Let's look at practical techniques for arguing and expressing your own position: various tips, tried and tested methods, as well as typical mistakes that can arise during negotiations and prevent the successful completion of the discussion.

We all negotiate every day: with friends, work colleagues, acquaintances. Most of the time we don't even realize we're doing it because it's an everyday activity. When entering into a discussion, we always use a specific strategy appropriate to the situation, sometimes without even thinking about it.

For some people, the very fact that the thing they are about to undertake is called "negotiation" makes them nervous and anxious. However, it is possible to develop “immunity” to negotiations as a normal and everyday matter. Below are practical techniques for arguing and expressing your position: various tips, tried and tested methods. This list can be supplemented as communication experience accumulates.

Argumentation tactics

1. The attitude towards your partner should not only be friendly, but also not self-centered. Only with mutual respect and consideration of each other’s interests will communication be truly partnership-based, based on mutual respect and consideration of each other’s interests. Egocentrism prevents this, not allowing a person to change the angle of view when perceiving and assessing events, to see them from a different sides and in its entirety. It forces a person to act in his own “coordinate system”, approach his partner’s statements with his own standards, and interpret the information coming from him in a light favorable to himself. The position of a person who communicates in such a manner cannot be called objective, and his arguments cannot be called convincing.

2. You should respect the interlocutor and his position, even if it is unacceptable. Nothing is more destructive to communication than the arrogant and disdainful attitude of partners towards each other. If, in response to his argument, the partner detects a note of irony or contempt in the opponent’s speech, then one can hardly count on a favorable outcome of the conversation.

3. Argumentation should be carried out “on the field” of the interlocutor, that is, work directly with his arguments. Demonstrating their inconsistency or the undesirable consequences of their adoption, one should put forward ones in their place that are more acceptable in the interests of the common cause. This will give a better effect than repeating your own arguments over and over again.

4. It is easier for a convinced person to convince a partner. By defending your point of view, you can quickly influence your interlocutor. In this case, in addition to logic influencing the rational layers of the psyche, the mechanism of emotional infection is activated. Captivated by his idea, a person speaks emotionally and figuratively, which plays an important role in persuasion. Thus, appealing not only to the mind, but also to the heart of the interlocutor gives results. However, excessive emotionality, indicating a lack of logical argumentation, can cause resistance from the opponent.

5. Excitement and agitation during persuasion are interpreted as uncertainty of the persuader, and therefore reduce the effectiveness of argumentation. Outbursts of anger, shouting, and swearing cause a negative reaction from the interlocutor, forcing him to defend himself. The best means are politeness, diplomacy, tact. But at the same time, politeness should not turn into flattery.

6. It is better to begin a phrase of argumentation with a discussion of those issues on which it is easier to reach agreement with the opponent. The more the partner agrees, the greater the chances of achieving desired result. Only after this should we move on to discussing controversial issues. The main, most powerful arguments should be repeated many times, in different wording and context.

7. Structuring information works effectively: sorting, highlighting primary arguments and organizing them. You can arrange arguments into logical, temporary, and other blocks.

8. It is useful to develop a detailed argumentation plan, taking into account the opponent’s possible counterarguments. Having a plan will help you build the logic of the conversation - the core for your arguments. This will organize the interlocutor’s attention and thinking and make it easier for him to understand his partner’s position.

9. In speech, it is better to use simple, clear expressions, without abusing professional terminology and in foreign words. A conversation can “drown” in a “sea” of vague concepts. Misunderstanding causes irritation and boredom in the interlocutor. It is easy to find a compromise if you take into account the educational and cultural level of your opponent. Using words persistently, firmly and decisively is the tactic of a successful diplomat.

10. Uncertainty and vagueness may be perceived by the interlocutor as insincerity. You should negotiate using reason and a sense of strength, emphasizing confidence in your point of view, but showing respect for the point of view of your opponent.

11. Each new thought should be clothed in a new sentence. Sentences should not be in the form of a telegraphic message, but they should not be drawn out too much either. Extended arguments are usually associated with doubts on the part of the speaker. Short and simple phrases should not be constructed according to the norms literary language, but according to the laws colloquial speech. The most important points can be highlighted intonationally.

12. The flow of arguments in monologue mode dulls the attention and interest of the interlocutor. Skillfully placed pauses activate them. If it is necessary to emphasize some idea, then it is better to express it through a pause and slightly delay the speech after making the thought public. The partner will be able to take advantage of the timely pause and enter into a conversation, giving his comments. Neutralizing your interlocutor’s claims along the way is much easier than unwinding a tangle of them at the end of the argument. A prolonged pause causes the interlocutor to tense up and fuss internally.

13. The principle of clarity when presenting arguments is very effective. The clarity of the image is facilitated by the activation of the interlocutor’s imagination. For this purpose, it is useful to use vivid comparisons, metaphors, and aphorisms that help reveal the meaning of words and enhance their persuasive effect. The identification of the truth is facilitated by various analogies, parallels, and associations, when they are appropriate and take into account the experience of the interlocutor. Well-chosen examples and facts from life itself will strengthen the arguments. There shouldn’t be many of them, but they should be visual and convincing.

15. You should never tell a person that he is wrong. This will not convince him, but will only hurt his pride, and he will take a position of self-defense. After this, it is unlikely that he will be convinced. It’s better to act more diplomatically: “Perhaps I’m wrong, but let’s see...” This good way offer your interlocutor your argument. It is better to admit your own wrongness immediately and openly, even if it is unprofitable, but in the future you can count on similar behavior from your partner.

16. Honesty or perseverance, gentleness or aggressiveness - a way of behavior in negotiations. This is what people will be prepared for next time and what they will be prepared to deal with. People have long memories, especially when they feel they have been treated unfairly in some way. A person who takes an aggressive approach always tries to get as much as possible from the other party and strives to give as little as possible. The productivity of this approach is the opposite: potential partners are less cooperative and usually will not deal with this person more than once.

16. A rough approach to negotiations produces limited and short-lived results. Pushing or forcing a partner to make a decision can have the opposite effect: the opponent will be stubborn and adamant. Smoothly leading your interlocutor to a decision will undoubtedly require more time, patience and persistence, but this path is more likely to achieve a satisfactory and sustainable result.

17. You should not bet in advance on resolving the problem in your favor. When two people are involved in a discussion, they both feel that they are presented with an opportunity and that they need to get as much as possible from this negotiation. Each person may believe that the truth is on his side, that he is in a better position to justify his proposals or make demands. You may have to defend your point of view in a dispute with a person who negotiates defiantly and rudely. Excessive firmness can interfere with this: it is important to be ready to make concessions in order to achieve the desired result.

18. To overcome the negative attitude of the interlocutor, you can create the illusion that the proposed idea or point of view belongs to him. To do this, it is enough just to point him to the appropriate thought and give him the opportunity to draw a conclusion from it. This great way gain his trust in the proposed idea.

19. You can refute your interlocutor’s remark even before it is made - this will save you from subsequent excuses. However, more often this is done after the statement. You should not retort immediately: this may be perceived by your partner as disrespect for his position. You can postpone your response to comments until a more appropriate moment from a tactical point of view. It is possible that by that time it will have lost its meaning, and then there will be no need to answer it at all.

20. If you need to make critical comments to your opponent, you should remember that the purpose of criticism is to help your interlocutor see the mistake and its possible consequences, and not to prove that he is worse. Criticism should not be directed at the partner’s personality, but at erroneous actions and actions. Criticism should be preceded by recognition of any merits of the partner, this will help get rid of resentment.

21. Instead of expressing your dissatisfaction, it is better to suggest a way to eliminate the error. This can achieve the following:

take the initiative in choosing means to solve the problem and best protect your interests;
leave room for further joint activities.

22. To resolve conflicts, it is useful to change the position “me against you” to the position “we are against a common problem.” This approach implies a willingness to negotiate terms, but at the same time it helps to achieve a solution that is as satisfying as possible for both parties.

23. The ability to end a conversation if it has taken an undesirable direction is also of no small importance. You need to know the point at which you should retreat and stop negotiating due to the inability to accept the required conditions.

It may also happen that the result of the negotiations did not meet the expectations of one of the partners. Probably, the reason lies not in the lack of mutual understanding, but in the erroneous tactics of conducting the discussion. Here are a few typical mistakes problems that may arise during negotiations and interfere with the successful completion of the discussion:

Improvisation in preparation for a conversation.
The purpose of the conversation is unclear.
Poor speech organization.
Unfounded arguments.
Lack of attention to detail.
Lack of sincerity.
Lack of tact.
Reassessment of one's own position.
Disrespect for the position of the interlocutor.
Reluctance to compromise.

Those who play an active role should especially avoid such mistakes. This will help make the argument more convincing, gain the trust of the listener, and appear before him as a whole person.

Alexander Vladimirovich Morozov, head of department social psychology Institute of the Humanities, corresponding member International Academy psychological sciences.