What did the people of the Sumerian civilization do. Sumerian civilization. Genetic engineering methods

In the southeastern part of Mesopotamia, on the banks of the Tigris and Euphrates, the ancient region of Sumer was located, where in the 4th-3rd millennium BC. Sumerians appeared - one of the first civilizations with their own written language. It took a lot of time to study it to figure out what was what.

Writing and language Sumer

On the territory of modern Iraq was once a great and powerful civilization. These people were well educated. They invented cuneiform writing, which our scientists have been deciphering for quite some time. It is difficult because it does not look like any of the languages ​​​​that only exist in the world. Also, the Sumerian people knew about the technology of the wheel and had an idea about fired bricks. What language these ancient people spoke is also not established. The whole process is still in development.

Sumerian writing consisted of pictograms. At first, the number of signs in the language was about a thousand, but over time it was reduced to 600. Half of the signs were used simultaneously as logograms and syllabograms, and the other half simply as logograms. When reading, one sign-ideogram meant one word. The writing of the Sumerians was quite complex and has not yet been sufficiently studied to this day.

Culture of ancient civilization

Not all ancient cities can be proud of the kind of achievements that the Sumerians brought to our world. On account of their wheel and writing, agricultural implements and potter's wheel, irrigation system and brewing. Sumerian literature has also reached our time, namely the Epic of Gilgamesh, which is a collection of local legends. Many of them are fictitious and have no confirmation, and some are closely related to biblical stories, such as Noah's ark.

Sumerian architecture

On the territory of Mesopotamia there was not much wood and stone, so the first buildings were built from mud brick, clay, straw and sand. Liquid clay, sand and silt were used as a solution. Interesting places have come down to our days. The ruins of secular palaces and religious buildings of that time have been preserved.

Particularly impressive are the temples that resemble a stepped pyramid. Residential houses of the local population were also excavated, which were an open courtyard with numerous covered buildings around it. Often an open courtyard was replaced by a central room with a ceiling. This layout was chosen due to the climatic features of the region.

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The Sumerians are an ancient people who once inhabited the territory of the valley of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers in the south of the modern state of Iraq (Southern Mesopotamia or Southern Mesopotamia). In the south, the boundary of their habitat reached the shores of the Persian Gulf, in the north - to the latitude of modern Baghdad.

For a whole millennium, the Sumerians were the main actors in the ancient Near East. According to the currently accepted relative chronology, their history continued through the Proto-literate period, the Early Dynastic period, the period of the Akkadian dynasty, the era of the Gutians and the era of the third kingdom of the dynasty of Ur. Proto-literate period (XXX-XXVIII centuries) * - the time of the arrival of the Sumerians to the territory of the Southern Mesopotamia, the construction of the first temples and cities and the invention of writing. The Early Dynastic Period (abbreviated RD) is divided into three sub-periods: RD I (c. 2750-c. 2615), when the statehood of the Sumerian cities was just being formed; RD II (c. 2615-c. 2500), when the formation of the main institutions of Sumerian culture (temple and school) begins; RD III (c.2500-c.2315) - the beginning of the internecine wars of the Sumerian rulers for superiority in the region. Then, for more than a century, the reign of kings of Semitic origin, immigrants from the city of Akkad (XXIV-beginning of XXII centuries) lasted. Sensing the weakness of the last Akkadian rulers, the wild tribes of the Gutians attack the Sumerian land, who also rule the country for a century. The last century of Sumerian history is the era of the III dynasty of Ur, the period of centralized government of the country, the dominance of the accounting and bureaucratic system and, paradoxically, the heyday of the school and the verbal and musical arts (XXI-XX centuries). After the fall of Ur under the blows of the Elamites in 1997, the history of the Sumerian civilization ends, although the main institutions of the state and traditions created by the Sumerians over ten centuries of active work continue to be used in Mesopotamia for about two more centuries, until Hamurappi (1792-1750) came to power.

Sumerian astronomy and mathematics were the most accurate in the entire Middle East. We still divide the year into four seasons, twelve months and twelve signs of the zodiac, measure angles, minutes and seconds in sixties - the way the Sumerians first began to do it. We call the constellations by their Sumerian names translated into Greek or Arabic language and through the mediation of these languages ​​​​fell into ours. We also know astrology, which, along with astronomy, first appeared in Sumer and for centuries has not lost its influence on the human mind.

We care about the education and harmonious upbringing of children - and after all, the world's first school, which taught the sciences and arts, arose at the beginning of the 3rd millennium - in the Sumerian city of Ur.

When we go to see a doctor, we all ... receive prescriptions for medicines or advice from a psychotherapist, completely without thinking about the fact that both herbal medicine and psychotherapy first developed and reached a high level precisely among the Sumerians. While receiving a subpoena and counting on the justice of judges, we also do not know anything about the founders of legal proceedings - the Sumerians, whose first legislative acts contributed to the development of legal relations in all parts of the Ancient World. Finally, thinking about the vicissitudes of fate, lamenting the fact that we were cheated at birth, we repeat the same words that the philosophizing Sumerian scribes first brought to clay - but hardly even guesses about it.

But perhaps the most significant contribution of the Sumerians to the history of world culture is the invention of writing. Writing has become a powerful accelerator of progress in all areas of human activity: with its help, property accounting and production control were established, economic planning became possible, a stable education system appeared, the amount of cultural memory increased, as a result of which the new kind tradition based on following the canon of the written text. Writing and education have changed the attitude of people towards one written tradition and the value system associated with it. The Sumerian type of writing - cuneiform - was used in Babylonia, Assyria, the Hittite kingdom, the Hurrian state of Mitanni, in Urartu, in Ancient Iran, in the Syrian cities of Ebla and Ugarit. In the middle of the 2nd millennium, cuneiform was a letter of diplomats; even the pharaohs of the New Kingdom (Amenhotep III, Akhenaten) used it in their foreign policy correspondence. The information that came down from cuneiform sources was used in one form or another by the compilers of the books of the Old Testament and Greek philologists from Alexandria, scribes of Syrian monasteries and Arab-Muslim universities They were known both in Iran and in medieval India. In Europe of the Middle Ages and the Renaissance, “Chaldean wisdom” (the ancient Greeks called astrologers and doctors from Mesopotamia Chaldeans) was held in high esteem first by hermetic mystics, and then by Oriental theologians. But over the centuries, errors in the transmission of ancient traditions have inexorably accumulated, and Sumerian and cuneiform were so thoroughly forgotten that the sources of knowledge of mankind had to be discovered a second time ...

Note: In fairness, it must be said that at the same time as the Sumerians, writing appears among the Elamites and Egyptians. But the influence of Elamite cuneiform and Egyptian hieroglyphs on the development of writing and education in the ancient world cannot be compared with the importance of cuneiform.

the author is carried away in his admiration for Sumerian writing, firstly, omitting the facts of the existence of much earlier writing both in Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro, and in Europe. And secondly, if we discard Amenhotep III and Akhenaten (who were “troublemakers” and after whom Egypt returned to old traditions), then we are talking about just one, rather limited region ...

in general, the author absolutely leaves aside everything more or less important discoveries in the field of linguistics already for the last fifty years before the publication of his book (at least, the Terterian finds, indicating the existence of writing long before the Sumerians, already somewhere from 50 years old) ...

… even the father of Assyriology, Rawlinson, in 1853 [AD], defining the language of the inventors of writing, called it “Scythian or Turkic”… Some time later, Rawlinson was already inclined to compare the Sumerian language with Mongolian, but by the end of his life he became convinced of the Turkic hypothesis… Despite the unconvincing Sumero-Turkic kinship for linguists, this idea is still popular in the Turkic-speaking countries, in the circle of people engaged in the search for noble ancient relatives.

After the Turkic, the Sumerian language was compared with the Finno-Ugric (also agglutinative), Mongolian, Indo-European, Malayo-Polynesian, Caucasian, Sudanese, Sino-Tibetan languages. The latest hypothesis to date was put forward by I.M. Dyakonov in 1997 [AD]. According to the St. Petersburg scientist, the Sumerian language may be related to the languages ​​of the Munda peoples living in the northeast of the Hindustan peninsula and being the oldest pre-Aryan substratum of the Indian population. Dyakonov discovered indicators of pronouns of the 1st and 2nd person singular common to Sumerian and Munda, the general indicator genitive, as well as some related kinship terms. His assumption can be partly confirmed by reports from Sumerian sources about contacts with the land of Aratta - a similar locality It is also mentioned in the ancient Indian texts of the Vedic period.

The Sumerians themselves do not say anything about their origin. The oldest cosmogonic fragments begin the history of the universe with individual cities, and this is always the city where the text was created (Lagash), or the sacred cult centers of the Sumerians (Nippur, Eredu). The texts of the beginning of the 2nd millennium are called the island of Dilmun (modern Bahrain) as the place of origin of life, but they were compiled just in the era of active trade and political contacts with Dilmun, therefore, they should not be taken as historical evidence. Much more serious is the information contained in the ancient epic Enmerkar and the Lord of Ararty. It speaks of a dispute between two rulers for the settlement of the goddess Inanna in their city. Both rulers equally revere Inanna, but one lives in the south of Mesopotamia, in the Sumerian city of Uruk, and the other in the east, in the country of Aratta, famous for its skilled craftsmen. Moreover, both rulers bear Sumerian names - Enmerkar and Ensukhkeshdanna. Do not these facts speak of the eastern, Iranian-Indian (of course, pre-Aryan) origin of the Sumerians?

Another evidence of the epic: the Nippur god Ninurta, fighting on the Iranian highlands with some monsters seeking to usurp the Sumerian throne, calls them “children of An”, and meanwhile it is well known that An is the most respected and oldest god of the Sumerians and, therefore, Ninurta is related to his opponents. Thus, the epic texts make it possible to determine, if not the area of ​​origin of the Sumerians, then at least the eastern, Iranian-Indian direction of the Sumerians' migration to the Southern Mesopotamia.

this allows us to fix only the fact that the war of the gods was between relatives. Only and everything. A certain “ancestral home” of the Sumerians, what does it have to do with it? ..

Already by the middle of the III millennium, when the first cosmogonic texts were being created, the Sumerians completely forgot about their origin and even about their difference from the rest of the inhabitants of Mesopotamia. They themselves called themselves Sang-ngig - "black-headed", but the Mesopotamian Semites also called themselves in their own language. If the Sumer wanted to emphasize his origin, he called himself "the son of such and such a city", that is, a free citizen of the city. If he wanted to oppose his country to foreign countries, then he called it the word kalam (the etymology is unknown, it is written with the sign “people”), and someone else’s with the word kur (“mountain, afterlife”). Thus, national identity was absent in the self-determination of a person at that time; territorial belonging was important, which often combined the origin of a person with his social status.

The Danish Sumerologist A. Westenholz suggests understanding "Sumer" as a distortion of the phrase ki-eme-gir - "land of the noble language" (as the Sumerians themselves called their language).

"noble" in ancient notion- first of all, “leading its origin from the gods” or “having a divine origin” ...

In Lower Mesopotamia, there is a lot of clay and almost no stone. People learned to use clay not only for making ceramics, but also for writing and sculpture. In the culture of Mesopotamia, modeling prevails over carving on hard material ...

Lower Mesopotamia is not rich in vegetation. There is practically no good building timber here (for it you need to go east, to the Zagros Mountains), but there is a lot of reed, tamarisk and date palms. Reed grows along the banks of swampy lakes. Bundles of reeds were often used in dwellings as a seat; both dwellings and cattle pens were built from reeds. Tamarisk tolerates heat and drought well, so it grows in these places in in large numbers. From tamarisk, handles were made for various tools, most often for hoes. The date palm was a true source of abundance for palm plantation owners. Several dozen dishes were prepared from its fruits, including cakes, and porridge, and delicious beer. Various household utensils were made from the trunks and leaves of the palm tree. And reeds, and tamarisk, and date palm were sacred trees in Mesopotamia, they were sung in spells, hymns to the gods and literary dialogues.

There are almost no minerals in Lower Mesopotamia. Silver had to be delivered from Asia Minor, gold and carnelian - from the Hindustan peninsula, lapis lazuli - from the regions of present-day Afghanistan. Paradoxically, this sad fact played a very positive role in the history of culture: the inhabitants of Mesopotamia were constantly in contact with neighboring peoples, not knowing a period of cultural isolation and preventing the development of xenophobia. The culture of Mesopotamia throughout the ages of its existence was susceptible to other people's achievements, and this gave it a constant incentive to improve.

the listed "useful" minerals for a primitive person have no practical value (from the standpoint of survival and nutrition). So what could be the special incentive here? ..

Another feature of the local landscape is the abundance of deadly fauna. In Mesopotamia, there are about 50 species of poisonous snakes, many scorpions and mosquitoes. It is not surprising that one of the characteristic features of this culture is the development of herbal and conspiracy medicine. A large number of spells against snakes and scorpions have come down to us, sometimes accompanied by recipes for magical actions or herbal medicine. And in the temple decor, the snake is the most powerful amulet that all demons and evil spirits should have been afraid of.

The founders of the Mesopotamian culture belonged to different ethnic groups and spoke unrelated languages, but had a single economic structure. They were mainly engaged in sedentary cattle breeding and irrigation farming, as well as fishing and hunting. Cattle breeding played an outstanding role in the culture of Mesopotamia, influencing the images of the state ideology. The sheep and the cow are marked with the greatest reverence here. They made excellent warm clothes from sheep's wool, which was considered a symbol of wealth. The poor were called “having no wool” (nu-siki). They tried to find out the fate of the state from the liver of the sacrificial lamb. Moreover, the constant epithet of the king was the epithet “righteous sheep shepherd” (sipa-zid). It arose from observations of a flock of sheep, which can only be organized with skillful direction on the part of the shepherd. The cow that gave milk and dairy products was no less valued. Oxen plowed in Mesopotamia, the productive power of the bull was admired. It is no coincidence that the deities of these places wore a horned tiara on their heads - a symbol of power, fertility and constancy of life.

do not forget that the turn of the III-II millennium is the change of the era of Taurus to the era of Aries! ..

Agriculture in Lower Mesopotamia could only exist thanks to artificial irrigation. Water with silt was diverted into specially constructed canals, so that if necessary, it could be supplied to the fields. Work on the construction of canals required a large number of people and their emotional rallying. Therefore, people here have learned to live in an organized way and, if necessary, meekly sacrifice themselves. Each city arose and developed near its canal, which created a prerequisite for independent political development. Until the end of the III millennium, it was not possible to form a nationwide ideology, since each city was a separate state with its own cosmogony, calendar and pantheon features. The unification took place only during severe disasters or to solve important political problems, when it was necessary to elect a military leader and representatives of various cities gathered in the cult center of Mesopotamia - the city of Nippur.

The anthropological type of the Sumerians can be judged to a certain extent by the skeletal remains: they belonged to the Mediterranean minor race of the Caucasoid major race. The Sumerian type is still found in Iraq to this day: they are dark-skinned people of short stature, with a straight nose, curly hair and abundant facial and body hair. Hair and vegetation were carefully shaved off to protect themselves from lice, which is why there are so many images of shaven-headed and beardless people in Sumerian figurines and reliefs. It was also necessary to shave for religious purposes - in particular, priests always went shaved. On the same images - big eyes and big ears, but this is just a stylization, also explained by the requirements of the cult (large eyes and ears as containers of wisdom).

there might be something in it...

Neither men nor women of Sumer wore underwear. But until the end of their days, they did not take off the magical double lace worn on their naked body, which protected life and health, from the waist. The main clothing of a man was a sleeveless shirt (tunic) made of sheep wool, much longer than the knees, and a loincloth in the form of a woolen cloth with a fringe on one side. A fringed edge could be applied to legal documents instead of a seal if the person was not notable enough and did not have a personal seal. In very hot weather, a man could appear in front of people in just a bandage, and often completely naked.

Women's clothing differed relatively little from men's, but women never went without a tunic and did not appear in one tunic, without other clothes. Women's tunic could reach the knees and below, sometimes had slits on the side. A skirt was also known, sewn from several horizontal panels, and the top was wrapped in a tourniquet-belt. The traditional clothing of noble people (both men and women), in addition to the tunic and headband, was a “wrapping” of cloth covered with sewn flags. These flags are probably nothing more than a fringe of colored yarn or fabric. There was no veil that would cover a woman's face in Sumer. Of the hats, felt round hats, hats and caps were known. From shoes - sandals and boots, but they always came to the temple barefoot. When the cold days came late autumn, the Sumerians wrapped themselves in a cape - a rectangular cloth, in the upper part of which one or two straps were attached on both sides, tied in a knot on the chest. But there were few cold days.

The Sumerians were very fond of jewelry. Rich and noble women wore a tight "collar" of beads adjacent to each other, from the chin to the neckline of the tunic. Expensive beads were made from carnelian and lapis lazuli, cheaper ones were made from colored glass (Hurrian), the cheapest ones were made from ceramics, shells and bones. Both men and women wore a cord with a large silver or bronze pectoral ring around their necks and metal hoops on their arms and legs.

Soap had not yet been invented, so soapy plants, ash and sand were used for washing and washing. Pure fresh water without silt was at a great price - it was carried from wells dug in several places in the city (often on high hills). Therefore, it was cherished and spent most often for washing hands after a sacrificial meal. The Sumerians knew both ointments and incense. The resins of coniferous plants for the manufacture of incense were imported from Syria. Women lined their eyes with black-and-green antimony powder, which protected them from bright sunlight. The ointments also had a pragmatic function - they prevented excessive dryness of the skin.

No matter how pure the fresh water of city wells was, it was impossible to drink it, and treatment facilities hadn't figured it out then. Moreover, it was impossible to drink the water of rivers and canals. There remained barley beer - the drink of commoners, date beer - for the richer people and grape wine - already for the most noble. The food of the Sumerians, for our modern taste, was rather meager. These are mainly cakes made from barley, wheat and spelt, dates, dairy products (milk, butter, cream, sour cream, cheese) and various types of fish. Meat was eaten only on major holidays, eating the rest of the victim. Sweets were made from flour and date molasses.

The typical house of the average city dweller was one-story, built of raw brick. The rooms in it were located around an open courtyard - the place where sacrifices were made to the ancestors, and even earlier, the place of their burial. A wealthy Sumerian house was one floor higher. Archaeologists count up to 12 rooms in it. Downstairs there were a living room, a kitchen, a toilet, a servant's room and a separate room in which the home altar was located. The upper floor housed the private quarters of the owners of the house, including the bedroom. There were no windows. High-backed chairs, reed mats and wool rugs on the floor are found in rich houses, large beds with carved wooden headboards in the bedrooms. The poor were content with bundles of cane as a seat and slept on mats. The property was stored in clay, stone, copper or bronze vessels, where even the tablets of the household household archive fell. Apparently, there were no wardrobes, but dressing tables in the master's quarters and large tables at which meals were eaten are known. This is an important detail: in the Sumerian house, the hosts and guests did not sit on the floor at the meal.

From the earliest pictographic texts that have come down from the temple in the city of Uruk and deciphered by A.A. Vaiman, we learn about the content of the ancient Sumerian economy. We are helped by the signs of writing themselves, which at that time were still no different from drawings. In large numbers there are images of barley, spelled, wheat, sheep and sheep wool, date palms, cows, donkeys, goats, pigs, dogs, various kinds of fish, gazelles, deer, aurochs and lions. It is clear that plants were cultivated, and some of the animals were bred, while others were hunted. Of the household items, the images of vessels for milk, beer, incense and for loose bodies are especially frequent. There were also special vessels for sacrificial libations. Picture writing has preserved for us images of metal tools and a forge, spinning wheels, shovels and hoes with wooden handles, a plow, a sledge for dragging cargo across wetlands, four-wheeled carts, ropes, rolls of cloth, reed boats with highly curved noses, reed pens and barns for cattle, reed emblems of ancestral gods and much more. There is at this early time both the designation of the ruler, and signs for priestly positions, and a special sign for designating a slave. All these most valuable evidence of writing indicate, firstly, the agricultural and pastoral nature of civilization with the residual phenomena of hunting; secondly, the existence of a large temple economy in Uruk; thirdly, the presence in society of a social hierarchy and relations of slavery. The data of archaeological excavations testify to the existence of an irrigation system of two types in the south of Mesopotamia: pools for the accumulation of spring flood waters and long main canals with permanent dam units.

in general, everything points to a fully formed society in the form that is observed further ...

Since all the economic archives of early Sumer came to us from temples, the idea arose and strengthened in science that the Sumerian city itself was a temple city and that all the land in Sumer belonged exclusively to the priesthood and temples. At the dawn of Sumerology, this idea was expressed by the German-Italian researcher A. Deimel, and in the second half of the twentieth century [AD] he was supported by A. Falkenstein. However, from the works of I.M. Dyakonov it became clear that, in addition to the temple land, in the Sumerian cities there was also the land of the community, and this communal land was much larger. Dyakonov calculated the city population and compared it with the temple staff. Then, in the same way, he compared the total area of ​​temple lands with the total area of ​​the entire land of Southern Mesopotamia. Comparisons turned out not in favor of the temple. It turned out that the Sumerian economy knew two main sectors: the economy of the community (uru) and the economy of the temple (e). About non-temple communal land, in addition to numerical ratios, also speak of documents on the purchase and sale of land, completely ignored by Daimel's supporters.

The picture of Sumerian landownership is best seen from the accounting documents that have come down from the city of Lagash. According to temple economic documents, there were three categories of temple land:

1. Priestly land (ashag-nin-ena), which was cultivated by temple agricultural workers who used cattle and tools given to them by the temple. For this, they received land allotments and in-kind payments.

2. Feeding land (ashag-kur), which was distributed in the form of separate allotments officials temple administration and various artisans, as well as headmen of groups of agricultural workers. The same category began to include fields that were issued personally to the ruler of the city as an official.

3. Cultivation land (ashag-nam-uru-lal), which was also issued from the temple land fund in separate allotments, but not for service or work, but for a share in the harvest. Temple officials and workers took it in addition to their service allotment or rations, as well as the relatives of the ruler, members of the staff of other temples, and, perhaps, in general, any free citizen of the city who had the strength and time to process an additional allotment.

Representatives of the communal nobility (including priests) either did not have allotments on the land of the temple, or had only small allotments, mainly on the land of cultivation. We know from the documents of sale and purchase that these persons, like the relatives of the ruler, had large land holdings received directly from the community, and not from the temple.

The existence of non-temple land is reported by the most different types documents related by science to contracts of sale. These are clay tablets with a lapidary statement of the main aspects of the transaction, and inscriptions on the obelisks of the rulers, which report on the sale of large land plots to the king and describe the transaction procedure itself. For us, of course, all these testimonies are important. From them it turns out that the non-temple land was owned by a large family community. This term means a collective connected by a common paternal lineage, a common economic life and land ownership, and including more than one family-marriage unit. Such a collective was headed by the patriarch, who organized the procedure for transferring the land to the buyer. This procedure consisted of the following parts:

1. the ritual of making a deal - driving a peg into the wall of the house and pouring oil next to it, transferring the rod to the buyer as a symbol of the territory being sold;

2. payment by the buyer of the price of the land plot in barley and silver;

3. surcharge for the purchase;

4. "gifts" to the seller's relatives and poor members of the community.

The Sumerians cultivated barley, spelt and wheat. Purchase and sale settlements were made in measures of barley grain or in silver (in the form of silver scrap by weight).

Cattle breeding in Sumer was transhumance: cattle were kept in pens and stables and driven out to pasture every day. Of the texts known goatherds, shepherds of cow herds, but more known than all sheep shepherds.

Craft and trade in Sumer developed very early. The oldest lists of names of temple artisans preserved terms for the professions of a blacksmith, coppersmith, carpenter, jeweler, saddler, tanner, potter, and weaver. All artisans were temple workers and received for their work both in kind and additional plots of land. However, they rarely worked on the land and over time lost any real connection with the community and agriculture. Known from the oldest lists are both merchants and shipbuilders who transported goods across the Persian Gulf for trade in eastern countries, but they also worked for the temple. A special, privileged part of the artisans included scribes who worked at a school, in a temple or in a palace and received large natural payments for their work.

isn’t there a situation similar to the initial version, only about the temple belonging of the land?.. It is hardly possible that artisans were only at the temples…

In general, the Sumerian economy can be considered as an agricultural and pastoral economy with a subordinate position of craft and trade. At its core - natural economy, which fed only the inhabitants of the city and its authorities, and only occasionally supplied its products to neighboring cities and countries. The exchange went mainly in the direction of imports: the Sumerians sold surplus agricultural products, importing building timber and stone, precious metals and incense into their country.

The structure of the Sumerian economy outlined as a whole did not undergo significant changes in diachronic terms. With the development of the despotic power of the kings of Akkad, consolidated by the monarchs of the III dynasty of Ur, more and more land fell into the hands of insatiable rulers, but they never owned all the cultivable land of Sumer. And although the community had already lost its political power by this time, all the same, the Akkadian or Sumerian king had to redeem the land from her, scrupulously observing the procedure described above. Artisans, over time, were more and more fixed by the king and the temples, which reduced them almost to the position of slaves. The same thing happened with commercial agents, in all their actions accountable to the king. Against their background, the work of a scribe was invariably regarded as free and well-paid work.

...already in the earliest pictographic texts from Uruk and Jemdet-Nasr, there are signs for designating managerial, priestly, military and craft positions. Therefore, no one was separated from anyone, and people of various social purposes lived in the very first years of the existence of the most ancient civilization.

... the population of the Sumerian city-state was divided as follows:

1. Know: the ruler of the city, the head of the temple administration, priests, members of the council of elders of the community. These people had, in the order of family-communal or tribal, and often individual ownership, tens and hundreds of hectares of communal land, exploiting clients and slaves. The ruler, in addition, often used the land of the temple for personal enrichment.

2. Ordinary community members who had plots of communal land in the order of family-communal ownership. They made up more than half of the total population.

3. Clients of the temple: a) members of the temple administration and artisans; b) subordinates to them. These are former community members who have lost community ties.

4. Slaves: a) temple slaves, little different from the lower categories of clients; b) slaves of private individuals (the number of these slaves was relatively small).

Thus, we see that the social structure of Sumerian society is quite clearly divided into two main economic sectors: the community and the temple. Nobility is determined by the amount of land, the population either cultivates its allotment or works for the temple and large landowners, artisans are attached to the temple, and priests are attached to communal land.

Ruler of a Sumerian city initial period Sumerian history was en (“lord, possessor”), or ensi. He combined the functions of a priest, military leader, mayor and chairman of parliament. His duties included the following:

1. Leadership of the community cult, especially participation in the rite of sacred marriage.

2. Management of construction work, especially temple building and irrigation.

3. Leadership of an army of persons dependent on temples and on him personally.

4. Presidency in the people's assembly, especially in the council of elders of the community.

En and his people, according to tradition, had to ask permission for their actions from the people's assembly, which consisted of the "youths of the city" and "the elders of the city." We learn about the existence of such a collection mainly from hymn-poetic texts. As some of them show, even without receiving the approval of the assembly or having received it from one of the chambers, the ruler could still decide on his risky enterprise. Subsequently, as power was concentrated in the hands of one political group, the role of the people's assembly completely disappeared.

In addition to the position of the city governor, the title lugal is also known from Sumerian texts - “ big man”, in various cases translated either as “king” or as “master”. I.M. Dyakonov in his book “Ways of History” suggests translating it with the Russian word “prince”. This title first appears in the inscriptions of the rulers of the city of Kish, from where it may well have come. Initially, it was the title of a military leader who was chosen from among the Ens by the supreme gods of Sumer in sacred Nippur (or in his city with the participation of the Nippur gods) and temporarily occupied the position of master of the country with the powers of a dictator. But subsequently, kings became not by choice, but by inheritance, although during enthronement they still observed the old Nippur rite. Thus, one and the same person was both the enom of a city and the lugal of the country, so the struggle for the title of lugal went on at all times in the history of Sumer. True, the difference between the Lugal and En titles soon became apparent. During the capture of Sumer by the Gutians, not a single ensi had the right to bear the title of lugal, since the occupiers called themselves lugals. And by the time of the III dynasty of Ur, the ensi were officials of city administrations, wholly subordinate to the will of the lugal.

Documents from the archives of the city of Shuruppak (XXVI century) show that in this city people ruled in turn, and the ruler changed annually. Each line, apparently, fell by lot not only on this or that person, but also on a certain territorial area or temple. This indicates the existence of some kind of collegial governing body, whose members took turns holding the position of eponymous elder. In addition, evidence of mythological texts about the order in the reign of the gods is known. Finally, the term itself for the term of the reign of the lugala ball literally means “queue”. Does this mean that the earliest form of government in the Sumerian city-states was precisely the successive rule of representatives of neighboring temples and territories? It is quite possible, but it is quite difficult to prove it.

If the ruler on the social ladder occupied the top rung, then slaves huddled at the foot of this ladder. Translated from Sumerian, “slave” means “lowered, lowered”. First of all, the modern slang verb “lower” comes to mind, that is, “deprive someone of social status, subjugating oneself as property.” But one must also take into account the historical fact that the first slaves in history were prisoners of war, and the Sumerian army fought their opponents in the mountains of Zagros, so the word for a slave may simply mean “lowered from eastern mountains". Initially, only women and children were taken prisoner, since the weapons were imperfect and it was difficult to escort captured men. After captivity, they were most often killed. But later, with the advent of bronze weapons, men were also kept alive. The labor of slave prisoners of war was used in private households and in temples ...

In addition to slave prisoners in recent centuries Sumerian debtor slaves also appeared, captured by their creditors until the debt was paid with interest. The fate of such slaves was much easier: in order to regain their former status, they only needed to redeem themselves. Slaves-captives, even having mastered the language and having a family, could rarely count on freedom.

At the turn of the 4th and 3rd millennia, on the territory of the Southern Mesopotamia, three peoples completely different in origin and language met and began to live in a common economy. The first to come here were native speakers of a language conventionally called “banana” because of the large number of words with repeated syllables (such as Zababa, Huwawa, Bunene). It was to their language that the Sumerians owed the terminology in the field of crafts and metal processing, as well as the names of some cities. The carriers of the "banana" language did not leave a memory of the names of their tribes, since they were not lucky enough to invent writing. But their material traces are known to archaeologists: in particular, they were the founders of an agricultural settlement that now bears the Arabic name of El Ubeid. The masterpieces of ceramics and sculpture found here testify to the high development of this nameless culture.

since in the early stages writing was pictographic and was not oriented at all to the sound of the word (but only to its meaning), it is simply impossible to detect the “banana” structure of the language with such writing! ..

The second to come to Mesopotamia were the Sumerians, who founded the settlements of Uruk and Dzhemdet-Nasr (also an Arabic name) in the south. The last in the first quarter of the 3rd millennium came the Semites from northern Syria, who settled mostly in the north and northwest of the country. Sources that have come down from different eras of Sumerian history show that all three peoples lived compactly on a common territory, with the difference that the Sumerians lived mainly in the south, the Semites in the northwest, and the “banana” people in both the south and In the north of the country. There was nothing like national disagreements, and the reason for such a peaceful coexistence was that all three peoples were newcomers to this territory, equally experienced the difficulties of life in Mesopotamia and considered it an object of joint development.

Very weak arguments. As not so distant historical practice shows (the development of Siberia, the Zaporizhzhya Cossacks), millennia are not needed at all to adapt to the new territory. Already in a hundred or two years, people consider themselves completely “their own” on this earth, where their ancestors came not so long ago. Most likely, there is nothing to do with any “resettlement” here. They might not exist at all. And the “banana” style of language is observed quite often among primitive peoples throughout the Earth. So their “trace” is only the remnants of an older language of the same population… It would be interesting to look at the vocabulary of the “banana” language and later terms from this angle.

The defining factor for the history of the country was the organization of a network of main canals, which existed without fundamental changes until the middle of the 2nd millennium.

by the way, a very curious fact. It turns out that a certain people came to this area; for no apparent reason built a developed network of canals and dams; and for one and a half thousand years (!) this system did not change at all!!! Why, then, historians are tormented by the search for the “ancestral home” of the Sumerians - you just need to find traces of a similar irrigation system, and that’s all! a new place already with these skills!.. somewhere in the old place he had to “train” and “develop his skills”!.. But this is nowhere!!! Here's another hitch for the official version of the story...

The main centers of the formation of states - cities - were also connected with the network of canals. They grew up on the site of the original groups of agricultural settlements, which were concentrated on separate drained and irrigated areas reclaimed from swamps and deserts in the previous millennia. Cities were formed by resettling the inhabitants of abandoned villages in the center. However, it most often did not come to the complete relocation of the entire district to one city, since the inhabitants of such a city could not cultivate fields within a radius of more than 15 kilometers and the already developed land lying outside these limits would have to be abandoned. Therefore, in one district, three or four or more interconnected cities usually arose, but one of them was always the main one: the center of common cults and the administration of the entire district were located here. I.M. Dyakonov, following the example of Egyptologists, suggested calling each such district nom. In Sumerian, it was called ki, which means "land, place." The city itself, which was the center of the district, was called uru, which is usually translated as “city”. However, in the Akkadian language, this word corresponds to alu - "community", so we can assume the same original meaning for the Sumerian term. Tradition assigned the status of the first fenced settlement (i.e., the city itself) to Uruk, which is quite likely, since archaeologists have found fragments of the high wall surrounding this settlement.

Header photo: @thehumanist.com

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The birth of the first civilizations. Who are the Sumerians?

Where did the first civilization originate? Some consider the land of Shinar (Sumer, Akkad, Babylonia) to be such, which is located in the valley of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. The ancient inhabitants called this land the "House of Two Rivers" - Bit-Nakhrein, the Greeks - Mesopotamia, other peoples - Mesopotamia or Mesopotamia. The Tigris River originates in the mountains of Armenia, south of Lake Van, the sources of the Euphrates lie east of Erzurum, at an altitude of 2 thousand meters above sea level. The Tigris and Euphrates connected Mesopotamia with Urartu (Armenia), Iran, Asia Minor, and Syria. The inhabitants of southern Mesopotamia called themselves "the people of Sumer." It has been established that Sumer was located in the south of Mesopotamia (south of present-day Baghdad), Akkad occupied the middle part of the country. The border between Sumer and Akkad ran just above the city of Nippur. According to climatic conditions, Akkad is closer to Assyria. The climate here was more severe (it often snowed in winter). The time of the appearance of the Sumerians in the valley of the Tigris and Euphrates is about the 4th millennium BC. e. Who they are and where they came from, despite many years of persistent research, it is difficult to say for sure. “The Sumerians considered the country of Dilmun, corresponding to the modern islands of Bahrain in the Persian Gulf, to be the place of the appearance of mankind,” writes I. Kaneva. “Archaeological data allow us to trace the connection of the Sumerians with the territory of ancient Elam, as well as with the cultures of the northern Mesopotamia.”

G. Dore. global flood

Ancient authors very often talk about Egypt, but there is no information about Sumer and the Sumerians. The Sumerian language is original and absolutely unlike the Semitic languages, which at the time of its appearance did not exist at all. It is also far from the developed Indo-European languages. The Sumerians are not Semites. Their writing and language (the name of the type of writing in 1700 was given by Oxford University professor T. Hyde) are not related to the Semitic-Hamitic ethno-linguistic group. After the decipherment of the Sumerian language at the end of the 19th century, the country of Sumer was traditionally associated with the name of this country found in the Bible - Sin,ar.

It is still unclear what caused the Sumerians to appear in those places - the Flood or something else ... Science admits that the Sumerians most likely were not the first settlers of the Central and Southern Mesopotamia. The Sumerians appeared on the territory of the Southern Mesopotamia no later than the 4th millennium BC. e. But where they came from is still unknown. There are a number of hypotheses regarding the place where they came from. Some believe that it could be the Iranian Plateau, the distant mountains of Central Asia (Tibet) or India. Others recognize the Caucasian people in the Sumerians (Sh. Otten). Still others consider them to be the original inhabitants of Mesopotamia (G. Frankfort). The fourth speak of two waves of Sumerian migration from Central Asia or from the Middle East through Central Asia(B. Grozny). The patriarch of modern "world history" W. McNeil believed that the Sumerian written tradition is consistent with the idea that the founders of this civilization came from the south by sea. They conquered the native population, the "black-headed people" who formerly lived in the valley of the Tigris and Euphrates. They learned how to drain the swamps and irrigate the land, because the words of L. Woolley that the Mesopotamia had previously lived in a golden age are hardly accurate: “It was a blessed alluring land. She called, and many responded to her call.

Although according to legend, Eden was once here. In the Book of Genesis 2, 8-14 its location is indicated. Other scholars argue that the Gardens of Eden may have been in Egypt. In Mesopotamian literature there is no indication of traces of an earthly paradise. Others saw him at the source of four rivers (Tigris and Euphrates, Pison and Geon). The Antiochians believed that paradise was somewhere in the east, perhaps somewhere where the earth meets the sky. According to Ephraim the Syrian, paradise was supposed to be located on an island - in the Ocean. The ancient Greeks imagined the location of "paradise", that is, the posthumous abode of the righteous, on islands in the ocean (the so-called islands of the Blessed). Plutarch described them in his biography of Sertorius: "They are separated from one another by a very narrow strait, located ten thousand stadia from the African coast." There is a favorable climate due to the temperature and the absence of sudden changes in all seasons. Paradise was a land covered with an evergreen garden. This is how the image of the promised land was seen, where people are full and happy, eat fruits in the shade of gardens and cool streams.

The idea of ​​a paradise earth (according to A. Kircher)

The imagination of people supplemented these fabulous features of well-being with new and new colors. In "The Life of St. Brendan ”(XI century), the picture of the paradise island is drawn as follows:“ Many herbs and fruits grew there ... We went around it for fifteen days, but could not find its limit. And we did not see a single grass that would not bloom, and not a single tree that would not bear fruit. The stones there are only precious ... "

Bahrain map

Research scientists have given food for new conjectures and hypotheses. In the 50s of the 20th century, a Danish expedition led by J. Bibby discovered on the island of Bahrain traces of what others immediately called the ancestral home of the Sumerian civilization. Many believed that the legendary Dilmun was located here. Indeed, after all, such ancient sources as the poem about the adventures of the gods (mother earth Ninhursag and Enki, the patron god of the most ancient of the cities of Mesopotamia - Eridu), rewritten in the 4th millennium BC. e. from an even more ancient source, already mentions a certain Arabian country Dilmun. The poem begins with the lines of glorification of this country:

Give the holy cities to Enki,

the sacred land of Dilmun,

Holy Sumer grant him.

Holy land of Dilmun,

The immaculate country of Dilmun,

The pure country of Dilmun...

This "sacred and immaculate country" seems to have once been located on the island of Bahrain in the Persian Gulf, as well as on the nearby lands of the Arabian coast. There is no doubt that she was famous for her wealth, developed trade, and the luxury of her palaces. In the Sumerian poem "Enki and the Universe" it is also noted as a well-known fact that the ships of Dilmun carried timber, gold and silver from Melluh (India). It also speaks of the mysterious country of Magan. The Dilmuns traded in copper, iron, bronze, silver and gold, ivory, pearls, etc. Truly it was a paradise for the rich. For example, in the II century BC. e. a Greek traveler described Bahrain as a country where “doors, walls and roofs of houses were inlaid with ivory, gold, silver and precious stones". memory of wonderful world Arabia survived for a very long time.

Oannes the fish man

Apparently, this circumstance caused the expedition of J. Bibby, who described his odyssey in the book "In Search of Dilmun". On the site of the Portuguese fortress (Portugal took possession of these places and stayed here from 1521 to 1602), he discovered the remains of ancient buildings. Nearby they found a sacred well in which stood the mysterious "throne of God." Then the memory of the Holy Throne of Dilmun passed from people to people and from era to era, being reflected in the Bible: “And the Lord God planted paradise in Eden in the east; and placed there the man whom he had created. This is how a fairy tale-tale arose about this magical country, from where the expulsion of a person was so painful, if it took place, of course.

C. Crivelli. Riches of the Land of Dilmun

The symbols of paradise are similar everywhere: the presence characteristic features"paradise civilization": an abundance of products, fertile natural conditions, luxury items. Among the peoples of Mesopotamia, the magical kingdom of Siduri is presented as a place where plants from precious stones grow, which bring people “beautiful in appearance and great in taste” juicy fruits. It is also interesting that all these legends were also known in Rus'. In the message of the Novgorod Archbishop Vasily Kaliki to the Bishop of Tver Theodore the Good (compiled around 1347), it is reported that the Novgorod travelers also reached an allegedly certain island where paradise was located. They arrived there on three boats, one of which was lost. This place is located near high mountains; Everything around is illuminated with a wondrous light that cannot be expressed in words, and exclamations of jubilation are heard from those mountains. In 1489, the traveler John de José also described a similar island near India, on which Mount Eden was located. The ancient Greeks identified the islands of the Blessed with the real-life islands of the Atlantic Ocean (Azores or Canaries). It is worth remembering Plato's famous story about Atlantis.

Thus, we see that each nation represented its own land as a heavenly abode. Paradise was transferred from the south to the Far East, then to the North Pole, to America, even beyond the boundaries of the earth. John the Theologian gave a description of the heavenly Jerusalem, the walls of which are lined with precious stones. The Egyptians in "The Tale of the Shipwrecked" describe a journey through the Red Sea. It speaks of a ghost island, the island of the Spirit, inhabited by certain ghosts. Heaven and hell are most likely ghosts with which people brighten up the dullness of their being.

Looking at the lifeless and dead space of Mesopotamia, where sandstorms rage, the bright sun mercilessly burns, it is somehow difficult to correlate this with paradise, which should please the eyes of people. Indeed, as M. Nikolsky wrote, it is not easy to find a more inhospitable country (although the climate could have been different before). For the Russian and European eyes accustomed to greenery, there is nothing to keep an eye on here - only deserts, hills, dunes and swamps. Rain is rare. In spring and summer, the view of Lower Mesopotamia is especially sad and gloomy, for here everyone is languishing from the heat. Both in autumn and winter, this region is a sandy desert, but in spring and summer it turns into a water desert. In early March, the Tigris floods, and in mid-March, the Euphrates begins to flood. The waters of the overflowing rivers unite, and the country in a significant part turns into one continuous lake. The myths of Sumer and Babylonia reflected this eternal struggle of the elements. In the creation poem (Enuma Elish) we read:

When the sky is not named above,

And the land below was nameless,

Apsu, the firstborn, the all-creator,

Foremother Tiamat, who gave birth to everything,

Their waters interfered together ...

The nature of Mesopotamia was described by many ancient authors, and it is quite severe. Among the sources we name the most famous: "History" of Herodotus, " Persian history» Ctesias of Knidos, Diodorus' Historical Library, Xenophon's Cyropaedia, Cyrus' Cylinder, Strabo's Geography, Josephus Flavius' Jewish Wars. In these writings, it was extremely sparingly spoken about the life of the people, because these writers did not know the language of the Babylonians and Assyrians. Of interest was the book of the Babylonian priest Beross, who lived 100-150 years after Herodotus. He wrote in Greek a large work on Babylon, using the authentic records of the priests, the scientists of Babylon. Unfortunately, this work is almost completely lost. Only fragments have been preserved, as cited by the church writer Eusebius of Caesarea.

G. Dore. The death of all living things

Centuries and centuries will pass until, finally, thanks to the excavations of Layard, Woolley, Gilbrecht, Fresnel, Opper, Grotefend, Rawlinson, and others, these cuneiform texts have been deciphered. But at first, readers were forced to form an impression of life in Mesopotamia from biblical texts. As N. Nikolsky wrote, “the Assyrians seemed to be cruel, bloodthirsty conquerors, drinking human blood, almost cannibals; the Babylonian kings and Babylonians were depicted as vicious, pampered people, accustomed to luxury and sensual pleasures. There was no thought that these scourges of ancient Israel and Judah could be highly cultured peoples, even teachers of the Greeks and Romans. For a long time, all the stories about the populous cities and powerful rulers of Assyria and Babylonia seemed to be an exaggeration, and the Bible was the main source of information. But from the middle of the 19th century, and especially intensively in the 20th century, more or less regular excavations of the lands of ancient Babylon and Nineveh began.

Portrait of an ancient Sumerian

Mesopotamia was a type of agricultural civilization based on irrigation. If in Egypt the role of the king of agriculture was performed by the Nile, then here - the Tigris and the Euphrates. The drainage of swamps made it possible to obtain quite stable crops, and as a result of this, the first settlements and cities began to appear here. The occupation of navigation allowed the inhabitants of these places to bring the necessary building materials, tools and raw materials from other regions, often hundreds or even thousands of kilometers away from them. Simultaneously with them, the inhabitants of Egypt and the Indus Valley built their own civilizations, thanks in part to borrowed experience and the ideas they acquired through their contacts with Mesopotamia. Two main reasons lay at the basis of the decisive historical advances - the migration of tribes and peoples, changing the picture of the world, and certain changes in natural and climatic conditions. This is a kind of milestones of historical evolution.

It would be natural to assume (if McNeill was right in saying that skirmishes with foreigners are the engine of social change) that the earliest complex societies arose in the river valleys of Mesopotamia, Egypt, northwestern India, adjacent to the land bridge to the Old World, where the the largest land masses on the planet. "Continental grouping and climatic conditions made this region the main hub of land and sea communications in the Old World, and it can be assumed that it was for this reason that civilization first arose here."

English archaeologist L. Woolley

Many believed that the Sumerian culture was a derivative culture. The Englishman L. Woolley, a researcher of royal burials in Ur (by the way, Ur-Nammu is considered the creator of the city of Ur and the ziggurat temple), for example, made the following conjecture: “There is no doubt that the Sumerian civilization arose from elements of three cultures: El Obeida, Uruk and Jemdet-Nasr, and finally took shape only after their merger. Only from that moment on, the inhabitants of Lower Mesopotamia can be called Sumerians. Therefore, I believe, - writes L. Woolley, - that by the name "Sumerians" we should mean a people whose ancestors, each in their own way, created Sumer with scattered efforts, but by the beginning of the dynastic period, individual features merged into one civilization.

Euphrates river

Although the origin of the Sumerians (“blackheads”) remains a mystery to this day, it is known that in the middle of the 4th millennium BC. e. settlements arose - the city-principalities of Eredu, Ur, Uruk, Lagash, Nippur, Eshnunna, Nineveh, Babylon, Ur. As for the ethnic roots of the inhabitants of Mesopotamia, we can only say about the presence here at different times different peoples and languages. Thus, the well-known researcher of the East L. Oppenheim believes that from the beginning of the invasion of nomads from the plateaus and deserts and until the final Arab conquest, most likely the Semites constituted the overwhelming majority of the population of this region.

Clay figurine of the Mother Goddess. Uruk. 4000 BC e.

Tribal groups in search of new pastures, hordes of warriors striving for the wealth of "Gardariki" ("Lands of cities", as the Normans have long called Rus'), they all moved in a continuous stream, mainly from Upper Syria, using permanent paths leading south, or across the Tigris, to the east. These groups of Semites differed markedly not only in languages, but also in their attitude to urban culture, which was a feature of social and political life in Mesopotamia. Some of them were inclined to settle in cities, and thus made a rather significant contribution to urbanization; others preferred to roam freely, not settling down, not engaging in productive labor - "roaming without loving anyone."

Freemen shied away from military and labor service, from paying taxes, and in general were unstable, eternally dissatisfied or rebellious material. The Amorites had a particularly noticeable influence on the nature of political processes in the region. Oppenheim believes that they are associated with the transition from the concept of city-states to the idea of ​​territorial states, the growth of trade relations through private initiative, the expansion of the horizons of international politics, and within states - a rapid change in power and orientation among rulers. Then (probably around the 12th century BC) Aramaic-speaking tribes came here and settled in Upper Syria and along the Euphrates. The Arameans sided with Babylonia against Assyria. At the same time, Aramaic alphabetic writing slowly but inevitably began to supplant the cuneiform tradition of writing. We can also talk about the influence of the Elamites and other peoples. At the very least, there is no doubt that for almost three millennia Mesopotamia was in constant contact and conflict with its neighbors, which is confirmed by numerous written documents. The region with which the inhabitants had contacts - direct or through various intermediaries - stretched from the Indus Valley through Iraq (sometimes even significantly beyond its borders), up to Armenia and Anatolia, to the Mediterranean coast and further, all the way to Egypt. .

"Standart from Ur": scenes of peace and scenes of war. Sumer. OK. 2500 BC e.

Others consider the Sumerians a side branch of the ethnic tree of the Slavs, or rather, the superethnos of the Rus in the Middle East. “Apparently, the Sumerians became the first Russ to lose their main subspecific feature, and the second ethnic group that emerged from the superethnos of the Rus,” writes Yu. Petukhov, who studied the genesis of the Indo-Europeans, Russian, and other Slavic peoples. What is put forward by him as a justification and confirmation of such a point of view? According to his version, the bulk of the Protorians could have settled in the Middle East and Asia Minor 40-30 thousand years ago. Although they did not yet have a written language, they already had a fairly developed culture. It is clear that the “brilliant and written Sumer” did not immediately appear in Mesopotamia. He was preceded by allegedly many agricultural and pastoral villages of these very "Indo-European Russ".

Figurine of Ibi-il from Mari

The clans, settlements of the Russ of the mountainous regions and the Russ of Palestine-Suriya-Rusiya moved along the riverbeds to the south for hundreds of years, reaching by the middle of the VI millennium BC. e. the southernmost points of Mesopotamia, that is, precisely the places where the Euphrates flows into the Bitter River, into a narrow branch of the Persian Gulf. The Sumerians were not outsiders in the Middle East. They were, in his opinion, a commonality of the clans of the Near Eastern Rus with minor infusions of the Rus of the Indus Valley and the Rus of Central Asia. The aforementioned culture was the successor of the cultures of the Khalaf and Samarra Rus and the forerunner of the famous Sumerian culture. More than 40 settlements of the Ubeids have already been found in the Ur region. There are 23 settlements in the Uruk region, each with an area of ​​over 10 hectares. These ancient cities, and this is significant, have non-Sumerian names. It was here that the Rus from the Armenian Highlands rushed, and then the Rus from Central Asia and the Indus valleys.

Ziggurat at Agar Kufa. III millennium BC e. Modern look

The Sumerians managed to create a vast state with the capital in Ur (2112-2015 BC). The kings of the third dynasty did everything possible to appease the gods. The founder of the dynasty, Urnammu, took part in the creation of the first codes of the Ancient Mesopotamia. No wonder S. Kramer called him the first "Moses". He became famous as a magnificent builder, erecting a number of temples and ziggurats. "To the glory of his mistress Ningal Urnammu, a mighty man, king of Ur, king of Sumer and Akkad, erected this magnificent Gipar." The tower was completed by the sons. The capital had a sacred quarter, which was dedicated to the moon god Nanna and his wife Ningal. The ancient city, of course, did not resemble modern cities in any way.

Ur was an irregular oval, only about a kilometer long and up to 700 meters wide. It was surrounded by a wall with a slope of raw brick (something like a medieval castle), which was surrounded by water on three sides. Inside this space, a ziggurat, a tower with a temple, was erected. It was called "Heavenly Hill" or "Mountain of God". The height of the "Mountain of God", on top of which stood the temple of Nanna, was 53 meters. By the way, the ziggurat in Babylon (“Tower of Babel”) is a copy of the ziggurat in Ur. Probably, of all such ziggurats in Iraq, the one in Ur was in the best condition. (The Tower of Babel was destroyed by the soldiers of Alexander the Great.) The ziggurat of Ur was an observatory temple. It took 30 million bricks to make it. Little has survived from ancient Ur, the tombs and temples of Ashur, Assyrian palaces. The fragility of the structures was explained by the fact that they were created from clay (in Babylon, two buildings were built from stone). The Sumerians are skilled builders. Their architects invented the arch. The Sumerians imported material from other countries - cedars were delivered from Aman, stones for statues from Arabia. They created their own letter, an agricultural calendar, the world's first fish hatchery, the first forest plantations, a library catalog, the first medical prescriptions. Others believe that their oldest treatises were used by the compilers of the Bible when writing texts.

Outwardly, the Sumerians differed from the Semitic peoples: they were beardless and beardless, and the Semites wore long curly beards and shoulder-length hair. Anthropologically, the Sumerians belong to a large Caucasian race with elements of a small Mediterranean race. Some of them came from Scythia (according to Rawlinson), from the Hindustan peninsula (according to I. Dyakonov, etc.), while some came from the island of Dilmun, present-day Bahrain, the Caucasus, etc. It is also argued that, since the Sumerian legend tells of a mixture languages ​​and that “in the good old days they were all one people and spoke the same language”, it is likely that all peoples came from one first people (superethnos). Yu. Petukhov believes that these first people of Sumer were the Rus, the first farmers of Sumer. Further, the common and similar names of the gods are emphasized (the Sumerian "air god" En-Lil and the god of the Slavs Lel, whose name is preserved in our ritual poetry). Common were, he believes, heroes of thunder, defeating the snake-dragon. It passes among the Rus (or their filial ethnic groups) through centuries and millennia: Nin-Khirsa-Gor-Khors-George the Victorious ... "Who could give both Sumer and Egypt one deity of Horus-Khoros-Khirsu?" - our researcher asks a question and answers it himself: “Only one ethnic group. The very one that became the basis of both the Sumerian and Egyptian civilizations is the superethnos of the Rus. All "mysterious" peoples are unraveled, all "dark ages" are highlighted if we study history from a scientific point of view, and not from a political one, in which the mention of the Rus earlier than the 9th century. n. e. the strictest taboo.

Sumerian beauty

The appearance of documents (c. 2800 BC) was preceded by a long period, a thousand years or more. None of the countries ancient east there is no such abundance of documents as in Mesopotamia. For that time, this is a high level of civilization. In the III millennium BC. e. a significant proportion of men in this country could read and write. The ruins and inscriptions of Mesopotamia told a lot. As A. Oppenheim wrote, thanks to these documents, we learned hundreds of names of kings and other prominent people, starting with the rulers of Lagash who lived in the III millennium and up to the kings and scientists of the Seleucid era. There was also an opportunity to observe the rise and fall of cities, to assess the political and economic situation, to trace the fate of entire dynasties. The documents were written not by professional scribes, but by ordinary people, which indicates a high level of literacy among the population. Although the mass of texts perished (the cities of Mesopotamia were destroyed during the wars, some of them were destroyed by water or covered with sand), but what has come down and comes to researchers (and these are hundreds of thousands of texts) is an invaluable material. Fortunately, the clay tablets on which the texts were written were used as building material in the construction of walls. Therefore, the earth, having absorbed them over time, has preserved entire archives.

Reconstruction of the temple in Tepe-Gavra near the city of Mosul. Iraq. IV millennium BC e.

A huge success for science was the discovery of the ancient economic archives of Uruk and Jemdet-Nasr (tables with acts of accounting for receipts and issuance of products, the number of workers, slaves). Moreover, many more documents came from the II and I millennia BC. e. First of all, these are temple and royal archives, business papers of merchants, receipts, court records. Tens of thousands of "books" written in cuneiform have been found. Therefore, one can hardly agree with the opinion of the respected R. J. Collingwood, who believes that the Sumerians "did not have and do not have a real history": "The ancient Sumerians did not leave behind anything at all that we could call history." He believes that these texts, at best, fit the definition as a historical ersatz, a document, a fragment of a historical canvas. The author also denies the Sumerians the existence of historical consciousness: “If they had something like historical consciousness, then nothing has been preserved that would testify to its existence. We could argue that they would certainly have had it; for us, historical consciousness is such a real and all-penetrating property of our being that it is incomprehensible to us how it could be absent from anyone. However, among the Sumerians, if one sticks to the facts, Collingwood continues, such consciousness nevertheless appeared in the form of a "hidden essence." I believe that as this “hidden essence” is discovered and deciphered, our understanding of the nature of the history of the Sumerian civilization itself may change.

Stone statue of Gudea - ruler of Lagash

And now in the museums of Europe, Asia, America, Russia there are already about a quarter of a million Sumerian tablets and fragments. The oldest place (or "city") where the Sumerians settled (if we accept the migration version) was Eredu (the modern name is Abu Shahrayon). The King's List says: "After royalty descended from heaven, Eredu became the seat of royalty." Perhaps the lines gave rise to an extravagant point of view. Others read the word "Sumer" as "man from above" ("shu" - from above and "mer" - man): supposedly the Americans, using the latest computers, deciphered and "found out": the Sumerians are from another planet, from a twin of the Earth, not discovered astronomers. In confirmation of this, lines from the legend of Gilgamesh were even cited, where the hero calls himself a superman. In Eredu, according to the myth, there was supposedly the palace of the god Enki, erected at the bottom of the ocean. Eredu became the place of worship of the god Enki (Eya) among the Sumerians.

Stone figurine of a pilgrim from Lagash

Gradually, the Sumerians began to move north. So they captured and began to develop Uruk, the biblical Erech (now Varka). The temple of the god An (“White Sanctuary”), a section of the pavement made of raw limestone blocks, was also discovered right there - the oldest stone structure in Mesopotamia. Impressive dimensions (80 by 30 m), perfection of architectural form, vaulted niches framing the courtyard with a sacrificial table, walls oriented to the four cardinal directions, stairs leading to the altar - all this made the temple a real miracle of architectural art, even in the eyes of a very experienced archaeologists. In the Sumerian temples, writes M. Belitsky, there were dozens of rooms where the prince-priests, ensi, rulers, officials and priests, who held the supreme secular and spiritual power, lived with their families. In the cultural layers of Uruk, the first tablets with pictographic writing were found, one of which is kept in the Hermitage (2900 BC). Later, the pictograms were replaced by ideograms. There were about 2000 such icons. Their meaning is extremely difficult to unravel. Perhaps for this reason, despite the huge number of tablets, history is still silent. Traces of the influence of Uruk culture on the culture of the Mediterranean countries - Syria, Anatolia, etc.

Sumerian board game

In Egypt (the era of Nagada II, corresponding to the culture of Uruk IV), luxury items brought from Sumer, vessels with handles, etc. were found. On the slate tiles of the ancient ruler of Upper and Lower Egypt, the legendary Menes, there is a typical Sumerian motif dating back to the Uruk era - fantastic-looking animals with long necks. On the hilt of a dagger found at Jebel el-Arak, near Abydos, in Upper Egypt, there is an extremely curious motif - scenes of battles on land and sea. Scientists have come to the conclusion that the handle, dating back to the era of Jemdet-Nasr (2800 BC), depicts a battle that took place between the Sumerians, who arrived from the Red Sea, and the local population. All this means that even in such a distant time, the Sumerians not only could already reach Egypt, but also had a certain impact on the formation of Egyptian culture. The hypothesis that not only hieroglyphic writing arose thanks to the Sumerians, but the very idea of ​​creating written characters was born in Egypt under their influence, already has a considerable number of supporters. In a word, a talented people of builders, artists, organizers, warriors, and scientists appeared before us.

White Temple in Uruk. Reconstruction

So how was life in the city-state of the Sumerians? Let's take as an example Uruk, which was located in the south of Mesopotamia. In the middle of the III millennium BC. e. This city occupied an area of ​​over 400 hectares. It was surrounded by double walls of adobe bricks, 10 kilometers long. The city had over 800 watchtowers and a population of 80,000 to 120,000 people. One of its rulers, who was called "en" or "ensi", apparently, was the legendary Gilgamesh. The German scientist H. Schmekel in the book "Ur, Assyria and Babylon" reconstructed the life of the city. On city streets, in residential areas, traffic, noise, bustle. The sultry, stuffy day is over. The long-awaited evening chill has arrived. Blacksmiths and potters, gunsmiths and sculptors, masons and carvers walk along the blank clay walls, the monotony of which is broken by small openings leading inside the houses. Women are seen with jugs of water. They rush home to quickly prepare dinner for their husbands and children. In the crowd of passers-by, there are also quite a few warriors... Slowly, as if afraid to lose dignity, important priests, palace officials, and scribes are walking along the street. Elegant fashionable skirts make them more noticeable. After all, in the social hierarchy they are higher than artisans, workers, farmers, shepherds. Noisy, mischievous boys, after a long day of exhausting study at the school of scribes, have abandoned the signs and, with a carefree laugh, see off the caravan of donkeys. They are loaded with baskets of goods from ships unloaded at the pier. Suddenly, a cry is heard from somewhere far away, then another, then a third. The screams are getting closer and louder.

A goat eating the leaves of a tree. Ornament from Ur

Street in a Sumerian city

The crowd on the street parted, forming a wide corridor and humbly bowing their heads: an ensi was riding towards the temple. Together with his family and courtiers, he worked all day on the construction of a new irrigation canal and now, after a hard day, he returns to the palace, which is located next to the temple. Erected on a high platform, surrounded by wide stairs leading to the very top, this temple is the pride of the inhabitants of Uruk. Eleven halls stretched along its courtyard, 60 meters long and 12 meters wide. In the utility rooms there are pantries, barns, warehouses. Here the priests tidy up the tablets: on them are the sacrifices made in the morning in the temple, all the income received by the treasury last day, which will further increase the wealth of the god - the lord and ruler of the city. And the ensi, the prince-priest, the ruler of Uruk, is only a servant of the god, in whose care are the lands belonging to the god, wealth and people. This is how the life of the city is reconstructed.

Head of the statue of Gudea from Lagash

Statue of Gudea (Ensi)

In the III-II millennium BC. e. the main ways of economic development of the region were determined. The upper stratum of state people (officials, the highest ranks of the army, priests, a number of artisans) acted as the owner of communal lands, had slaves and female slaves, exploiting their labor. Sumerian civilization (sometimes considered the beginning Western civilization) developed, having two sectors: one sector we will conditionally call "state", the other - "private property". The first sector included mainly large farms (they were owned by temples and the elite of the nobility), the other - the lands of large family communities (led by their patriarchs). The farms of the first sector later became the property of the state, the latter became the property of territorial communities. People on public sector lands had the right to own land. It was a kind of payment for state service. The resulting crop was used to feed the families. However, the land could have been taken away, and many public sector workers did not have it at all. It seems to us symptomatic and important the fact of peaceful coexistence at the dawn of history of two economic sectors - the state and the community-private (with a noticeable predominance of the first). The tenants of the land paid off the owners. They also paid tax to the state on the basis of income tax. Their land was cultivated by hired workers (for shelter, bread, clothing).

Courtyard of a wealthy inhabitant of Ur in the II millennium BC. e.

With the spread of irrigated agriculture and technology (potter's wheel, loom, copper, iron, water-lifting machines, tools), labor productivity also grew. As in Egypt, there are many channels. Herodotus also pointed out serious differences between the northern Mesopotamia - Assyria, and the southern - Babylonia: “The land of the Assyrians is irrigated with little rain; rainwater is only sufficient to feed the roots of cereal plants: crops grow and bread ripens with the help of irrigation from the river; this river does not overflow, however, over the fields, as in Egypt; irrigated here by hand and with the help of pumps. Babylonia is all, like Egypt, cut up by canals; the largest of them, navigable, stretches from the Euphrates south to another river, the Tigris. Creating such channels, of course, required a lot of effort.

Carriage of the winged bull

The inhabitants also faced another dilemma: crops would be flooded with too much water, or they would die from its lack and drought (Strabo). As you can see, everything or almost everything in Mesopotamia depended only on whether or not it was possible to maintain the system of agriculture and irrigation in a working and good condition. Water is life. And it is no coincidence that King Hammurabi, in his introduction to the code of famous laws, emphasized the special importance of the fact that he "gave Uruk life" - "delivered water in abundance to people." The system worked under the vigilant control of the "supervisor of the canals." The dug channels could simultaneously serve as a transport route, reaching a width of 10–20 m. This allowed ships of a rather large tonnage to pass. The banks of the canals were framed with brickwork or wicker mats. At high places, water was poured from well to well with the help of water-drawing structures. People cultivated this land with the help of ordinary hoes (the hoe was often depicted as an emblem of the god of the earth Marduk) or a wooden plow.

A married couple from Nippur. III millennium BC e.

Enlil - the "greatest god" of Sumer, the son of Heaven and Earth

The work required huge labor costs on the part of the masses of people. Without irrigation and agriculture, life here would be completely impossible. The ancients understood this very well, paying tribute to the farmer's calendar, toilers, hoe and plow. In the work “The Dispute Between the Hoe and the Plow”, it is especially emphasized that the hoe is “the child of the poor”. With the help of a hoe, a huge amount of work is done - digging the earth, creating houses, canals, erecting roofs and laying streets. The days of labor of a hoe, that is, a digger or builder, are "twelve months." If the plow is often idle, then the worker of the hoe knows neither an hour nor a day of rest. He builds "city with palaces" and "gardens for kings." He is also obliged to unquestioningly carry out all work on the orders of the king or his dignitaries, in particular, he has to build fortifications or transport them to Right place god figures.

The population of Mesopotamia and Babylonia consisted of free farmers and slaves. Theoretically, the land in Babylonia belonged to the gods, but in practice - to the kings, temples and large landowners who rented it out. N. M. Nikolsky noted that throughout the entire ancient history of Mesopotamia, “an individual person becomes the owner of the land temporarily and conditionally, as a member of the collective, and never the private owner of the land.” Sometimes, the kings placed soldiers on the land, distributed it to officials, etc. All of them had to pay taxes to the state (a tenth of the income). The bulk of the slaves then were of local origin. The slave was not a full citizen, being the full property of the owner. He could be sold, pledged, or even killed. The source of replenishment of slaves is debt slavery, captives and children of slaves. As in Egypt, abandoned children could be turned into slaves. This practice was widespread in antiquity.

Such orders existed in Babylonia, Egypt, in ancient Greece. Prisoners of war captured during wars from other countries were turned into slaves. The thieves themselves were made slaves of those who suffered from theft. The same fate awaited the killer's family. It is curious that the laws of Hammurabi allowed a husband to sell a prostitute or spendthrift wife. Slaves are slaves. Their life was hard. They were starving, dying of hunger and cold. Therefore, in order to make them work, they were shackled, often imprisoned.

In a number of cases, poor married couples, unable to feed their young children, threw them into a pit or in a basket into a river, or threw them on the street. Anyone could pick up a foundling and raise it, and then do with it as they wish (adopt, adopt or include in a dowry, sell into slavery). The custom to doom a child or save an infant from inevitable death was called “throw a child into the mouth of a dog” (or “tear it out of its mouth”). Oppenheim cites a document that says how one woman, in the presence of witnesses, held her son in front of the dog's mouth, and a certain Nur-Shamash managed to snatch him out of there. Anyone could pick him up and raise him, make him a slave, adopt him or adopt him. Although the adoption of girls, apparently, was resorted to relatively rarely. There was a firm rule: adopted children were obliged to supply the former owners with food and clothing for the rest of their lives. The fate of adopted children was different. Some of them became full members of the family and even became heirs, others faced an unenviable fate. Laws somehow regulated this process.

Goddess of death, mistress of the "Land of no return" - Ereshkigal

The work of a farmer, a digger or a builder was undoubtedly hard... Echoes of this can be found in the “Tale of Atrahasis”, which has come down to us from the Old Babylonian period (1646–1626 BC). It speaks in poetic form of the time when the gods ("Igigi") were forced to work, like mere mortals. “When the gods, like people, carried the burden, dragged the baskets, the baskets of the gods were huge, the work was hard, the hardships were great.” The gods themselves dug rivers, dug canals, deepened the bed of the Tigris and Euphrates, worked in the water depths, built a dwelling for Enki, etc., etc. So they worked for years and years, day and night, “two and a half thousand years old". Immensely tired of such backbreaking work, they began to fill with anger and shout at each other. After long and heated debates, they decided to go to the main one, Enlil, to complain about their bitter fate. They "burned their guns", "burned their shovels, set their baskets on fire" and, holding hands, moved "to the holy gates of the warrior Enlil." In the end, there they arranged a council of the higher gods, where they reported to Enlil that such an unbearable burden was killing the Igigi.

Victory Stele of King Naramsin

They conferred for a long time, until they unanimously decided to create a human race and place a heavy and hard labor burden on it. "Let a man bear the yoke of God!" So they did… Since then, man dutifully began to do the work of the gods. He builds, digs, cleans, earning food for himself and the gods. In less than twelve hundred years, the country has grown, people have bred in it. And the gods began to be disturbed by a mass of people: "Their hubbub worries us."

And then they sent wind upon the earth to dry it up, and downpours to wash away the crops. The gods declared: “People will be destroyed by deprivation and hunger. May the womb of the earth rise upon them! Grasses will not grow, cereals will not sprout! Let pestilence be sent down to people! The uterus will shrink, babies will not be born! Why do people need such gods?! In the most complete list more than 150 names of various deities are mentioned in the Assyrian era. Moreover, at least 40-50 of them had their own temples and cult in the Assyrian era. Approximately in the III millennium BC. e. the college of priests came to an agreement and created a myth about the triad of great gods: Anu, Enlil and Ea. The sky went to Anu, the earth to Enlil, the sea to Ea. Then the old gods handed the fate of the world into the hands of their young son, Marduk. Thus a revolution took place in the realm of the gods. Remaking the Sumerian myths, the Babylonian priests put Marduk in the place of Enlil. Obviously, this divine hierarchy had to correspond to the earthly hierarchy of kings and their environment. This purpose was served by the cult of the first kings of Ur. The legendary king of Uruk, Gilgamesh, who was declared the son of Anu, was also deified. Many rulers were deified. The king of Akkad, Naramsin, called himself the god of Akkad. The king of Isin and the king of Larsa, the kings of Ur of the third dynasty (Shulgi, Bursin, Gimilsin) called themselves the same way. In the era of the first Babylonian dynasty, Hammurabi equated himself with the gods and began to be called the "god of kings."

The legendary ruler of Uruk, Enmerkar, can also be attributed to this category. He, having become king and reigned for 420 years, actually created the city of Uruk. I must say that the emergence, existence of these city-states, as well as in ancient Greece (at a later time), will take place in constant rivalry with nearby settlements and formations. Therefore, it is not surprising that ancient history is filled with incessant wars. At that time, among the rulers, all were aggressors and there were no (almost no) peace lovers.

In the epic poem, conditionally called by S. N. Kramer "Enmerkar and the ruler of Arrata", it is said about the most acute political conflict that arose in ancient times between Iraq and Iran. The poem tells how in ancient times the city-state of Uruk, located in southern Mesopotamia, was ruled by the glorious Sumerian hero Enmerkar. And far north of Uruk, in Iran, there was another city-state called Aratta. It was separated from Uruk by seven mountain ranges and stood so high that it was almost impossible to reach it. Aratta was famous for its riches - all kinds of metals and building stone, that is, exactly what the city of Uruk, located on a flat treeless plain of Mesopotamia, lacked so much. Therefore, there is nothing surprising in the fact that Enmerkar looked with lust at Aratta and its treasures. He decided at all costs to subjugate the people of Aratta and its ruler. To this end, he began a kind of "war of nerves" against them. He managed to intimidate the lord of Aratta and its inhabitants so much that they obeyed Uruk. The king of Uruk threatened to destroy all cities, devastate the earth, so that all Aratta would be covered with dust, like a city cursed by the god Enki, and turn into "nothing." Perhaps it was these old, almost forgotten feelings, reinforced by religion and geopolitics, that forced the ruler of Iraq to attack Iran in modern times.

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The Sumerians are a people who inhabited the lands of ancient Mesopotamia, starting from the 4th millennium BC. The Sumerians are the first civilization on Earth. The ancient state and the greatest cities of this people were located in the Southern Mesopotamia, where the ancient Sumer developed one of the greatest cultures that existed before our era. This people owns the invention of writing in cuneiform. In addition, the ancient Sumerians invented the wheel and developed the technology of baked bricks. Throughout its long history, this state, the Sumerian civilization, has managed to achieve significant heights in science, art, military affairs and politics.

Sumerians - the first civilization on Earth

Approximately in the second half of the fourth millennium BC, on the lands of southern Mesopotamia appeared Sumerians - the first civilization on Earth, whose people in the later stages of the development of their state were called "blackheads". It was a people linguistically, culturally and ethnically alien to the Semitic tribes that inhabited Northern Mesopotamia at that time. As an example, the Sumerian language, with its amazing grammar, was not related to any of the languages ​​known today. The Sumerians belonged to the Mediterranean race. Attempts to find the original homeland, the home of this people, have so far ended in failure. Probably, the country from where the Sumerian tribes, the culture of the ancient Sumerians came to Mesopotamia, was somewhere in Asia, most likely in mountainous regions, however, the assumptions of this theory have not been found to date.

Evidence that the Sumerians of the first civilization on Earth came precisely from the mountains is the way in which they built their temples on artificial mounds or stacked bricks and clay blocks. It is unlikely that such a method of construction could have arisen among the people who lived in the flat lands. Another no less important evidence of the mountainous origin of the Sumerians, the first civilization of the Earth, is the fact that in their language the words “mountain” and “country” are spelled the same.

There are also versions according to which the Sumerian tribes sailed to Mesopotamia by sea. Researchers on such an idea prompted the way of life of the ancient people. Firstly, most of their settlements were formed at the mouths of rivers. Secondly, in their pantheon, the gods of the water or elements close to water occupied the main place. Thirdly, the Sumerians, the first civilization on Earth, having just arrived in Mesopotamia, immediately took up the development of navigation, the construction of ports and the arrangement of river channels.

Scientific excavations show that the first Sumerian inhabitants who arrived in Mesopotamia were a relatively small group of people. This again testifies in favor of the maritime theory of the emergence of the Sumerian people, since more than one nation did not have the possibility of mass migration by sea in those days. In one of the epics, the Sumerians mention a certain island of Dilmun, which was their homeland. Unfortunately, this epic does not say either where the island could be located, or what kind of climate it had.

Arriving in Mesopotamia and settling in the mouths of the rivers, the Sumerians, the first civilization on Earth, captured the city of Eredu. It is believed that historically this city was their first settlement, the cradle of the future great state. A few years later, the Sumerian people began a purposeful expansion of their possessions, moving deep into the Mesopotamian plain and erecting several more new settlements there.

From the data of Beross it is known that the history of their state was divided by the Sumerian priests into two large periods: before the flood and after it. In the historical work of Beross, 10 great kings are noted who ruled the country to a sweat. Similar figures are presented in the ancient Sumerian text from the 21st century BC, in the so-called "King List". In addition to Ered, Bad Tibiru, Larak, Sippar and Shuruppak can also be attributed to the number of large Sumerian settlements. ancient history Sumerian great, the Sumerian people were able to almost completely subjugate ancient Mesopotamia, but they never managed to oust the local settlement from these lands. Perhaps this was done intentionally, since it is known that the culture of the Sumerians literally swallowed up the art of the peoples who lived in the lands they conquered. The similarity of culture, religious beliefs, political and social organization between the various Sumerian city-states does not at all prove their commonality and integrity. On the contrary, it is assumed that from the very beginning of the expansion of the lands of Mesopotamia, the Sumerians, the first civilization on Earth, suffered from regular civil strife and squabbles between the rulers of individual settlements.

Ancient Sumerians, stages of development of the state

Approximately at the beginning of the third millennium BC, about 150 city-states and settlements existed in Mesopotamia. The surrounding small villages and cities, which were built by the ancient Sumerians, obeyed major centers, headed by rulers, who were often also military leaders and high priests of religion. These peculiar states, provinces, which united the ancient Sumerians, are called “nomes”. To date, it is known about such nomes that existed at the beginning of the Early Dynastic period of the Sumerian Empire:

Eshnunna. This nome was located in the valley of the Diyala River.

Unknown nome, located on the Irnin Canal. The initial centers of this nome were the cities of Dzhedet-Nasr and Tell-Uqair, but later the city of Kutu became the center of the province.

Sippar. The ancient Sumerians erected this nome just above the bifurcation of the Euphrates.

Cash. It was also located in the Euphrates region, but already below the connection with Irnina.

Kish. Another nome erected in the area of ​​​​the junction of the Euphrates and Irnina.

Lv. This nome was located at the mouth of the Euphrates.

Shurppack. Located in the Euphrates valley.

Nippur. Nome, built next to Shurppak.

Uruk. The nome that the ancient Sumerians erected below the nome of Shuruppak.

Umma. It was located in the Inturungale area. In the place where the I-nina-gene channel separated from it.

Adab. The Sumerians founded this nome on the upper section of the Inturungal.

Larak (nom and city). It was located in the channel between the Tigris River and the I-nina-gena channel.

A great number of cities were erected and no less number of nomes that existed for several hundred years. These are far from all the nomes founded by the ancient Sumerians, however, these are definitely the most influential. Of the cities of the Sumerian people outside the territory of Lower Mesopotamia, Mari, which the Sumerians built on the Euphrates, Der, located east of the Tigris, and Ashur, on the Middle Tigris, should be distinguished.

The cult center of the ancient Sumerians in the east was the city of Nippur. It is likely that the original name of this settlement sounded only like the Sumerians, which is consonant with the name of the most ancient people. Nippur was notable for the fact that E-kur was located on its territory - a kind of temple of the main Sumerian god Enlil, who was revered as the supreme deity for long millennia by all the ancient Sumerians and even neighboring peoples, for example, the Akkadians. However, Nippur was by no means political center ancient state. The ancient Sumerians perceived this city rather as a kind of religious center, where hundreds of people went to pray to Enlil.

The “Royal List”, which is perhaps the most detailed source of information about the history of the ancient state that the ancient Sumerians built, shows that the main settlements in the lower Mesopotamia were the cities of Kish, which dominated the network of river channels Euphrates-Irnina, Ur and Uruk, patronizing over the south of lower Mesopotamia. The Sumerians, the first civilization, distributed power between the settlements in such a way that outside the zone of influence of these cities (Ur, Uruk and Kish) there were only cities in the valley of the Diyala River, for example, the city of Eshnunna and several other settlements.

Sumerians, late stages of the development of the ancient state

An important stage in the history of the Sumerian Empire was the defeat of Aga under the walls of the city of Uruk, which led to the invasion of the Elamites, subjugated by the father of this ruler. Sumerians- a civilization with a long history, unfortunately, ended very sadly. The Sumerians respected their traditions. According to one of them, after the first dynasty of Kish, a representative of the dynasty of the Elamite city of Avana, which also ruled in the northern part of Mesopotamia, was placed on the throne. That part of the list, where the names of the kings, the Sumerians, were supposed to be located, of the Avan dynasty was seriously damaged, however, King Mesalim probably became the first new ruler.

The Sumerians were practical. So, in the south, parallel to the new dynasty of Avan, the first dynasty of Uruk continued to rule, under the auspices of Gilgamesh. The Sumerians, the descendants of Gilgamesh, managed to rally several very large city-states around themselves, establishing a kind of military alliance. This union united almost all the states that the Sumerians built in the southern lands of Lower Mesopotamia. These are settlements located in the Euphrates valley below Nippur, those that were in I-nina-gen and Iturungal: Adab, Nippur, Lagash, Uruk and a group of other significant settlements. If we take into account those territories where the Sumerians patronized and where, probably, soybeans patronized, then there is a fairly significant probability that this alliance was formed even before Mesalim ascended the throne in Elmur. It is known that the Sumerians and their lands under Missalim, in particular the territories of Iturungal and I-nina-gena, were fragmented states, and not one powerful military association.

The rulers of the nomes (the province that the Sumerians built) and the settlements subject to them, unlike the kings of Uruk, did not call themselves the title “en” (the cultural leader of the nome). These Sumerians former kings and priests, called themselves ensia or ensi. Apparently, this term sounded like “lord” or “ruling priest”. However, these ensi often performed cult roles, for example, the Sumerian kings, they could be military leaders and perform certain functions in managing the army that was under the rule of their nome. Some Sumerians - the rulers of the nomes went even further and called themselves lugals - the military leaders of the nomes. Often this expressed the claim of this ruler of the Sumerians to independence, not only of his nome, but also of his city as an independent state. Such a military leader, the usurper, subsequently called himself the lugal of the nome, or the lugal of Kish, if he claimed hegemony in the northern lands of the Sumerians.

To obtain the title of an independent lugal, recognition was required from the supreme ruler in Nippur, as the center of a cultural union, which was established by the Sumerians and their neighboring peoples. The rest of the lugals in their function did not differ much from ordinary ensi. It is noteworthy that the Sumerians in some nomes were under the rule of the Ensi alone. So, for example, it happened in Kisur, Shuruppak and Nippur, while in others the rule was exclusively lugali. A striking example of such cities of the Sumerians is the late Ur. In rare cases, the land and the common people, the Sumerians, were ruled jointly by both the lugal and the ensi. As far as is known, this practice was used only in Lagash and Uruk. Sumerian rulers in such cities evenly distributed power: one was the chief priest, the other - the commander.

Ancient Sumer, the last centuries of the state

The third and last stage in the development of the Sumerian people and civilization is characterized by the rapid growth of wealth and large property stratification, due to social upheavals that the ancient Sumer experienced and the unstable military situation of Mesopotamia. In fact, all the nomes of the ancient state were involved in a global confrontation, and they fought with each other for many years. Attempts to establish sole hegemony in the state of the ancient Sumerians were made by multiple nomes, however, none of them can be called successful.

This era is also notable for the fact that on the territory from the Euphrates in the southern and western directions, new canals massively broke through, which received the names Arakhtu, Me-Enlil, Apkalatu. Some of these channels reached the western swamps of the ancient Sumerians, and some were built to irrigate the surrounding lands. The rulers of the Sumerian people, the ancient Sumerians, broke through the channels and in the southeast direction from the Euphrates. So, the Zubi canal was built, which originated in the Euphrates just above the Irnina. By the way, new nomes were also formed on these channels, which subsequently also entered into an internecine struggle for power. These nomes that the ancient Sumerian erected were:

First of all, the mighty Babylon, now exclusively associated with the Sumerian people.

Marad, on the Canal of Me-enlin.

Dilbat, on the Apkallatu canal. Nome was under the auspices of the god Urash.

Push, on the southeast channel of the Zubi.

And the last one is Casallu. Its exact location is unknown. The god of this nome was Nimushda.

The updated Sumerian map included all these channels and nomes. New channels also broke through in the lands of Lagash, but they were not remembered for anything special in history. It is worth saying that along with the nomes, cities of the ancient Sumer appeared, and very large and influential ones, for example, all the same Babylon. Massive construction has led some newly minted city-states downstream of Nippur to decide to claim independent existence and engage in a political and resource war for canal ownership. Of these independent cities, the city of Kisura should be singled out, the Sumerians called this city “border”. It is interesting that a significant part of the settlements that appeared in the last stage of the development of the Sumerian empire is not amenable to localization.

Another important event third stage of the early dynastic period of the state ancient Sumerian is the raid of the city of Mari on the southern territories of Mesopotamia. This military action approximately coincided with the end of the reign of the Elamite Avan in the north of lower Mesopotamia and with the final demise of the first dynasty of Urak in the south of the Sumerian empire. Whether there is any connection between these events is difficult to say.

After the sunset of the most powerful dynasties in their time, to which the Sumerians obeyed, a new conflict broke out between new dynasties and families in the north of the countries. These dynasties included: the second dynasty of Kish and the Akshak dynasty. A significant part of the names of the rulers of these dynasties, mentioned in the "Royal List", has Akkadian, East Semitic roots. It is possible that both dynasties were of Akkadian origin, Sumerians and Akkadians clashed regularly in such family wars. The Akkadians, by the way, were steppe nomads who, apparently, came from Arabia and settled in Mesopotamia at about the same time as the Sumerian people. These tribes were able to penetrate into the central lands of Mesopotamia, settle there and develop a culture based on agriculture. Sumerian drawings, excavations and studies show that by about the middle of the third millennium BC, the Akkadians established their power in at least two major cities the central lands of Mesopotamia (the cities of Akshe and Kish). However, even these Akkadian tribes could not compete in military, economic and any other power with the new rulers of the south, who were the Lugals of Ur.

According to the epic that the ancient Sumerians created around 2600 BC, the peoples of the Sumerian group were completely united under the rule of Gilgamesh, the king of Uruk, who later gave the reins to the rule of Uru and his dynasty. After these events, the throne was seized by the usurper Lugalannemundu, the ruler of Adab, who subjugated the ancient Sumerians from the Mediterranean Sea to the south of modern Iran. Toward the end of the 24th century BC, a new ruler, the emperor of Umma, expanded his already vast possessions up to the Persian Gulf.

The end point of the development of the Sumerian empire is considered military operation undertaken by the Akkadian ruler Sharrumken, also known as Sargon the Great. This king managed to completely conquer the lands of the Sumerian people and subjugate power in ancient Mesopotamia. In the middle of the second millennium BC, the Sumerian state, which was under the rule of the Akkadians, was enslaved by Babylon, which had gained strength. The ancient Sumerians ended their existence, Babylon took their place. However, even before that, the Sumerian language lost its status as a state language, families with Sumerian roots were persecuted, and the local religion underwent serious reformations.

Sumerian civilization and their culture

The language of the Sumerian people has an agglutinative structure. His roots, as well as family ties in general, have not been established. existed many thousands of years ago, so it is not surprising that on this moment the scientific community considers a number of hypotheses, however, among which there is not a single one confirmed by facts.

Sumerian writing basically contains pictograms. In fact, it is very similar to the Egyptian cuneiform, but this is only a first impression, in fact they differ significantly. Initially, the writing that the Sumerian civilization created consisted of about 1000 various symbols and signs. However, over time, their number decreased to 600. Some of the symbols had a double or even triple meaning, while others carried a single meaning in writing. In the context of the letter that the Sumerian civilization created, neither for the inhabitants themselves ancient empire, it is not difficult for modern scientists to determine the only true meaning of a word that originally carries a double or triple meaning.

The Sumerian language also boasts the presence of multiple monosyllabic words. Which to some extent complicates the work for translators and researchers, and in some cases complicates the process of transcription of ancient records.

The architecture created by the Sumerian civilization also had features. In Mesopotamia, there was little stone and trees, the usual materials used in construction. For this reason, the first materials that the Sumerian civilization adapted for construction were raw bricks from a special clay mixture. The basis of the architecture of Mesopotamia was palaces, that is, secular buildings and religious buildings, that is, ziggurats (local analogues of churches and temples in combination). The first buildings that have survived to this day and to which the Sumerian civilization had a hand date back to 4-3 millennium BC. For the most part, these are religious buildings, once grandiose towers called ziggurats, which means “holy mountain”. They are made in a square shape and outwardly resemble stepped pyramids, for example, those that were built by the Maya Indians and the Yucatan in general. The steps of the building were connected by stairs leading to the temple at the top. The walls of the building were painted in traditional black, in more rare cases - in red or white.

A distinctive feature of the architecture that the Sumerian civilization developed is also the construction on artificial platforms that developed until the 4th millennium BC. Thanks to this unusual method of construction, the inhabitants of the ancient empire could protect their homes from dampness of the soil, natural damage, and also make it visible to others. An equally significant feature of the architectural style that the ancient civilization of the Sumerians created is the broken lines of the walls. Windows, in those cases when they were made, were located in the upper part of the structure and outwardly resembled narrow slots. The main source of light in the room was often a doorway or an additional hole on the roof. The floor in the rooms was mostly flat, and the buildings were single-level. This applies in particular to residential structures. The same buildings that were in the possession of the ruling dynasty of the Sumerian civilization have always been distinguished by their grandeur and flashiness.

The last thing worth mentioning is the literature of the Sumerian state. One of the clearest examples of the literature of this people is the Epic of Gilgamesh, which included numerous Sumerian legends translated into Akkadian. Tablets with the epic were found in the repository, the library of King Ashurbanipal. The epic tells of the great king of the city of Uruk, Gilgamesh, and his friend from the wild tribes of Enkidu. An extraordinary company throughout the story travels the world in search of the secret of immortality. History begins in Sumer, and ends there. One of the chapters of the epic tells of a great flood. In the Bible, you can literally find quotes and borrowings from this work.

Based on materials: .