Dysgraphia as a consequence of a disorder. How to choose the right method for correcting dyslexia? What if the child doesn’t want to learn to write?

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“Silence reigns in the dense forest,

The thorns of the carcass are the zeros of sonse,

Birds clap all day long.

Rutsey grind retski"

“What are these interesting words?” - you ask, and you will be right, because there are no such words in our language. Meanwhile, this is quite a Russian language, albeit a strange one. And such words are written in their notebooks and copybooks by children (most often primary schoolchildren, but more on that later) who suffer from a special disorder called “dysgraphia.” Next, we will talk about what this deviation is, how it manifests itself and is diagnosed, and how to treat it.

What is dysgraphia

Dysgraphia is a pathological condition in which there is a disorder in the writing process. About 50% are familiar with this disease firsthand junior schoolchildren and approximately 35% of students high school. This pathology can also develop in adults (10% of all cases), in whom the functioning of higher mental functions has been impaired for some reason. In addition, this disorder is closely related to deviations in the reading process, because both reading and writing are two components of one mental process.

History of dysgraphia

Writing and reading disorders were first identified as an independent pathology by the German therapist Adolf Kussmaul in 1877. After this, many works appeared that described various writing and reading disorders in children. However, they were considered as one disorder writing, and some scientists pointed out that it is generally a sign of dementia and is characteristic only of retarded children.

But already in 1896, the therapist W. Pringle Morgan described a case with a 14-year-old boy who had completely normal intelligence, but had writing and reading impairments (we were talking about dyslexia). After this, others began to study writing and reading disorders as an independent pathology, in no way related to mental retardation. A little later (in the early 1900s), the scientist D. Ginshelwood introduced the terms “alexia” and “agraphia,” which denoted severe and mild forms of the disorder.

As time passed, the understanding of the nature of writing and reading deviations changed. It was no longer defined as a homogeneous optical disorder; began to be used different concepts: “Alexia” and “dyslexia”, “agraphia” and “dysgraphia”; started to allocate different shapes and classification of dysgraphia (and, of course, dyslexia).

Subsequently, disorders in the process of writing and reading began to be studied by an increasing number of specialists, including domestic ones. The most significant were the works of neuropathologists Samuil Semenovich Mnukhin and Roman Aleksandrovich Tkachev. According to Tkachev, the basis of the disorders is mnestic disorders (memory disorders), and according to the ideas of Mnukhin, their common psychopathological basis lies in a violation of structure formation.

Ultimately, in the 30s of the 20th century, dysgraphia (and dyslexia) began to be studied by defectologists, teachers and psychologists, such as R. E. Levin, R. M. Boskis, M. E. Khvattsev, F. A. Rau and others . If we talk about modern scientists and more specifically about dysgraphia, then L. G. Nevolina, A. N. Kornev, S. S. Lyapidevsky, S. N. Shakhovskaya and others made a significant contribution to its study. Based on the results of their research, we will continue our article.

Causes of dysgraphia

Despite in-depth study, the causes of dysgraphia have not been clarified with 100% accuracy even today. But certain data is still available. For example, the above-mentioned scientists say that writing disorder can be caused by:

Biological reasons: heredity, damage or underdevelopment of the brain at different periods of child development, pregnancy pathologies, fetal trauma, asphyxia, serious somatic diseases, infections affecting the nervous system.
Social and psychological reasons: hospitalism syndrome (disorders caused by a person’s long stay in a hospital away from home and family), pedagogical neglect, lack of speech contacts, upbringing in bilingual families.
Social and environmental reasons: excessive literacy requirements for the child, incorrectly determined (too early) age of learning to read and write, incorrectly selected pace and teaching methods.

As you know, a person begins to master writing skills when all its components are adequately formed. oral speech: sound pronunciation, lexical and grammatical component, phonetic perception, speech coherence. If, during the formation of the brain, the disorders mentioned above occurred, the risk of developing dysgraphia is very high.

It is equally important to note that dysgraphia affects children with various functional impairments of the organs of hearing and vision, which cause deviations in the analysis and synthesis of information. And in adults, the impetus for the development of pathology can be strokes, traumatic brain injuries, neurosurgical interventions and tumor processes in the brain. Having a certain impact on human development, one or another of the above factors lead to dysgraphia, which can manifest itself in different forms.

Types of dysgraphia

Today, experts divide dysgraphia into five main forms, each of which depends on what specific written operation is impaired or not formed:

Acoustic dysgraphia– characterized by a violation of phonemic recognition of sounds
Articulatory-acoustic dysgraphia– characterized by a violation of articulation and perception of phonetics ( phonemic hearing), as well as difficulties in sound pronunciation
Agrammatic dysgraphia– characterized by problems in lexical development and development grammatical structure speeches
Optical dysgraphia– characterized by undeveloped visual-spatial perception
A special form of dysgraphia due to immaturity language synthesis

In practice, any type of dysgraphia in its pure form is quite rare, because in most cases, dysgraphia takes a mixed form, but with a predominance of one type. It can be established by its characteristic features.

Symptoms of dysgraphia

Like any speech therapy disorder, dysgraphia has a number of its own symptoms. As a rule, it makes itself felt systematically, but a person makes these mistakes not due to ignorance of language norms and rules. In most cases, errors manifest themselves in the replacement or displacement of similar sounds or similar letters, omission of letters and syllables in words or changing their places, adding extra letters. There is also a fused spelling of many words and a lack of consistency between words and word forms in sentences. At the same time, low writing speed and difficult-to-read handwriting are noted.

But let’s talk about the symptoms that can, with a certain degree of probability, indicate the development of a specific type of dysgraphia:

With acoustic dysgraphia, there may be no disturbances in the pronunciation of sounds, but their perception will definitely be incorrect. In writing, this manifests itself in the replacement of sounds that a person hears with those that are similar to them when pronounced, for example, whistling sounds are replaced by hissing ones, voiceless sounds are replaced by voiced ones (S-Sh, Z-Zh, etc.), etc. .
In articulatory-acoustic dysgraphia, errors in writing are associated specifically with incorrect pronunciation sounds. A person writes exactly as he hears. As a rule, such symptoms occur in children whose phonetic-phonemic side of speech is underdeveloped. By the way, errors with dysgraphia of this type will be similar both in pronunciation and in writing (for example, if a child says “funny zayas,” he will write in exactly the same way).
With agrammatic dysgraphia, words are changed by case, declensions are confused, the child is not able to determine the number and gender (for example, “bright sun”, “good aunt”, “three bears”, etc.). Sentences are characterized by inconsistency in word placement; some sentence members may even be omitted altogether. As for speech, it is inhibited and underdeveloped.
In optical dysgraphia, letters are mixed up and replaced with those that are visually similar to the correct ones. Here it is necessary to distinguish between literal optical dysgraphia (isolated letters are incorrectly reproduced) and verbal optical dysgraphia (letters in words are incorrectly reproduced). Most often, letters are “mirrored”, unnecessary elements are added to them or necessary ones are left unwritten (for example, T is written as P, L as M, A as D), etc.)
With dysgraphia, which is caused by unformed language synthesis, the child changes letters and syllables in places, does not add the endings of words or adds extra ones, writes prepositions together with words, and separates prefixes from them (for example, “on the street,” “on the table,” etc. ). This type of dysgraphia is considered the most common among schoolchildren.

Among other things, people with dysgraphia may also have symptoms that are not related to speech therapy. Usually these are neurological disorders and disorders, such as low performance, increased distractibility, memory impairment, and hyperactivity.

If the symptoms discussed above are systematically manifested, it is necessary to contact a specialist who can conduct a full diagnosis and distinguish pathology from banal illiteracy. Such a specialist is a speech therapist. By the way, keep in mind that the diagnosis of “dysgraphia” is made only if the child already has writing skills, i.e. not earlier than reaching the age of 9. Otherwise, the diagnosis may be incorrect.

Diagnosis of dysgraphia

As we said, to diagnose dysgraphia you need to visit a speech therapist. However, consultation with other specialists is very important. Such specialists include a psychologist, ophthalmologist, neurologist, ENT specialist. They will help eliminate defects in the organs of vision and hearing, as well as mental disorders. Only after this, a speech therapist, having studied the symptoms, can establish that dysgraphia is developing and determine its type.

Diagnostic measures are always carried out comprehensively and in stages. Written works are analyzed, general and speech development, the state of the central nervous system, organs of vision and hearing, speech motor skills and articulatory apparatus. To analyze written speech, a specialist may ask the child to rewrite printed or handwritten text, take dictation, describe a plot using a picture, or read it aloud. Based on the data obtained, a protocol is drawn up, and the doctor makes a conclusion.

The time at which it takes place also plays a huge role in diagnosis. It is best to seek advice at the minimum possible age (preferably at kindergarten) to be able to begin correcting the deviation in its early stages. If the necessary measures are not taken in childhood, dysgraphia will manifest itself in adulthood, and eliminating it will be much more problematic.

Correction and treatment of dysgraphia

Unlike Western countries, where for the treatment and correction of dysgraphia, special programs, there are no such things in Russia yet. That is why correctional measures should begin already at kindergarten age, and include special methods and techniques that speech therapists know. But with the help of the usual school curriculum dysgraphia cannot be eliminated. Actually, no one can completely eliminate the deviation - such is its specificity. However, it is still possible to bring your writing skill closer to ideal.

Corrective programs must be developed taking into account individual characteristics everyone individual case and, of course, forms of violation. To correct the deviation, the specialist develops a system for filling gaps in processes important for the formation of writing skills, and works on the development of speech and its coherence. Also, tasks are given for the formation of grammar and the development of vocabulary, spatial and auditory perception is corrected, and mental processes and memory are developed. All this leads to the development of writing skills.

In addition to the speech therapy complex, doctors often use physical therapy, massage, physiotherapy. As for drug treatment, its feasibility and effectiveness remain a big question.

If you decide to be directly involved in the treatment of dysgraphia in your child, use play activity. It is useful for younger schoolchildren to be given tasks to compose words using magnetic letters - this significantly reinforces the visual perception of letter elements. And writing dictations improves auditory perception of sounds.

It is useful to play historian with your child - when the child writes letters with pen and ink. You need to choose your regular writing tools wisely. It is recommended to buy pens, pencils and markers with a rough or uneven body, because... they massage the distal ends of the fingers, through which additional signals are sent to the brain.

In fact, there are many options for working out writing deviations, but all of them must be discussed with a speech therapist. We also recommend consulting specialized literature. Pay attention to the books by E. V. Mazanova (“Learning not to confuse letters”, “Learning not to confuse sounds”), O. V. Chistyakova (“30 lessons in the Russian language to prevent dysgraphia”, “Correcting dysgraphia”), I. Y. Ogloblina (Speech therapy notebooks for the correction of dysgraphia), O. M. Kovalenko (“Correction of written speech disorders”), O. I. Azova (“Diagnostics and correction of written speech disorders”).

These books contain a lot of useful material for self-study at home. But a quick result is hardly possible, and therefore you need to be patient and respond to mistakes adequately. Classes should be systematic, but short-lived; Be sure to give your child the opportunity to relax, play and do his favorite things. And take the time to watch the video “ How to overcome dysgraphia", from where you can also get a lot of useful information.

In addition, we note that even if the problem of dysgraphia is not relevant for you, this does not mean that you can write it off. In order to prevent it from developing, we advise you to carry out preventive measures from time to time, about which a few words also need to be said.

Prevention of dysgraphia

Prevention of dysgraphia involves certain actions even before your child learns to write. They include memory, mental processes, spatial perception, visual and auditory differentiation and other processes responsible for mastering the skill of writing.

Any, even the most minor, speech disorders must be corrected immediately. Equally important is the child. At an older age, you need to train your handwriting. We also want to offer you several exercises that can be used both for the prevention and correction of dysgraphia.

Exercises for the prevention and correction of dysgraphia

These exercises are quite suitable for younger children. school age, but can also be performed by older children:

Take your child to a book that he or she is not yet familiar with. It is advisable that the text be printed in a medium font and also be a little boring so that the child’s attention is not distracted by the content. Give the task to find and underline a specific letter in the text, for example S or P, O or A, etc.
Make the task a little more difficult: let the child look for a specific letter and underline it, and circle or cross out the letter following it.
Invite your child to mark similar paired letters, such as L/M, R/P, T/P, B/D, U/Yu, A/U, D/G, etc.
Dictate a short passage of text to your child. His task is to write and speak out loud everything he writes, exactly as it is written. At the same time, it is necessary to emphasize the weak parts - those sounds that are not paid attention to during pronunciation, for example, we say: “there is a cup of milk on the table”, but we write: “there is a cup of milk on the table”. These are the parts the child should emphasize. The same applies to finishing and clearly pronouncing the endings of words.
An exercise for developing attention and gross motor skills - movements of the body, arms and legs. The idea is that the child draws a continuous line with a pen or pencil without changing the position of the hand and the sheet. Special collections of drawings are best suited for this, the nodal points of which are marked serial numbers for connection.
Explain to your child the differences between hard and soft, deaf and ringing sounds. Then give the task to select words for each of the sounds and do an analysis of the words with him: what letters, syllables and sounds they consist of. For convenience and clarity, you can use various objects.
Train your child's handwriting. To do this, it is useful to use a squared notebook so that the child writes words by placing letters in separate cells. Make sure that the letters completely fill the space of the cells.

And a few more tips for conducting classes:

The environment should be calm, the child should not be distracted by anything
Select tasks according to the child’s age and abilities
In case of difficulties, help your child, but do not complete the tasks yourself
Don't teach the child foreign words, if he is not yet ready for this psychologically
In everyday communication, speak as correctly and clearly as possible
Do not repeat after your child words and phrases that he pronounces incorrectly.
Remember to choose your writing tools carefully
Provide psychological support to the child, because often children with dysgraphia feel “not like everyone else”
Never scold your child for mistakes
Encourage and praise your child for any successes, even the smallest ones.

Remember that a competent approach to education, care and attention to the child, as well as extreme attentiveness to the process of his development will help you recognize deviations in time and take measures to correct and eliminate them. And we wish you and your children success in learning and mastering new skills!

Classification of dysgraphia carried out on the basis of various criteria: taking into account impaired analyzers, mental functions, immaturity of writing operations.

O. A. Tokareva identifies 3 types of dysgraphia:acoustic, optical, motor.

For acoustic dysgraphia there is undifferentiation of auditory perception, insufficient development sound analysis and synthesis. Frequent are confusions and omissions, substitutions of letters denoting sounds that are similar in articulation and sound, as well as the reflection of incorrect sound pronunciation in writing.

Optical dysgraphia caused by instability of visual impressions and ideas. Individual letters are not recognized and do not correspond to certain sounds. At different moments, letters are perceived differently. Due to inaccuracy of visual perception, they are mixed in writing. The most common mixtures of the following handwritten letters are:

In severe cases of optical dysgraphia, writing words is impossible. The child writes only individual letters. In some cases, especially among left-handers, mirror writing occurs, when words, letters, and letter elements are written from right to left.

Motor dysgraphia. It is characterized by difficulties in moving the hand while writing, and a disruption in the connection of motor images of sounds and words with visual images.

Modern psychological and psycholinguistic study of the writing process indicates that it is complex shape speech activity, including large number operations at various levels: semantic, linguistic, sensorimotor. In this regard, the identification of types of dysgraphia based on violations of the analytical level is currently insufficiently substantiated.

The types of dysgraphia identified by M. E. Khvattsev also do not satisfy today’s understanding of writing disorders. Let's look at them:

1. Dysgraphia due to acoustic agnosia and phonemic hearing defects. In this type, cheating is safe.

The physiological mechanism of the defect is a violation of associative connections between vision and hearing; omissions, rearrangements, substitutions of letters are observed, as well as the merging of two words into one, omissions of words, etc.

This type is based on undifferentiated auditory perception of the sound composition of a word and insufficient phonemic analysis.

2. Dysgraphia due to oral speech disorders (“graphic tongue-tiedness”). According to M.E. Khvattsev, it arises due to incorrect sound pronunciation. The replacement of some sounds with others, the absence of sounds in pronunciation cause corresponding replacements and omissions of sounds in writing. M. E. Khvattsev also identifies a special form due to “experienced” tongue-tiedness (when the violation of sound pronunciation disappeared before the start of learning to read and write or after the start of mastering writing). The more severe the pronunciation disorder, the more severe and varied the writing errors. The identification of this type of dysgraphia is recognized as justified at the present time.

3. Dysgraphia due to disturbances in pronunciation rhythm. M.E. Khvattsev believes that as a result of a disorder in the pronunciation rhythm, omissions of vowels, syllables, and endings appear in writing. Errors can be caused either by underdevelopment of phonemic analysis and synthesis, or by distortions of sound syllable structure words.

4. Optical dysgraphia. Caused by disruption or underdevelopment of optical speech systems in the brain. The formation of a visual image of a letter or word is disrupted. With literal dysgraphia, the child’s visual image of the letter is disrupted, distortions and substitutions of isolated letters are observed. With verbal dysgraphia, the writing of isolated letters is intact, but it is difficult to form a visual image of the word, and the child writes words with gross errors.

With optical dysgraphia, the child does not distinguish graphically similar handwritten letters:n- k, p. - and, with- oh and- w, l- m.

5. Dysgraphia in motor and sensory aphasia manifests itself in substitutions and distortions of the structure of words and sentences and is caused by the disintegration of oral speech due to organic damage to the brain.

The most reasonable is the classification of dysgraphia, which is based on the immaturity of certain operations of the writing process (developed by employees of the Department of Speech Therapy of the Leningrad State Pedagogical Institute named after A. I. Herzen). The following types of dysgraphia are distinguished:articulatory-acoustic, based on disorders of phoneme recognition (phoneme differentiation),due to violations of language analysis and synthesis, agrammatic and optical dysgraphia.

1. Articulatory-acoustic dysgraphia is in many ways similar to dysgraphia identified by M. E. Khvattsev due to oral speech disorders.

The child writes as he pronounces. It is based on the reflection of incorrect pronunciation in writing, relying on incorrect pronunciation. Relying on incorrect pronunciation of sounds during the pronunciation process, the child reflects his defective pronunciation in writing.

Articulatory-acoustic dysgraphia manifests itself in substitutions and omissions of letters corresponding to substitutions and omissions of sounds in oral speech. Most often observed with dysarthria, rhinolalia, dyslalia of a polymorphic nature. Sometimes letter substitutions remain in writing even after they are eliminated in spoken language. In this case, it can be assumed that during internal pronunciation there is not sufficient support for correct articulation, since clear kinesthetic images of sounds have not yet been formed. But replacements and omissions of sounds are not always reflected in the writing. This is due to the fact that in some cases compensation occurs due to preserved functions (for example, due to clear auditory differentiation, due to the formation of phonemic functions).

2. Dysgraphia based on phoneme recognition disorders (phoneme differentiation). According to traditional terminology- This acoustic dysgraphia.

Manifests itself in substitutions of letters corresponding to phonetically similar sounds. At the same time, in oral speech, sounds are pronounced correctly. Most often, letters denoting the following sounds are replaced: whistling and hissing, voiced and unvoiced, affricates and the components that make up them (h -t, h- sch, ts - t, ts- With). This type of dysgraphia also manifests itself in the incorrect designation of soft consonants in writing due to a violation of the differentiation of hard and soft consonants (“pismo”, “lubit”, “lizha”). Frequent errors are the replacement of vowels even in the stressed position, for example, o -at(tuma - “point”), e- And(forest - “fox”).

In its most striking form, dysgraphia based on impaired phoneme recognition is observed in sensory alalia and aphasia. In severe cases, letters denoting distant articulatory and acoustic sounds are mixed (l -k, b- v, p- To). In this case, the pronunciation of sounds corresponding to the mixed letters is normal.

There is no consensus on the mechanisms of this type of dysgraphia. This is due to the complexity of the phoneme recognition process.

According to researchers (I. A. Zimnyaya, E. F. Sobotovich, L. A. Chistovich), the multi-level process of phoneme recognition includes various operations.

1. During perception, auditory analysis of speech is carried out (analytical decomposition of a synthetic sound image, isolation of acoustic features with their subsequent synthesis).

2. The acoustic image is translated into an articulatory solution, which is ensured by proporioceptive analysis and the preservation of kinesthetic perception and ideas.

3. Auditory and kinesthetic images are retained for the time necessary to make a decision.

4. The sound is correlated with the phoneme, and the phoneme selection operation occurs.

5. Based on auditory and kinesthetic control, a comparison with the sample is carried out and then a final decision is made.

In the process of writing, the phoneme is correlated with a certain visual image of the letter.

Some authors (S. Borel-Maisonny, O. A. Tokareva) believe that the basis for substitutions of letters denoting phonetically similar sounds is the blurredness of auditory perception, the inaccuracy of auditory differentiation of sounds.

Correct writing requires a more subtle auditory differentiation of sounds than oral speech. This is due, on the one hand, to the phenomenon of redundancy in the perception of semantically significant units of oral speech. A slight lack of auditory differentiation in oral speech, if it occurs, can be compensated for by redundancy, due to motor stereotypes and kinesthetic images fixed in speech experience. In the process of writing, in order to correctly distinguish and select a phoneme, a subtle analysis of all acoustic features of sound that are semantically distinctive is necessary.

On the other hand, in the process of writing, differentiation of sounds and selection of phonemes are carried out on the basis of trace activity, auditory images, and representation. Due to the vagueness of auditory ideas about phonetically similar sounds, the choice of one or another phoneme is difficult, which results in substitutions of letters in the letter.

Other authors (E.F. Sobotovich, E.M. Gopichenko), who studied writing impairments in mentally retarded children, associate letter substitutions with the fact that during phonemic recognition children rely on articulatory signs of sounds and do not use auditory control.

In contrast to these studies, R. Becker and A. Kossovsky consider difficulties in kinesthetic analysis to be the main mechanism for replacing letters denoting phonetically similar sounds. Their research shows that children with dysgraphia do not use kinesthetic sensations (enunciation) enough when writing. Pronunciation helps them little, both during auditory dictation and when writing independently. Eliminating pronunciation (L.K. Nazarova’s method) does not affect the number of errors, i.e. does not lead to an increase in them. At the same time, eliminating pronunciation while writing in children without dysgraphia leads to an 8-9 times increase in errors in writing.

Correct writing requires a sufficient level of functioning of all operations of the process of distinguishing and selecting phonemes. If any link is violated (auditory, kinesthetic analysis, phoneme selection operation, auditory and kinesthetic control), the entire process of phonemic recognition becomes difficult, which manifests itself in the replacement of letters in the letter. Therefore, taking into account impaired phoneme recognition operations, the following subtypes of this form of dysgraphia can be distinguished:acoustic, kinesthetic, phonemic.

3. Dysgraphia due to a violation of language analysis and synthesis. It is based on a violation various forms language analysis and synthesis: dividing sentences into words, syllabic and phonemic analysis and synthesis. The underdevelopment of language analysis and synthesis manifests itself in writing in distortions of the structure of words and sentences. The most complex form of language analysis is phonemic analysis. As a result, distortions of the sound-letter structure of words will be especially common in this type of dysgraphia.

The most common errors are: omission of consonants when they are combined(dictation- “dikat”, school- “cola”); vowel omissions(dog- "dog" Houses- “dma”); letter permutations(trail- “prota”, window- “kono”); adding letters(dragged- “tasakali”); omissions, additions, rearrangement of syllables(room- "cat" cup- “kata”).

For proper mastery of the writing process, it is necessary that the child’s phonemic analysis be formed not only externally, in speech, but also internally, in terms of representation.

Violation of the division of sentences into words in this type of dysgraphia manifests itself in the continuous spelling of words, especially prepositions, with other words(it's raining- “you’re coming” in the house- "in the house"); separate spelling of a word(white birch grows near the window - “belabe zaratet oka”); separate spelling of prefix and root word(has arrived- “stepped on”)

Writing disorders due to immaturity of phonemic analysis and synthesis are widely represented in the works of R. E. Levina, N. A. Nikashina, D. I. Orlova, G. V. Chirkina.

4. Agrammatic dysgraphia (characterized in the works of R. E. Levina, I. K. Kolpovskaya, R. I. Lalaeva, S. B. Yakovlev). It is associated with underdevelopment of the grammatical structure of speech: morphological, syntactic generalizations. This type of dysgraphia can manifest itself at the level of words, phrases, sentences and texts and is integral part a broader symptom complex - lexical and grammatical underdevelopment, which is observed in children with dysarthria, alalia and the mentally retarded.

In coherent written speech, children show great difficulties in establishing logical and linguistic connections between sentences. The sequence of sentences does not always correspond to the sequence of events described; semantic and grammatical connections between individual sentences are broken.

At the sentence level, agrammatisms in writing manifest themselves in distortion of the morphological structure of the word, replacement of prefixes and suffixes(overwhelmed- “swept” kids- “kids”); change case endings(“many trees”); violation of prepositional constructions(above the table- “on the table”); changing the case of pronouns (abouthim- “near him”); number of nouns (“children are running”); violation of agreement (“white house”); there is also a violation of the syntactic design of speech, which manifests itself in difficulties in constructing complex sentences, omission of sentence members, violation of the sequence of words in a sentence.

5. Optical dysgraphia is associated with underdevelopment of visual gnosis, analysis and synthesis, spatial representations and manifests itself in substitutions and distortions of letters in writing.

Most often, graphically similar handwritten letters are replaced: consisting of identical elements, but differently located in space (

At literary dysgraphia There is a violation of recognition and reproduction of even isolated letters. Atverbal dysgraphia isolated letters are reproduced correctly, however, when writing a word, distortions and optical substitutions of letters are observed. TOoptical dysgraphia This also applies to mirror writing, which is sometimes observed in left-handed people, as well as with organic brain lesions.

Classification of dysgraphia is carried out on the basis of various criteria: taking into account impaired analyzers, mental functions, immaturity of writing operations.

O.A. Tokareva distinguishes 3 types of dysgraphia: acoustic, optical, motor.

Acoustic dysgraphia is characterized by undifferentiated auditory perception and insufficient development of sound analysis and synthesis. Frequent are confusions and omissions, substitutions of letters denoting sounds that are similar in articulation and sound, as well as the reflection of incorrect sound pronunciation in writing.

Optical dysgraphia is caused by instability of visual impressions and ideas. Individual letters are not recognized and do not correspond to certain sounds. At different moments, letters are perceived differently. Due to inaccuracy of visual perception, they are mixed in writing. In severe cases of optical dysgraphia, writing words is impossible. The child writes only individual letters. In some cases, especially among left-handers, mirror writing occurs, when words, letters, and letter elements are written from right to left.

Motor dysgraphia. It is characterized by difficulties in moving the hand while writing, and a disruption in the connection of motor images of sounds and words with visual images.

M.E. Khvattsev identifies 5 types of dysgraphia:

1. Dysgraphia due to acoustic agnosia and phonemic hearing defects. In this case, the copying is safe. This type is based on undifferentiated auditory perception of the sound composition of a word and insufficient phonemic analysis.
2. Dysgraphia due to oral speech disorders. According to M.E. Khvattsev, it arises due to incorrect sound pronunciation. The replacement of some sounds with others, the absence of sounds in pronunciation cause corresponding replacements and omissions of sounds in writing.

The identification of this type of dysgraphia is recognized as justified at the present time.

3. Dysgraphia due to impaired pronunciation rhythm.

M.E. Khvattsev believes that as a result of a disorder of pronunciation rhythm, omissions of vowels, syllables, and endings appear in writing. Errors can be caused either by underdevelopment of phonemic analysis and synthesis, or by distortions of the sound-syllable structure of the word.

4. Optical dysgraphia. Caused by disruption or underdevelopment of optical speech systems in the brain. The formation of a visual image of a letter or word is disrupted.
5. Dysgraphia in motor and sensory aphasia manifests itself in substitutions and distortions of the structure of words and sentences and is caused by the disintegration of oral speech due to organic damage to the brain.

The most reasonable is the classification of dysgraphia, which is based on the immaturity of certain operations of the writing process (developed by employees of the Department of Speech Therapy of the Leningrad State Pedagogical Institute named after A.I. Herzen). The following types of dysgraphia are distinguished: articulatory-acoustic, based on violations of phonemic recognition, based on violations of language analysis and synthesis, agrammatic and optical dysgraphia.

1. Articulatory-acoustic dysgraphia is associated with oral speech disorders. This is the so-called “tongue-tied writing.” The child writes as he pronounces. It is based on the reflection of incorrect pronunciation in writing, relying on incorrect pronunciation. Relying on incorrect pronunciation of sounds during the pronunciation process, the child reflects his defective pronunciation in writing.

Articulatory-acoustic dysgraphia manifests itself in substitutions and omissions of letters corresponding to substitutions and omissions of sounds in oral speech. Sometimes letter substitutions remain in writing even after they are eliminated in spoken language. In this case, it can be assumed that during internal pronunciation there is not sufficient support for correct articulation, since clear kinesthetic images of sounds have not yet been formed. But replacements and omissions of sounds are not always reflected in the writing. This is due to the fact that in some cases compensation occurs due to preserved functions (for example, due to clear auditory differentiation, due to the formation of phonemic functions).

2. Dysgraphia based on disorders of phoneme recognition (phoneme differentiation). According to traditional terminology, this is acoustic dysgraphia.

ts-t, ts-s). This type of dysgraphia also manifests itself in the incorrect designation of soft consonants in writing due to a violation of the differentiation of hard and soft consonants (“pismo”, “lubit”, “lizha”). Frequent mistakes are the replacement of vowels even in the stressed position, for example: cloud - “point”, forest - “fox”.

There is no consensus on the mechanisms of this type of dysgraphia. This is due to the complexity of the phoneme recognition process.

Correct writing requires a more subtle auditory differentiation of sounds than oral speech. This is due, on the one hand, to the phenomenon of redundancy in the perception of semantically significant units of oral speech. A slight lack of auditory differentiation in oral speech, if it occurs, can be compensated for by redundancy, due to motor stereotypes and kinesthetic images fixed in speech experience. In the process of writing, in order to correctly distinguish and select a phoneme, a subtle analysis of all the acoustic features of sound that are meaningful is necessary.

Correct writing requires a sufficient level of functioning of all operations of the process of distinguishing and selecting phonemes. If any link is violated (auditory, kinesthetic analysis, phoneme selection operation, auditory and kinesthetic control), the entire process of phonemic recognition becomes difficult, which manifests itself in the replacement of letters in the letter. Therefore, taking into account the impaired operations of phonemic recognition, the following subtypes of this form of dysgraphia can be distinguished: acoustic, kinesthetic, phonemic.

3. Dysgraphia based on language analysis and synthesis is the most common. This type of dysgraphia is based on a violation of various forms of language analysis and synthesis: dividing sentences into words, syllabic and phonemic analysis and synthesis. The underdevelopment of language analysis and synthesis manifests itself in writing in distortions of the structure of words and sentences. The most complex form of language analysis is phonemic analysis. As a result, distortions of the sound-letter structure of words will be especially common in this type of dysgraphia.

The most common errors are:

1. omission of consonants when they come together (dictation - “dikat”, school - “kola”);
2. vowel omissions (dog - “sbaka”, home - “dma”);
3. permutations of letters (path - “prota”, window - “kono”);
4. adding letters (dragged - “tasakali”); omissions, additions, rearrangement of syllables (room - “kota”, glass - “kata”).

For proper mastery of the writing process, it is necessary that the child’s phonemic analysis be formed not only externally, in speech, but also, above all, internally, in terms of representation.

Violation of the division of sentences into words in this type of dysgraphia manifests itself in the continuous spelling of words, especially prepositions, with other words (it is raining - “Idedosh”, in the house - “in the house”); separate spelling of the word (a white birch tree grows near the window - “belabe zaratet oka”); separate writing of the prefix and the root of the word (stepped - “stepped on”).

The assimilation of language analysis and synthesis depends both on linguistic maturity and on intellectual abilities and prerequisites for intelligence. Dysgraphia of analysis and synthesis can be observed both in children with and without oral speech disorders.

4. Agrammatic dysgraphia is associated with underdevelopment of the grammatical structure of speech: morphological, syntactic generalizations. This type of dysgraphia can manifest itself at the level of words, phrases, sentences and texts and is part of a broader symptom complex - lexico-grammatical underdevelopment, which is observed in children with dysarthria, alalia and the mentally retarded.

At the sentence level, agrammatisms in writing manifest themselves in distortion of the morphological structure of the word, replacement of prefixes, suffixes (overwhelmed - “overwhelmed”, goats - “kids”); changing case endings (“many trees”); violation of prepositional constructions (above the table - “on the table”); changing the case of pronouns (about him - “about him”); number of nouns (“children are running”); violation of agreement (“white house”); There is also a violation of the syntactic design of speech, which manifests itself in difficulties in constructing complex sentences, omissions of sentence members, and violation of the sequence of words in a sentence.

5. Optical dysgraphia is associated with underdevelopment of visual gnosis, analysis and synthesis, spatial representations and manifests itself in substitutions and distortions of letters in writing.

Most often, graphically similar handwritten letters are replaced: consisting of identical elements, but differently located in space, including identical elements, but differing in additional elements (i-sh, p-t), mirror writing of letters, omissions of elements, especially when connecting letters including identical element, extra and incorrectly located elements.

Optical dysgraphia is divided into literal and verbal. With literal dysgraphia, there is a violation of the recognition and reproduction of even isolated letters.

With verbal dysgraphia, isolated letters are reproduced correctly, but when writing a word, distortions and optical substitutions of letters are observed.

Optical dysgraphia also includes mirror writing, which is sometimes observed in left-handed people, as well as in cases of organic brain damage.

Conclusions to chapter 1:

1. The development of written speech, including the ability to clearly pronounce sounds and distinguish them, determine the syllabic composition of a word, master the articulatory apparatus, and correctly construct a sentence - one of the pressing problems facing a school institution. This problem was dealt with by: L.N. Efimenkova, R.I. Lalaeva, M.E. Khvatsev, I.N. Sadovnikova, R.E. Levina, A.R. Luria et al.
2. Correct written speech is one of the indicators of a child’s readiness for learning, the key to successful literacy and reading. Written speech is formed on the basis of oral speech, and children suffering from underdevelopment of phonemic hearing are potential dysgraphics.
3. The problem being studied is relevant at the present time.

schoolchild writing speech ontogenesis dysgraphia

Speech at methodological unification

speech therapist teachers 12/17/2015

Presentation " Dysgraphia. Symptoms.

Characteristics of types of dysgraphia »

Teacher-speech therapist Belyaeva L.G.

Slide 1.

DYGRAPHIA. SYMPTOMATICS. CHARACTERISTIC TYPES OF DYGRAPHIA.

Slide 2. Dysgraphia - this is a partialdisruption of the writing process, manifested instop repetitious errors caused byformation of higher mental functionstions involved in the writing process.

IN modern literature letters are used to indicate specific disorderspersonal terms. Partial writing impairmentsare calleddysgraphia, complete incapacityletters -agraphia.

In domestic literature terms"disgra fiya" And"dysorphography" are opposed,that is, they are differentiated.

For differential diagnosis of these narudecisions, it is necessary to clarify those criteria based onin which errors in dysgraphia anddysorthography. The main criterion is thatthe principle of spelling that prevails significantly violated .

It is known that in Russianspelling, the following main ones are distinguished:prin points: phonetic (phonemic), morpholo gical, traditional.

At the corephonetic (phonemic) principle cipa spelling lies sound (phonemicChinese) speech analysis.Words are written as they are heard and pronounced (HOUSE, GRASS, KA NAVA, I HEAR). The writer analyzes the soundthe composition of the word and denotes certain soundsin letters. Thus, to implementphonemic principle of writingnecessary formation of differentiation of phonemes and fo nematic analysis .

Morphological principle is thatword morphemes (root, prefix, suffix, windowshope)have the same meaning and the same spelling, although their pronunciation in strong and weak position may be different (HOUSE -TO(a)MA, TABLE - STO(a)LY, GET OUT - S(z)BE-REAP). Use of morphological principlesprinciple presupposes the ability to identify meaningfulword morphemes,determine morphological word structure, highlighting morphemes with the same meaning, the pronunciation of which candiffer in different phonetic conditions. Level of development of morphological analysisfor tesco is associated with the development of vocabulary and grammarlogical structure of speech.

And finallytraditional principle pre-sexindicates the spelling of the word that developed inhistory of the development of writing and there cannot beexplained by the phonetic or morphological principle of spelling.Taking into account the principles of spelling, you can doconclusion that dysgraphia is predominantly associated withviolation of the implementation of the phonetic principle,and with dysorthography, the use ofmorphological and traditional principlesspelling.

MECHANISMS OF WRITING VIOLATIONS.

Slide 3. 4. Psychological approach to the analysis of the mechanisms of dysgraphia.

Atdysgraphiaerrors arepersistent and specific and more numerous, repeated and persist for a long time.

Dysgraphic errors are associated with the immaturity of higher mental functions involved in the writing process:

Thinking Perception Memory Attention

Violations appeardifferentiation of phonemes by ear and in pronunciation, analysis of sentences into words, syllabic and phonemic analysis and synthesis, lexico-grammatical structure of speech, optical-spatial functions.

Slide 5. Psycholinguistic approach to the analysis of the mechanisms of dysgraphia

With dysgraphia, thespecific operations of writing writing:

Analysis of sentences into words

Syllable analysis and synthesis

Phoneme differentiation

Phonemic analysis

Translation of a phoneme to the level of visual symbolism

Hand-eye coordination

Motor realization of letters

Slide 6. Causes of writing disorders

Caused by harmful influences in the perinatal period of development or hereditary predisposition, a delay in the formation of functional systems important for writing;

disorders of oral speech of organic origin;

difficulties in developing functional asymmetry of the hemispheres (lateralization) in a child;

delay in the child’s awareness of the body diagram;

as a consequence of a violation of the perception of space and time, analysis and reproduction of spatial and temporal sequence

Slide 7. Types of writing disorders

Reading disorders: Alexia Dyslexia.

Writing disorders Agraphia. Dysgraphia. Dysorphoraphy.

Slide 8.- 9. SYMPTOMATICS. According to the definitionThe meaning of the term “dysgraphia” can be distinguished as follows:Common features of errors in dysgraphia:

1 . Errors with dysgraphia are persistent and specific, what allowed makes it possible to distinguish these errors from “growth” errors, “physiological” errors,and naturally occurring in children when masteringni letter. It should be noted thaterrors in dysgraphia by external manifestationsimilar to the so-called physiologicalmistakes. Howeverat dysgraphia these mistakes are more numerous, repeating melts and lasts for a long time .

2. Dysgraphic errors are associated withnesfor worldliness of higher mental functions, involved in the writing process , - differential tion of phonemes by ear and in pronunciation, analysis sentences on words, syllabic and phonemic analysis and synthesis, lexical and grammatical structure of speech, optical-spatial functions.

Violations of elementary functions (analyzer) can also lead to disordersletters. But don't consider these violations of writingare classified as dysgraphia.

Writing disorders in children (for example, whenholding mental development) may be relatedwith pedagogical neglect, with violationattention, control, which disorganize the entirethe writing process as a complex speech activity.However, in this case errors, if they are not related to immaturity of higher mental functions tions, are not specific, but variable in nature ter and therefore are not dysgraphic.

3. Errors in dysgraphia are characterized bydestructionphonetic principle of writing, i.e. errors are observed in strong phonetic positions (LOPADA - instead of SHOVEL, DM - instead then HOME), unlike spelling errors, which are observed only in weak phonetic positions (VADIANY - instead of WATER, LADY - instead of HOME).

4. Errors are characterized as dysgraphic skies when they are observed in children school age.

In children preschool age accompanying letteris given by numerous errors similar incharacter and manifestation with dysgraphic ones. Odhowever, preschool children still lackmany mental functions are precisely formedtions that support the writing process.Therefore these errors are natural "physiologically skim."

Slide 9. The nature of letter substitutions

Replacement of letters that are optically similar

Substitutions of letters denoting phonetically similar sounds

Perseverations

Anticipations

Slide 10. The following groups of errors are distinguished when disabling graphies

Distorted spelling of letters (for example, E-b,S-o).

Replacement of handwritten letters: a) graphically similarnyh (for example,With - a-, l - f, c, - sch); b) denoting phonetically similar sounds (for example,shhh …).

Distortions of the sound-letter structure of the layerva: permutations, omissions, additions, percevewalkie-talkie, contamination of letters, syllables (for example,BE-
SENA- instead ofSPRING, STANA - STRAON, KULBOK- instead ofCLEW).

Sentence Structure Distortions: Dividenew spelling of a word, continuous spelling of words, contaminations of words (for example, COLD COUNTRIESFLYING ROOKS - instead of FROM WARM COUNTRIES LETYAT ROOKS).

Agrammatisms in writing (for example,MANYPENCILDS, NO KEYS, ON BRANCHES).

Slide 13 - 14. TYPES OF DYGRAPHIA.

Slide 15. Articulatory-acoustic dysgraphia manifests itself in the fact that in writing there appearerrors caused by incorrect pronunciation of speech sounds (the child writes words the way he pronounces them) or unformed kinesthetic images of sounds (during internal pronunciation there is no reliance on the correct articulation of sounds).Articulatory-acoustic dysgraphia manifests itself in mixtures, substitutions, and omissions of letters, which contribute to the same errors in oral speech.

Slide 16. Acoustic dysgraphia (based on violations of phoneme recognition - phoneme differentiation). Errors in this type of dysgraphia are caused by inaccuracy of auditory differentiation of sounds when they are correctly pronounced andthey manifest themselves in letter substitutions , denoting phonetically similar sounds . More often, letters denoting whistling and hissing, voiced and voiceless consonants, affricates and the components that make up them are mixed(h-t, h-sh, ts-t, ts-t, ts-s, s-sh, z-f, b-p, d-t, g-k etc.d..).

Slide 17. The mechanism of this type of dysgraphia is a violation of:

analysis of sentences into words : continuous writing of words, especially prepositions with different parts of speech; separate spelling of words (prefixes, roots);

syllabic and phonemic analysis and synthesis (distortion of the sound-letter, syllabic structure of the word, omissions of consonants when they come together (dozhi-dozhi, deki-denki), omissions of vowels (girls-girls, pshli-poshli), rearrangements of letters (pakelki-droplets), addition of letters, syllables (vesnana- spring)).

Slide 18. Ungrammatical dysgraphia manifests itself inagrammatisms in writing and is due to the immaturity of the lexico-grammatical structure of speech. Typical errors:

incorrect use of case endings, singular and plural(trees, handles), verbal control;

incorrect use of adjectives (fox tail, fox fur coat;

coordination various parts speech in a phrase (seven horses, two horses, red dress, it started to rain, etc.)

incorrect use of prepositional case constructions (flowers are in a vase; the dog gets out of the booth);

omissions of sentence members, most often verbs. (The boy __ sandbox.) There may also be omissions of the subject, quite often the adjective. (He went into the forest. He picked mushrooms.)

disruption of the connection between individual sentences, most often this happens as a result of missing an episode. (The hare was running and running through the forest. And suddenly he saw it. He has fast legs. The fox is angry.);

incorrect division of the text into sentences, linguistic sense and prosodic components are not formedspeech, rhythm and, above all, intonation.Agrammatic dysgraphia is characterized by a large number of errors in independent writing and copying.

Slide 19. Optical dysgraphia due toimmaturity of visual-spatial functions : visual gnosis, visual mnesis, visual analysis and synthesis, spatial representations. With optical dysgraphia, distorted reproduction of letters in writing is observed:

incorrect spatial reproductioncorrelations of letter elements, mirror spelling of letters, underwriting of elements, extra elements;

substitutions and mixturesgraphically similar letters (p-t, p-t, l-m, i-sh, v-d).

Literal optical dysgraphia manifests itself in difficulties in reproducing isolated letters. Atverbal optical dysgraphia is marked by distortions of letters in a word (replacement and confusion of graphically similar letters, contextualinfluence of neighboring letters to reproduce the visual image of a letter in a given word).

As a rule, dysgraphia in its “pure” form is extremely rare, most often it iso combination various types disgraphies Dysgraphia is often intertwined with dysorthography or dyslexia. In such cases, determinedirections, correction systemBut speech therapy work is much more difficult.

Slide 20. Mechanism and symptoms Dysgraphia due to impairment of language analysis and synthesis.

Slide 21. Dysorphography - This persistent impairment in mastering spelling knowledge, skills and abilities.

Symptoms is polymorphic in nature:

- unclear knowledge of educational terminology and formulation spelling rules,

- difficulties in mastering and applying spelling rules, especially the morphological principle, which manifests itself in a significant number of spelling errors in writing.

Slide 22-23. How can you determine before school whether a child has a tendency towards dysgraphia and dyslexia?

It is important to pay attention to which hand the child writes with. Was he not retrained? Which vocabulary child? Level of grammatical development correct speech. How developed phonemic processes? Is the visual spatial perception? Is the child attentive, is he able to find incorrectly depicted objects, to find similarities and differences in comparing objects? How developedhand-eye coordination.

Slide 24-25. Dictations for dysgraphic children.

Slide 26- Participation of children with severe speech impairments in the Unified State Exam

Slide 27. List of used literature.

Slide 28. Thank you for your attention, colleagues!

Dysgraphia is a special disorder of a person’s mental functions, which are responsible for the control and implementation of written speech. As a result of the development of such violations, writing disorders of various types are formed. Dysgraphics cannot independently compose and express written speech.

Most often, dysgraphia occurs in younger schoolchildren. However, pathology may well develop in adults. Approximately 10% of all cases of disorders writing functions occur in adulthood as a result of various factors, disrupting the functioning of the psyche.

Why does dysgraphia occur in adults?

The impetus for the development of written language disorders in adults can be many external and internal factors. Providing negative influence on the functioning of brain structures, such factors cause dysgraphia and other mental dysfunctions.

Among the main reasons causing problems with correct writing in adults, experts identify:

head injuries;
neurosurgical operations;
proliferation of brain tumors;
infectious brain damage (meningococcal infections);
inflammatory processes affecting the brain (meningitis);
strokes;
trauma during childbirth;
appropriate social conditions;
insufficient blood oxygen saturation (asphyxia).

How does dysgraphia manifest in adults?

Violations of written speech have quite characteristic manifestations. A person with dysgraphia makes quite typical mistakes when writing words and sentences. Errors are of a stable, typical nature and are repeated every time the information is transmitted in writing. It is quite important that an adult knows the rules of grammar and spelling well.

Dysgraphia in adults manifests itself in the form of classic errors, such as:

replacing or mixing letters with similar spellings (for example, Ш and Ш, Л and П, ъ and ь);
substitution when writing letters that sound similar (p and b, k and x);
violation of unity or separation when writing individual words;
incorrect agreement of words in a sentence;
writing letters too slowly;
distortion of the arrangement of letters, syllables, their incorrect placement or omission;
unclear handwriting (unequal height of letters, different inclination of characters, inappropriate writing of large and small characters, etc.).

In addition to the indicated manifestations, experts also identify characteristic symptoms not related to writing, which include:

neurological abnormalities;
cognitive disorders;
difficulties with perception of information;
memory impairment;
easy distractibility;
deviations in motor skills;
reduced performance;
temporary or spatial disorientation.

These manifestations are evidence of disruption of connections between brain regions. It should be borne in mind that dysgraphia does not in any way affect the level of intelligence or the quality of a person’s education.

These symptoms will not go away on their own. Necessary targeted training and systematic work on the correction of dysgraphia.

Detection of dysgraphia in adults

Treatment of writing disorders in adults is the same as in childhood, begins with a study by a specialist written works performed using special techniques. First of all, the speech therapist needs to determine whether writing defects are a manifestation of dysgraphia, or are the result of a person’s illiteracy. The subject performs a number of written tasks, including:

copying text material (printed and handwritten);
writing a dictation;
writing descriptions for pictures;
reading a whole text, as well as individual words and separate syllables.

During the diagnosis, the state of oral speech is also studied, which includes:

assessment of the correct pronunciation of sounds;
vocabulary learning;
analysis of skills to identify sounds by ear.

After conducting the necessary tests, the speech therapist analyzes the errors, identifying among them those that are typical for certain types of dysgraphia. Next, a speech therapy report is drawn up. If the diagnosis is confirmed, further correction of the defect is required.

Treatment of dysgraphia in adults

All work of a speech therapist to eliminate dysgraphia in adulthood is developed based on the form of the disorder and the characteristics of its occurrence. It is important to remember that simple mechanical correction of errors will not have a result, because the problem lies much deeper - in the distorted analysis and synthesis of written symbols, syllables, words and sentences by the brain structures.

Today there are a significant number of progressive correctional programs treatment of dysgraphia, which consists of complex rehabilitation cycles. Such programs help correct writing problems and develop correct skills.

Key directions for speech therapy correction of dysgraphia include:

replenishment of defects in the pronunciation of sounds;
expanding the vocabulary of words used in speech;
correct formation of grammatical knowledge and skills;
development of coherent oral speech;
increasing analytical skills;
formation of skills in perceiving information by ear;
improving thinking abilities and memory development.

Correctional work involves performing written exercises of various types, designed to replenish and develop various writing skills.

In addition, adults with diagnosed dysgraphia may additionally be prescribed:

sedative therapy with medications;
physiotherapy;
massage courses;
water treatment;
physical therapy.

Systematic and correct work with a speech therapist, and in some cases with a neurologist, helps dysgraphics improve writing skills, correct deficiencies in oral speech and develop memory. At the same time, a person’s self-esteem significantly increases, his communication skills improve, and a significant number of personal problems are solved. Depending on the causes of dysgraphia, correction can be aimed at effectively restoring a person’s mental health.