The main types of psychological influence in management. Means, types and patterns of psychological influence: manipulation Types of influence on a person in psychology

According to domestic and foreign experts, psychological effects are divided into the following types:

1) information-psychological,

2) psychogenic,

3) psychoanalytic,

4) neuro-linguistic,

5) psychotronic,

6) psychotropic.

1. Information and psychological impact(often called informational - propaganda, ideological) - this is the influence of words, information.

Psychological influence of this type has as its main goal the formation of certain ideological (social) ideas, views, perceptions, beliefs, and at the same time it evokes in people positive or negative emotions, feelings and even violent mass reactions.

2. Psychogenic effects is a consequence

a) physical impact on the individual’s brain, as a result of which there is a disruption of normal neuropsychic activity. For example, a person receives a brain injury, as a result of which he loses the ability to think rationally, he loses his memory, etc. Either he is exposed to such physical factors (sound, lighting, temperature, etc.), which through certain physiological reactions change the state of his psyche;

b) the shock impact of environmental conditions or certain events (for example, quarantine of mass destruction, numerous casualties, etc.) on a person’s consciousness, as a result of which he is unable to act rationally, loses orientation in space, experiences affect and depression, falls into panic, into a stupor, etc.

The less prepared a person is for the psycho-traumatic influences of the surrounding reality, the more pronounced his mental injuries, called psychogenic losses.

Frequent, but very a case in point mental impact is the influence of color on the psychophysiological and emotional state of a person .

Thus, it has been experimentally established that when exposed to purple, red, orange and yellow flowers a person’s breathing and pulse quicken and deepen, his blood pressure rises, and green, blue, indigo and violet colors have the opposite effect. The first group of colors is stimulating, the second is calming.

There are some patterns in the preference for certain colors:

a) Associated with the type of human nervous system. Thus, people with a weak nervous system most often like red and yellow colors, while people with a strong nervous system like green and blue.

b) Associated with the historical past of the ethnic group of which he is a representative, and with his individual life experience. The color red, for example, is associated with the sight of blood or the reflection of a fire, and therefore causes concern and anxiety and increases activity. The color blue, which appears in the hereditary memory as the color of the sky, evokes a sentimental mood. Black color is identical to darkness and causes sadness.

White color in Western civilization It is usually associated with light and purity; it evokes an elevated, solemn mood. However, in Japanese, Chinese and some other Asian cultures it is combined with the concept of cold and emptiness, the equivalent of which is death. Hence the white color of funeral shrouds and mourning clothing of the Japanese and Chinese, and the mourning coloring of primitive peoples.

A close relationship has been established between color and sound. Thus, the colors corresponding to the even intonations of the human voice are green and purple. They are associated with negligible expression. Yellow, black and red colors, on the contrary, carry a very strong emotional charge. Red and yellow colors are associated with the voices of speakers who are in a state of positive mood. The voices of people in a state of depression, apathy and anxiety are consistently associated with gray, blue and brown flowers.

Blue color most closely corresponds to the state of sadness, gray and brown - fear and fatigue. Thus, positive emotional states correspond to the red-yellow end of the spectrum, and negative emotional states correspond to the blue-violet end. Normal, emotionally neutral expression corresponds to the middle – green part of the spectrum. Brightness and saturation also play a significant role: darker and less saturated colors are consistently associated with depressive, apathetic and anxious voices.

Certain color combinations have a very specific emotional impact. For example, using complementary colors creates harmony and brings maximum pleasure. In turn, the wrong color combination contributes to anxiety and causes opposite feelings. By the way, the principle of the influence of color spots built into a computer virus is used to develop some methods of using psychotronic weapons.

The main purpose of using color for psychological influence is the correct design of information and propaganda materials. By complementing and emotionally enriching their content with a range of colors, it is possible to provoke certain reactions of the object. It is assumed that:

A correctly chosen color scheme allows you to create the desired emotional background, conducive to the perception and assimilation of the text;

Colors that are incorrectly chosen in relation to the content cause displeasure;

A negative reaction to a color combination can spread to the content of the text, which reduces the effectiveness of its psychological impact as a whole. In addition, we must take into account the effect of color on the readability of inscriptions:

People notice colored inscriptions 35% more often than black and white;

Good visibility and clear perception are ensured if the colors are displayed: on yellow – black, on white – blue, green or black, on red – green and vice versa;

Poor visibility and inadequate perception occur if colors are displayed: on white - red, orange or yellow, on black - orange, red, green and vice versa.

Thus, the use of correctly selected colors allows you to create the desired emotional background, conducive to the perception and assimilation of the text. Colors that are incorrectly chosen in relation to the content cause dissonance in emotional perception. In such cases, a negative reaction to the color combination can extend to both the content of the text and the people who prepared it. This is used by psychological warfare specialists, as well as dishonest people and corrupt media.

3. Psychoanalytic (psychocorrective) influence- this is the effect on a person’s subconscious with therapeutic means, especially in a state of hypnosis or deep sleep. There are also methods that exclude conscious resistance, both from an individual and from a group of people in a waking state.

In particular, in the process of sound control of people’s psyche and their behavior, verbal suggestions (commands) in encoded form are output to any audio media (audio cassettes, radio or television programs, sound effects). A person listens to music or the sound of the surf in the rest room, follows the dialogues of a film character, and does not suspect that they contain commands that are not perceived by the conscious mind, but are always recorded by the subconscious, forcing him subsequently to do what is prescribed.

4.Neurolinguistic impact(NLP - neurolinguistic programming) is a type of psychological influence that changes the motivation of people by introducing special linguistic programs into their consciousness.

In this case, the main object of influence is the neurophysiological activity of the brain, the emotional and volitional states that arise due to it. The main means of influence are specially selected verbal (verbal) and non-verbal linguistic programs, the assimilation of the content of which allows you to change the beliefs, views and ideas of a person (both an individual and entire groups of people) in a given direction. The subject of neurolinguistic influence is a specialist (instructor).

The instructor first identifies contradictory (conflicting) views and beliefs located in the psyche, as well as the negative emotional states (experiences, moods, feelings) that arise because of this and disturb people. At the next stage, through special techniques, he helps them realize the discomfort of their real state (socio-economic, cultural, physical and, as a result, psychological) and makes changes in consciousness that force people to perceive differently life situations and build relationships with other people.

After, under the influence of an instructor, a person “understands” what he “needs,” he independently (but under the influence of the stereotype of perception embedded in his consciousness) begins to collect information about his daily activities, his states and experiences. Comparing his real, present state at the moment with the desired (possible), he determines what resources he needs to mobilize and what exactly needs to be done in order to achieve comfortable feelings and moods.

The formula for changes in the object’s psyche under the influence of the instructor is schematically as follows (Fig. 1).

As we have already said, manipulation is, first of all, hidden ways to control others. However, very often any psychological influence is declared manipulation. You can be convinced that this is not the case by considering the list of different types psychological influence.

Belief. Conscious reasoned influence on another person or group of people, aimed at forming or changing a judgment, attitude, intention or decision.

Self-promotion. Declaring your goals and presenting evidence of your competence and qualifications in order to be appreciated and thereby gain advantages in situations of selection by others, appointment to a position, etc.

Suggestion. Conscious unreasoned influence on a person or group of people, aimed at changing their state, attitude towards something and predisposition to certain actions.

Infection. The transfer of one’s state or attitude to another person or group of people who in some way (not yet explained) adopt this state or attitude. This condition can be transmitted either involuntarily or voluntarily; to be absorbed - also involuntarily or voluntarily.

Awakening the impulse to imitate. The ability to evoke the desire to be like oneself. This ability can either manifest itself involuntarily or be used voluntarily. The desire to imitate and imitate (copying someone else's behavior and way of thinking) can also be voluntary or involuntary.

Building favor. Attracting the involuntary attention of the addressee by the initiator demonstrating his own originality and attractiveness, expressing favorable judgments about the addressee, imitating him or providing him with a service.

Request. Appeal to the addressee with an appeal to satisfy the needs or desires of the initiator of the influence.

Compulsion. The threat of the initiator using his control capabilities in order to achieve the required behavior from the addressee. Controlling capabilities are the powers to deprive the recipient of any benefits or to change the conditions of his life and work. In the most gross forms of coercion, threats of physical violence and restrictions on freedom can be used. Subjectively, coercion is experienced as pressure: by the initiator - as his own pressure, by the addressee - as pressure from the initiator or “circumstances”.

Attack. A sudden attack on someone else's psyche, conscious or impulsive, and is a form of release of emotional tension. Expressing disparaging or offensive judgments about a person’s personality and/or rude aggressive condemnation, slander or ridicule of his deeds and actions. The main forms of attack are destructive criticism, destructive statements, destructive advice.

Manipulation. Hidden encouragement of the recipient to experience certain states, make decisions and/or perform actions necessary for the initiator to achieve his own goals.

Destructive criticism

Disparaging or offensive judgments about a person's personality.

Rough aggressive condemnation, slander or ridicule of his deeds and actions, people significant to him, social communities, ideas, values, works, material/cultural objects, etc.

Rhetorical questions aimed at identifying and “correcting” shortcomings.

The destructiveness of such criticism is that it does not allow a person to “save face”, diverts his energy to fight the negative emotions that have arisen, and takes away his faith in himself.

Differences between destructive criticism and suggestion:

1. With suggestion, the conscious goal is to “improve” the behavior of another (the unconscious goal is liberation from frustration and anger, a manifestation of strength or revenge). But at the same time, the behavior patterns that are described in the formulas of suggestion “You are a frivolous person! It's time for you to take life more seriously!

2. Destructive criticism reinforces a negative behavior pattern.

Destructive statements

Mentions and reminders about objective biographical facts that a person is not able to change and which he most often could not influence (national, social, racial identity; urban or rural origin; occupation of parents; illegal behavior of someone close to them, their alcoholism or drug addiction in the family; hereditary and chronic diseases; natural constitution: height, facial features, myopia, impaired vision, hearing, speech, etc.).

The effect of such statements is that the recipient of the influence causes a state of confusion, helplessness, confusion, etc.

Destructive advice

Peremptory instructions, commands and instructions that are not implied by social or working relationships with a partner.

Types of resistance to influence

Counterargumentation. A conscious, reasoned response to an attempt to persuade, refuting or challenging the arguments of the initiator of influence.

Psychological self-defense. Application of speech formulas and intonation means, allowing you to maintain presence of mind and gain time to think about further steps in a situation of destructive criticism, coercion or manipulation.

Information dialogue. Clarifying the partner's position and own position by exchanging questions and answers, messages and suggestions.

Constructive criticism. A fact-supported discussion of the goals, means or actions of the initiator of influence and justification for their inconsistency with the goals, conditions and requirements of the addressee.

Energy mobilization. Resistance of the addressee to attempts to instill or convey to him a certain state, attitude, intention or course of action.

Creation. Creation of a new thing, neglecting or overcoming the influence of a model, example or fashion.

Evasion. The desire to avoid any form of interaction with the initiator of the influence, including random personal meetings and collisions.

Ignoring. Actions that indicate that the addressee deliberately does not notice or does not take into account the words, actions or feelings expressed by the addressee.

Confrontation. Open and consistent opposition by the addressee of his position and his demands to the initiator of influence.

Refusal. Expression by the addressee of his disagreement to fulfill the request of the initiator of the influence.

Forms of attack:

1. Destructive criticism

Such things are difficult for you.

No one else could have done this job so badly except you.

Everything you touch turns to nothing.

I am amazed by your passion for cheap things.

You always surround yourself with suspicious people.

Your children have always been characterized by bad manners.

You don’t have friends, but a sect/community of some failed individuals/losers/unrecognized geniuses.

At your age - and such a craving for melodrama!

How can you dress so ridiculously?

Doesn't it occur to you that this is stupidity?

Have you completely lost your mind?

How can you use such a terrible deodorant?

Forms of attack:

2. Destructive statements

Well, yes, you're from a small town.

You are only a first (second) generation intellectual...

You said that there are other deviations in your family.

In past years, you would have been considered a nationalist, and then you would have had additional advantages.

I remember the university you graduated from is not the most prestigious.

When you behave like this, I remember your brother, a drug addict (who ended up in places not so distant...).

This suit hides the disproportion of your figure.

You can't see, probably because of poor eyesight.

You have irresponsibly turned a blind eye to such violations before.

Remember, you had problems with reporting back then.

I often remember how we all had to struggle to correct your mistake.

I'll never forget how drunk you got then.

It’s good that your wife doesn’t know what you had with Marina.

Forms of attack:

3. Destructive advice

You had better…

Would you do more...

Why don't you...

If I were you...

You should definitely...

It doesn’t suit your situation...

It's time for you to learn...

We need to work on ourselves!

Go and say that...

Never do this again!

Apologize!

Don't you dare talk about this in my (his, her) presence anymore.

From now on, know your place.

Remember for the future that this does not concern you.

Appendix 6. Diagnostics and self-diagnosis of the state of subpersonality

Before you get acquainted with the description of E. Burns, I want to remind you of the key settings for each state: Parent - MUST, Adult - CAN, Child - WANT.

Behavior. In relation to the unshakable paternal firmness, often accompanied by the gesture of the index finger or the maternal graceful movement of the neck, their attribution to Parental attitudes quickly becomes apparent. Thoughtful concentration accompanied by pursed lips or slightly flared nostrils is a typical Adult. Bowing the head, signifying modesty and accompanied by a smile, turning into coquettishness, are manifestations of the Child. Childish expressions of disgust and frowning eyebrows when a person pouts, which can turn into forced and annoyed laughter with parental teasing. Watching family relationships parents, schoolchildren and young children, one can find other characteristic attitudes characteristic of each type of ego state. An interesting and instructive exercise would be to work with the text and especially the photogravures of Darwin's book on the expression of emotions, with a structural analysis in mind.

Gestures. The exteropsychic origin of the prohibitive gesture can be established by finding its prototype in one of the parental figures in the patient’s history. The pointing gesture, being autonomous, can be considered as an Adult when a professional communicates with a colleague or client, a foreman instructs a worker, or a teacher supervises a student. Defensive gestures that are inappropriate from a pragmatic point of view are manifestations of the Child. Options that are not so rich in shades can be easily diagnosed intuitively. For example, a pointing gesture may be accompanied by instructions from the Parent or a plaintive accusation from the Child, as if appealing to the Parent figure.

Voice. Often people have two voices, each with its own intonation, although in a therapist's office or in a group one of these voices may be suppressed for a long time. For example, someone who introduces himself in a group as "I'm such a poor thing" may go for many months without detecting the hidden voice of the Parent, full of rage (for example, the voice of an alcoholic mother); or may need to go through severe stress in the group, so that the voice of the “reasonable worker” disappears, replaced by the voice of a frightened Child. Meanwhile, the patient’s loved ones may simply get used to the intonation dichotomy. In addition, people who have three different voices are no exception. So, in a group, the voices of Parent, Adult and Child, all belonging to one person, can literally collide. When the voice changes, it is usually not difficult to detect other evidence of a change in ego state. The most dramatic illustration would be the moment when “poor me” suddenly gives way to a facsimile of her angry mother or grandmother.

Vocabulary. Typical Parent words are: "smart", "son", "spoiled", "ill-mannered", "disgusting", "outrageous", and their synonyms. Adult words: “unconstructive”, “appropriate”, “economical”, “suitable”. Curses, curses and all kinds of epithets are usually manifestations of the Child. Nouns and verbs are characteristic of an Adult when used to describe reality without exaggeration, distortion or prejudice, but a Parent or Child can also use them for their own purposes.

Simple and useful exercise Intuition can be influenced by the diagnosis of the word “good”. As if written with a capital letter, this word is Parent. An adult resorts to it when its use is objectively justified. If it implies instinctive satisfaction and is essentially an exclamation, it is characteristic of the Child, being in this case a well-mannered synonym for something like “yum-yum” or “mm-mm!”

Parent: Controlling and Caring. Child: Adapted and Natural. And he is an adult - an adult.

Appendix 7. Beliefs

Beliefs are closely interrelated generalizations regarding:

· cause-and-effect relationship;

· values;

· boundaries (restrictions);

· the surrounding world;

· our behavior;

· our capabilities;

· our identification.

Beliefs can be motivating or limiting.

Limiting beliefs come down to the following types:

· Pointlessness- it is impossible to understand and evaluate incoming information about the meaning, reason and purpose. I don’t know WHY (blocking motivation)! "What is this all for? What's the point of this?"

· Hopelessness: the desired goal is unattainable, regardless of my capabilities - this is impossible(action blocking). Do not know how! “I don’t believe that this is possible in principle!”, “No matter what I do, I still want the impossible. It's not in my control. I'm a victim."

· Helplessness: the desired goal is achievable, but I'm not capable achieve it (blocking skills and abilities). I know HOW, but I can’t! “It may be possible, but not with my talents.” “Anyone but me can achieve this goal. I am too bad or weak to achieve what I want.”

· worthlessness : I'm not worthy, I do not deserve the desired goal because of my own qualities and behavior (low self-identification). I know HOW, but I’m not worthy! “It’s possible, I’m capable of it, but I’m a dummy, an extra person. Nobody needs me. I don't deserve happiness and health. There is something fundamentally wrong with me, and I deserve both the pain and the torment that I am experiencing.”

Lack of expectation of results leads to Hopelessness, a person gives up, and apathy sets in.

Lack of self-efficacy expectation leads to inadequacy, Helplessness.

Worthlessness is a negative self-identification: “I don’t deserve success! If I get what I want, I will lose something.”

Good day, dear friend!

Today we will look at some types of psychological influence. Including controversial ones. Just a review without abstruse comments or lengthy discussions.

Influencing a person in order to stimulate certain actions or attitudes towards something. In this case, no argument is used

Emotional contagion

Broadcasting your emotional state and passing it on to your interlocutor. The mechanism can work both consciously and unconsciously. Your partner adopts your condition most often unconsciously.

Facilities

Eye contact, passion, positive attitude, high energy of one’s own state, frankness.

Building Favor

The ability to form a positive impression of yourself.

Facilities

Plays a key role. Self-presentation. Attention and compliments that do not turn into outright flattery. Seeking advice. Playing along with psychological complexes, such as the need to feel important.

Challenge the urge to imitate

Influence to create a desire to be like oneself. It can be carried out both consciously and unconsciously.

Facilities

Publicity, demonstration of one’s skills and abilities, examples of actions that are attractive to others.

Request

Appeal to a person with the goal of causing certain actions.

Facilities

Politeness, showing signs of respect for a person, seeking advice.

Ignoring

Deliberate behavior that is expressed in inattention to the interlocutor. Often in an emphasized form. Sometimes ignoring is appropriate as a way to “forgive” the stupidity or tactless behavior of the interlocutor.

Facilities

Silence, “turning a deaf ear” to what the interlocutor is saying. A blank look, Unexpected demonstrative change of topic

Self-promotion

Open demonstration of one’s qualities, professionalism, and qualifications. Or your company. The usual goals of self-promotion are gaining competitive advantages and winning the sympathy of a partner.

At negotiations, at interviews, and just at meetings, almost every action we take is essentially a way of self-promotion. Willingly or unwittingly.

Facilities

A story or story about yourself. Demonstration of your skills and abilities. . Presentation of recommendations, social confirmation of your words. Provide evidence of your achievements.

I think I won’t reveal a secret if I say that all of the above is not news and is in every person’s arsenal. Or almost everyone. Another thing is that these types of psychological influence are used unconsciously.

And I think it won’t hurt to sort it out on the shelves. Well, for the sake of understanding. You look and an idea comes to you.

Have a nice day!

It’s unlikely that anyone wants to take actions and make decisions subject to the influence of other people. The loss of autonomy and independence is frightening and seems unacceptable to us. And we defend our freedom with all our might, building barriers around ourselves, doing things despite outside influence, and sometimes common sense. But at the same time, we are not at all averse to finding out effective methods which can be used to influence other people.

Influence in psychology is understood as influencing a person’s psyche in order to change his beliefs, attitudes, mood and behavior. When it comes to the psychology of influence, many imagine some kind of secret knowledge and techniques that allow you to control another person without his consent or knowledge.

But this is just one of many myths that ordinary people spread about psychology. There is no secret knowledge or forbidden techniques. All mechanisms of psychological influence are familiar to every person since childhood, and each of us is both an object and a subject of influence. We live in a society and are connected with its other members by hundreds of threads. V.I. Lenin was right when he somewhat paraphrased K. Marx’s statement: “It is impossible to live in society and be free from society.”

Influence as a socio-psychological necessity

The mutual influence of people on each other is an integral part of social life, that complex system interactions and interdependencies that we call society. For example, all parents would like their children to grow up to be worthy people, at least as they themselves understand it. Therefore, in the process they influence children using a variety of ways and methods:

• persuasion and coercion;
• reward and punishment;
• personal examples and outright pressure.

Don't children influence their parents in any way? Of course they do. Even very little babies sometimes demonstrate real talent. Simple: “Mommy, you are my best. I love you so much,” will make any mother’s heart melt. But children say this completely sincerely, and parents, influencing their children, sincerely wish them well.

We influence our friends, sometimes changing them quite a lot, our subordinates and superiors, and just random acquaintances with whom we happen to talk. It’s not for nothing that there is such a saying: “Whoever you mess with, that’s how you’ll gain.”

A person is part of society and is always influenced by it. Even if he finds himself on a desert island or hiding in the remote taiga, he will not get rid of this influence. Because he will continue to live and perceive the world around him, guided by attitudes and beliefs formed under the influence of other people.

Moreover, if, by the will of evil fate, he finds himself outside of human influence, a child will never grow up to be a full-fledged person. This is proven by the examples of the so-called Mowgli children raised in animal communities. Even an adult social environment, gradually loses its human appearance.

Spheres of influence

The influence affects three areas of the human psyche:

• installations,
• cognition,
• behavior.

An attitude is a perspective of perception of an event, phenomenon, or person. As a rule, the attitude includes emotional and evaluative parts. Thus, by talking about how interesting it is to study at school, parents form a positive attitude toward school life in the future first-grader. Or, for example, while watching a movie, we may form the attitude that the actor playing the villain is a bad person.

Cognitions are knowledge, beliefs, ideas about the world and oneself. They are also largely the result of the psychological influence of other people, or rather, the information they transmit. If we respect the source of information (a person, the media, a social institution) and trust it, then the knowledge it disseminates becomes part of our ideas about the world around us, and we will not even treat it critically, taking it on faith.

It is more difficult to change human behavior, since the influence affects mental processes, and not directly. But it is possible to shape this change, to create a system of incentives that encourages a person to take certain actions. In any case, it is the “tuning” of behavior that is main goal influence.

Why are we so afraid of being influenced?

If mutual influence is a natural part of human relationships, then why are we so afraid of becoming the object of influence?

The reason lies in the peculiarities of self-identification, that is, as a separate and independent subject from other people. Awareness of one’s own “I” and separation of oneself from society occurs in a child at the age of 3 years and is one of the main reasons. It manifests itself in demonstrative independence and disobedience to adults. Thus, a three-year-old child, having heard from his mother a ban on walking in puddles, may deliberately start splashing in them, or even sit down in the mud. The child deliberately resists influence, trying to prove his independence.

The crisis of 3 years is successfully overcome, but losing the sense of one’s own “I”, dissolving into a faceless mass, remains for life. That’s why we react so negatively to attempts to impose someone else’s opinion on us and influence our decisions and actions. And by the way, for the same reason we do not notice our own influence on other people. After all, nothing threatens our self-identity here; rather, on the contrary, we assert our own independence by influencing those around us.

Types of influence. Influence and manipulation

A person is constantly in a single field of social interaction, where he acts both as an object and as a subject of influence. We are influenced not only by individuals, social groups and public opinion, but also natural phenomena, things, events that happen to us and to other people. Rain that starts before a walk can ruin our mood and force us to change plans, and an armed incident that occurs hundreds of kilometers away from us can change our worldview.

But here we are considering influences in the sphere of interpersonal relationships. In social psychology there are several types of them.

Conscious and unconscious influence

They speak of conscious and purposeful influence when the subject of influence knows exactly what he wants to achieve and how he intends to change the behavior of the object. Conscious influence can be directed both at a person’s views and at his emotional sphere, but the ultimate goal is still certain actions.

The reasons why one person consciously influences another may be different. If the main one is obtaining personal gain, then such influence is called manipulation. But influence can also serve other purposes. For example, pedagogical influence is aimed at shaping the child. In fact, it does not always benefit the object of influence, but this is precisely what is considered the main task of education.

In the social environment, in the process of interaction between people, many acts of unconscious influence constantly occur. A person not only infects other people with his behavior, but also, without realizing it, adopts their habits, manners, and beliefs. First of all, we unconsciously imitate those whom we sympathize and respect: our friends, parents, teachers, colleagues, movie characters. The more interesting a person is, the more those around him fall under his influence, whether he wants it or not.

Overt and hidden influence

Open influence is a type of influence when the object, or as it is also called, the addressee, understands that he is being influenced by inducing, pushing or forcing him to take some action. This is an unpleasant feeling, but in this case a person has a choice - to submit to the influence or to evade it, to resist. It can be very difficult to evade if people with power are influencing you. But nevertheless, the addressee can at least try to defend his independence and the right to make his own decisions.

But hidden influence is, on the one hand, a less ethical type of influence, and on the other hand, the most effective. Not knowing that he is being influenced, the object does not even resist and cannot oppose anything to the subject. Conscious, purposeful and hidden influence is manipulation, the most dangerous type of influence.

Destructive and creative influence

We are accustomed to thinking that any influence is always bad, since it involves pressure on the individual. Therefore, having realized the impact exerted on us, we begin to actively resist, often doing things “out of spite,” out of spite, committing rash acts, mistakes, and often outright stupidity.

But not every influence is destructive, not every one leads to the infringement of individual rights and freedoms. Often the person influencing is interested precisely in preserving the identity of his addressee, preventing mistakes that he may make, and helping him choose the right path. Parents raising a child, teachers forming a correct picture of the world in a student, relatives and friends who want to save a loved one from - all these are examples of creative influence.

Techniques of psychological influence

Various strategies for influencing people are a product of the long-term development of society. Most of them were not developed purposefully as tools of manipulation, and people also often use them intuitively.

• Mental infection is the most ancient method of influence, based largely on reflex reactions. This influence is not realized by either the subject or the object of influence. Mental infection occurs at the emotional level. The most striking example is panic, which grips people like a forest fire.
• Coercion is a type of influence that uses an explicit or hidden threat. The threat is not necessarily related to physical violence; it may be related to material well-being, restriction of freedom, deprivation of the opportunity to do what you love, etc.
• Request. Unlike coercion, there is no threat in this technique. The instrument of influence here is a call to a specific action that is desired by the subject of influence. Flattery, persuasion, ingratiation, etc. can be used as additional leverage.
• Persuasion is a conscious and purposeful influence, the main tool of which is rational arguments.
• Suggestion differs from persuasion in the absence of arguments and appeals to reason. Suggestion is based on an irrational, uncritical perception of information that comes from an authoritative source. The factor of faith plays a big role in suggestion.
• Awakening the need for imitation. Imitating someone often happens unconsciously, but a subject of influence, for example, a teacher or parent, can purposefully create an attractive image in children and students that they want to imitate.
• Destructive criticism. This method is aimed at making the target feel dissatisfied with himself and force the person to change his behavior.

These are the main influence techniques that are most often used in interpersonal relationships. They are often used in combination, supported by the authority of the subject of influence, links to other even more authoritative sources, for example, the media, books, the Internet, etc.

What determines the success of influence?

If influence is such a widespread process, then why are some people able to influence others, while others are not capable of this? The fact is that everyone has the ability to influence other members of society, but the degree of its expression varies. There are several categories of people whose influence is particularly powerful:

• Those who have the makings of a leader and have the gift of persuasion and suggestion.
• Strong personalities with pronounced charisma, that is, exceptional in terms of charisma, which is complemented by personal charm.
• Good psychologists, and not necessarily professional ones. There are people who are very sensitive to all the nuances of the mood and mental state of their partners. They know which strings can be pulled and, if desired, can find the most effective channels of influence on a person.
• Those who have important information that is meaningful to people or who know how to present themselves as such informed individuals.

The effectiveness of influence depends not only on the subject, but also on the object of influence. The less self-confident a person is, the lower his self-esteem, the easier he can become dependent on a manipulator. Therefore, in order to learn to resist the influence of others, you need to start with self-development.

An influence (influence, pressure) should be considered psychological when it has an origin external to the addressee (recipient) and, being reflected by him, leads to a change in the psychological regulators of specific human activity. In this case, we can talk about both externally oriented and internally oriented activity. The result of this may be a change in the degree of expression, direction, and significance for the subject of various manifestations of activity. Psychological influence can be considered both as a process leading to a change in the psychological basis of a specific activity, and as a result (the change itself).

Psychological influence is the influence on the mental state, feelings, thoughts and actions of other people using exclusively psychological means: verbal, paralinguistic or non-verbal. Referring to the possibility of social sanctions or physical means should also be considered psychological means, at least until such threats are put into action. The threat of dismissal or beatings are psychological means, the fact of dismissal or beatings is no longer there, these are social and physical influences. They undoubtedly have a psychological effect, but they themselves are not psychological means.

A characteristic feature of psychological influence is that the partner who is influenced has the opportunity to respond to it using psychological means. In other words, he is given the right to answer and the time for this answer.

In real life, it is difficult to estimate how likely it is that a threat can be carried out and how quickly this can happen. Therefore, many types of influence of people on each other are mixed, combining psychological, social, and sometimes physical means. However, such methods of influencing and countering them should be considered in the context of social confrontation, social struggle or physical self-defense.

So, psychological influence is the influence on the state, thoughts, feelings and actions of another person using exclusively psychological means, with giving him the right and time to respond to this influence.

Resistance to other people's influence is resistance to the influence of another person using psychological means.

The initiator of influence is the partner who is the first to attempt influence by any of the known (or unknown) methods.

The addressee of influence (recipient) is the partner to whom the first attempt of influence is addressed. In further interaction, initiative can pass from one partner to another in attempts mutual influence, but each time the one who first began a series of interactions will be called the initiator, and the one who first experienced his influence will be the addressee.

The process of mutual influence is a collision of two or more wills, consciously or unconsciously fighting for assimilation to themselves, their plans, intentions, desires, feelings and actions of other people, their plans, intentions, desires, feelings and actions. In this case, the symmetry of assimilation is by no means necessary here, for example, it is enough to liken the feelings or actions of another person to our plans, but it is not at all necessary that his plans coincide with ours. Various types of coercion and manipulation provide many examples of this kind. The peculiarity of psychologically constructive influence is that the likening of partners to each other occurs with their mutual consent.

The following types of influence are distinguished.

Psychological influence can be operational and strategic, everyday and professional, analytical and constructive, at different levels - the communicative level, the level of relationships, the level of activity and life.

The impact can be addressed to different components of the inner world: to consciousness, to the unconscious, to inner feelings. For example, to consciousness - persuasion, to the unconscious - suggestion, to feelings - persuasion or manipulation.

Voluntary and involuntary influence. The impact can be arbitrary when the actor assumes that a certain psychological effect will be caused, or, in other words, has the intention to influence someone (a person, a group, society as a whole). Thus, Julius Caesar ordered his soldiers on the eve of the Battle of Pharsalus to change the existing battle tactics, because hoped that as a result the Pompeians would be disorganized, i.e. a certain effect will be caused.

At the same time, psychological impact can also be involuntary, when its possible results are not planned in advance. An example of such a combination of circumstances could be the adoption of a legal norm, which, in theory, should optimize the life of society in a certain area and have a positive effect, but, being interpreted by the population in the context of its vital interests, can provoke an experience leading to exactly the opposite result (for example , disappointment, loss of meaning of activity, mistrust). It is clear that officials do not plan in advance for such changes in the mood of citizens.

Open direct communicative influence - appeal. Forms of address: offer, request, demand, insistence, entreaty, involvement, seduction.

Imperative and non-imperative influence. Imperative (authoritarian, directive) direct forms of influence include orders, demands, prohibitions and coercion. Non-imperative direct forms of influence on the subject include request, proposal (advice), persuasion, praise, support and consolation.

The most traditional is the so-called object, or reactive, paradigm, according to which the psyche and the person as a whole (regardless of specific theoretical settings) were considered as a passive object of the influence of external conditions and their product.

The strategy most relevant to the reactive approach is conventionally designated as imperative influence. The main functions of this strategy are the functions of controlling human behavior and attitudes, reinforcing them and directing them in the right direction, as well as the function of coercion in relation to the object of influence. The implementation of an imperative strategy most often occurs where a person, due to certain circumstances, has disabilities to make an independent choice of actions or decisions. In social practice, such a strategy can be appropriate and effective in extreme situations where prompt and important decisions are required in conditions of time shortage, as well as when regulating hierarchical relationships between people in “closed” organizations (for example, military type) and individual subcultures. However, in real human relations, in the field of interpersonal informal, extra-role relationships (for example, friendships, family), as well as in the field of pedagogical practice, the purpose of which is to reveal and develop the child’s psychological potential, this strategy is unsuitable. Here, the use of imperative influences carried out without taking into account the current states and relationships of another person, the conditions of interpersonal communications, most often leads to the opposite and even negative psychological consequences.

Behind last years in psychological knowledge there has been a significant change associated with the abandonment of the approach to a person as a “passive reactor” (so to speak, that is, only responding to influence). An approach was put forward that affirms its activity and selectivity in the process of reflecting external influences. This approach, conventionally designated as subjective or promotional, is most comprehensively represented in Western cognitive psychology.

As part of this approach, it was developed greatest number special theories of influence (about 40), which are based on the idea of ​​activity and integrity of human mental functioning. In accordance with this point of view, it is assumed that the process of influence occurs when interacting communicators internalize the meanings with which they designate information emanating from each other in a situation of perceptual choice.

The strategy of influence within the framework of the action paradigm is designated as manipulative.

The actional approach to organizing influence, by its internal essence, can, in principle, lead to the same, and sometimes even worse, psychological consequences than the reactive approach. Despite the recognition of the activity and individual selectivity of mental reflection, proclaimed within the framework of this approach, when using specific methods of influence, a person in fact still remains an object of external influences and mental manipulation. Imperative and manipulative strategies of psychological influence can generally be attributed to the same one-dimensional, objective, monological view of human nature, where man as a whole is assigned a passive role, where his unique essence is depersonalized.

This position is quite common in Western human studies; it constitutes the ideology of most modern services psychological assistance people, it underlies technology and many methods of psychotherapeutic and psychocorrectional work. In this case, a person (perhaps even with the best intentions) is nevertheless adjusted to a certain standard of a “good” patient, often through rather sophisticated techniques, which exists in the professional cognitive map of the “omnipotent” and “omniscient” psychotherapist; the patient himself is deprived of the right to any independence in seeing the situation and making decisions. In the West, it is sometimes recognized that a person in bourgeois society is the object and product of constant and purposeful psychological manipulation and pressure and that the possibilities of this manipulation are practically limitless.

Imperative and manipulative forms interpersonal communication refer to monologue communication. A person, considering another as an object of his influence, essentially communicates with himself, with his tasks and goals. He does not see the true interlocutor, he ignores him, that is, a person sees around him not people, but his “doubles”.

Such a one-dimensional approach to man, as is known, has roots in distant history and its own fairly stable traditions in philosophy, culture, natural science, and ethics, associated with the so-called pessimistic view of human nature.

The pessimistic, one-dimensional approach to man in the history of human science was opposed by the so-called optimistic tradition. It is based on faith in the constructive, active, constructive and creative principle of human nature, on its original morality and kindness, its altruistic and collectivistic orientation, which act as prerequisites and conditions for the coexistence and survival of people. In Western psychology, this concept received the most consistent development primarily in the theory of humanistic psychology, which was founded by A. Maslow, R. May, K. Rogers, E. Fromm, etc. The main thing in this doctrine is the recognition of the uniqueness of the mental organization of each individual person, faith in the positive and creative nature of man, his social orientation. In contrast to the objective approach to a person, this direction can be conditionally designated as a personal, or intersubjective, approach. Personality in a certain sense can be understood as a product and result of a person’s communication with other people, i.e. as an intersubjective formation.

The recognition of man as an “intersubjective” entity may contain the main heuristic potential and reserve of modern psychological knowledge, setting the zone of its proximal development, which provides access to new frontiers of scientific development of human subjective reality, to the frontiers of new approaches to scientifically based management of mental phenomena.

Dialogical communication is an alternative to imperative and manipulative types of interpersonal communication. It is based on the equality of partners and allows you to move from a focus on yourself to a focus on your interlocutor, a real communication partner.

Types of impact

As a rule, influence is distinguished by suggestion (in the terminology of non-psychologists - an order, an impulse arising from the conviction of the speaker), persuasion (reasoning, argumentation, examples), emotional infection (organization of empathy, sympathy, mutual arousal, excitement or depression from music and light) , imitation (the desire to be like everyone else, to follow an example, ape-like behavior).

More full list The types of impact look like this:

1. Persuasion (argumentation). Conscious, reasoned influence on another person or group of people, with the goal of changing judgment, attitudes, intentions or decisions.

The stages of persuasion are as follows: presenting information, paying attention, understanding, accepting the proposed conclusion, consolidating the attitude, translating the attitude into behavior.

Since attention is selective, we are more attracted to information that matches our attitudes. Conversely, we can easily reject what contradicts life principles.

Attention can only focus on a limited amount of information. If there is too much of it, the consciousness will simply reject most of the information.

To persuade, it is necessary not only to understand the proposed message, but also to accept the conclusion that follows from it. Therefore, information conveyed clearly and clearly argued will be more persuasive than a long message with many unclear terms conveyed in a noisy environment. It’s not for nothing that they say: “Brevity is the sister of talent”, “Everything ingenious is simple.” Information that is easy to understand is well absorbed.

Understanding does not always lead to acceptance. If a person listens to long-known and understood arguments several times, this will not change his attitude. The information presented must be new and not previously announced.

In addition, any information evokes certain feelings and memories. Therefore, when a message evokes positive feelings and thoughts (such as dreams of wealth), we agree with it.

2. Self-promotion. Declaring your goals and presenting evidence of your competence and qualifications in order to be appreciated and thereby gain advantages in a selection situation (appointment to a position, etc.).

Self-promotion differs from self-praise in that the initiator of influence does not simply assert something about himself, but backs it up with real deeds or indisputable facts, evidence of these real deeds.

Self-promotion technique: real demonstration of your capabilities; presentation of certificates, diplomas, official reviews, patents, printed works, products, etc.; presentation of graphs, calculations, diagrams; disclosing your personal goals; formulating your requests and conditions.

3. Suggestion. Conscious unreasoned influence on a person or group of people, aimed at changing their state, attitude towards something and predisposition to certain actions.

Suggestion is the introduction of any ideas, feelings, emotions without the possibility of critical evaluation and logical processing, i.e. bypassing consciousness. With suggestion, all transmitted ideas are perceived and executed “blindly”. Suggestion is used to block a person’s unwanted behavior or thinking, to persuade a person to do a desired action or behavior, to spread useful information and rumors.

Suggestions gain strength through repetition. A person can reject an offer made once, but if he listens to the same one for a while, he will accept it. In addition, the suggestion may not produce a noticeable effect immediately, but may appear after a certain time. When the conscious mind is interested and distracted, the subconscious mind is left unprotected and absorbs everything that is told to it.

The main tool of suggestion is the word, and the gaze also has the effect of suggestion.

Suggestion (from Latin suggestio – suggestion) leads to the appearance, in addition to will and consciousness, of a certain state, feeling, attitude; to commit an act that does not coincide with the norms, guidelines and principles of human activity.

A suggestor, a source of suggestion or a suggestive subject can be an individual, a group, or the media. The suggester, the object of suggestion, can be an individual, a group, or a social stratum.

Types of suggestion:

Direct - influence with words.

b) instructions that influence emotions, attitudes and motives of behavior. These are soft soothing phrases, they are repeated several times in a calm tone.

Indirect - hidden, disguised suggestion. An intermediate effect or stimulus is used to enhance the effect, for example, a pill that has no medicinal properties (“placebo effect”). Indirect suggestion is learned unconsciously, involuntarily, imperceptibly.

Suggestion can occur either intentionally or unintentionally. Suggestion is intentional when the suggestor tries to achieve a specific goal, knows what and to whom he wants to suggest, and makes efforts to achieve his goals. Suggestion is unintentional when the suggestor does not set a goal to suggest something to the suggestor and does not make any effort. Such suggestion is possible if the suggerend is predisposed to what is being suggested. Those. the suggestion “You won’t succeed!” will only work if it is expressed at a time when something has not worked out for the suggestend.

4. Infection. The transfer of one’s state or attitude to another person or group of people who in some way (not yet explained) adopt this state or attitude. This state can be transmitted both involuntarily and voluntarily, and can also be acquired (involuntarily or voluntarily).

Suggestion differs from infection in that in the first case the initiator of influence is himself in one state, while the recipient of influence produces another. Contagion implies that the initiator himself is in the state that he reproduces in other people.

The best way to inspire is through your own example; According to Bekhterev, mutual suggestion and infection are actually one and the same phenomenon. At the same time, the mechanism of the phenomenon remains undisclosed, and only its description, but not an explanation, is possible.

5. Awakening the impulse to imitate. The ability to create a desire to be like you. This ability can manifest itself both involuntarily and voluntarily. The desire to imitate and imitate (copying someone else's behavior and way of thinking) can also be voluntary or involuntary.

Imitation differs from contagion in that it involves copying behaviors rather than mental states. Then, already in the process of reproducing someone else’s behavioral model, a person, in accordance with the well-known James-Lange law, develops mental states associated with these behavioral models. The formula of this law is known: “First we run, then we get scared, first we cry, then we experience grief, first we laugh, and then it becomes funny to us.” A similar principle has been proposed in religion. “Those who are not firm in faith” should show signs of religious reverence and delight in the temple, kneel, offer prayers, etc., so that a real state of reverence is gradually born in them.

The ability to evoke the impulse to imitate one's antithesis has the ability to imitate others. Man, like animals, is prone to imitation; it constitutes a need for him, provided, of course, that it is not surrounded by difficulties. It is this need that determines the powerful influence of so-called fashion. Who dares not submit to her authority, no matter whether it concerns opinions, ideas, literary works, or simply clothing? They control the crowd not with the help of arguments, but only with the help of models. In every era there is a small number of individuals who inspire the crowd with their actions, and the unconscious mass imitates them.

But these individuals should not be too far removed from the prevailing ideas in the crowd, otherwise it will be difficult to imitate, and then all their influence will be reduced to zero. For this reason, people who are much higher than their era have no influence on it at all. They are too distant from her.

The fact that others strive to imitate you also contributes to the satisfaction of the need to overcome space-time limitations. However, this method of distribution has its limits. Only those who have really seen and accurately mastered the model they want to imitate can imitate. Imitating someone who is already imitating someone else, and so on in a chain, gradually turns this method of distribution into a caricature. In addition, imitation does not allow one to go beyond the temporary limitations of one’s own existence. They imitate, first of all, a living person, a living model. In principle, it is also possible to imitate a video image, but it is also indirect, non-stereoscopic, and therefore also slides into caricature.

In contrast, suggestion and contagion should be considered more powerful means of propagation, since they can use the printed word, which can have suggestive and contagious powers. In addition, these types of influence leave the addressee with a certain freedom in choosing those behavioral models that will be used to implement the ideas perceived and mastered by the person.

Imitation can be used consciously, as a self-presentation strategy aimed at building the goodwill of the target person.

The law of imitation: the inferior imitate the superior, the younger the elder, the poor the rich, etc.

6. Building Favor. Attracting the involuntary attention of the addressee to oneself by demonstrating one’s own originality and attractiveness, expressing favorable judgments about the addressee, imitating him or providing him with a service.

This type of influence goes back to the classification of self-presentation styles by E. Jones (Jones E. E., 1964). Self-presentation is the management of the impression that the initiator makes on the target person in order to maintain or strengthen his influence on her. Jones proposed the following classification of self-presentation: intimidation, example orientation (exemplary behavior), supplication and ingratiation (concern about the attractiveness of one’s own personal qualities in order to influence another person).

To implement the integration strategy, a number of tactics are used: positive statements by the subject about himself; elevating the target person through flattery, compliments, and other positive reinforcements; showing interest in this subject; conformity towards him; provision of any services.

The use of intimidation is inherent in subjects who have a certain power, the authority to deprive any benefits, change the living conditions of the person serving as the target. In this case, a person who uses this style of self-presentation often threatens the recipient of the influence in order to obtain the required behavior from him.

The strategy of exemplary behavior involves demonstrating the moral virtues of the subject of self-presentation. This is realized through the following behavioral tactics: self-denial, neglect of one’s own interests, fighting for a “just cause,” and providing assistance.

Petition is the style of those who do not have much power and involves demonstrating their own helplessness and making a request to the object of self-presentation.

As Jones notes, the implementation of each of these styles is associated with a certain risk for the subject. For example, a person who primarily demonstrates an intimidating strategy through his behavior risks being branded as “violent, weak, ineffective”; one who adheres to ingratiation is “a flatterer, an obsequious conformist”; strategies of exemplary behavior - a “hypocrite”, and petitions - “lazy, weak” (remember one of A.P. Chekhov’s stories, in which his heroine kept repeating: “I am a weak, defenseless woman”).

7. Request. Appeal to the addressee with an appeal to satisfy the needs or desires of the initiator of the influence.

8. Compulsion. The threat of the initiator using his control capabilities in order to achieve the required behavior from the addressee. Controlling capabilities are the powers to deprive the recipient of any benefits or to change the conditions of his life and work. The most severe forms of coercion may involve threats of physical harm. Subjectively, coercion is experienced as pressure: by the initiator - as his own pressure, by the addressee - as pressure from the initiator or “circumstances”.

9. Destructive criticism. Expressing disparaging or offensive judgments about a person’s personality and/or rude aggressive condemnation, slander or ridicule of his deeds and actions. The destructiveness of such criticism is that it does not allow a person to “save face”, diverts his energy to fight the negative emotions that have arisen, and takes away his faith in himself.

The experience of destructive criticism is qualitatively different from the experience that arises in the process of persuasion. Anyone can easily remember this difference in quality. The subject of destructive criticism is the recipient of the influence, the subject of persuasion is something more abstract, removed from him, and therefore not so painfully perceived. Even if a person is convinced that he has made a mistake, the subject of discussion is that mistake, not the person who made it. The difference between persuasion and destructive criticism is thus at issue.

On the other hand, in form, destructive criticism is often indistinguishable from the formulas of suggestion: “You are an irresponsible person. Everything you touch turns to nothing.” However, the initiator of the influence has as its conscious goal “improving” the behavior of the recipient of the influence (and the unconscious goal is liberation from frustration and anger, a manifestation of force or revenge). He does not at all have in mind the consolidation and strengthening of those models of behavior that are described by the formulas he uses. It is characteristic that the consolidation of negative behavior patterns is one of the most destructive and paradoxical effects of destructive criticism. It is also known that in the formulas of suggestion and auto-training, positive formulations are persistently preferred over the negation of negative ones (for example, the formula “I am calm” is preferable to the formula “I am not worried”).

Thus, the difference between destructive criticism and suggestion is that criticism formulates what should not be done and what one should not be, and suggestion is what one should do and what one should be. We see that destructive criticism and suggestion also differ in the subject of discussion.

10. Manipulation. Hidden encouragement of the recipient to experience certain states, make decisions and/or perform actions necessary for the initiator to achieve his own goals.

11. Gossip– a specific type of information that arises spontaneously and becomes available to a wide audience. It may be deliberately distributed with the aim of influencing the public consciousness of people. Rumors are a very powerful tool of influence, therefore they are widely used in politics and marketing.

12. NLP– a set of techniques, models. Gives the initiator of influence greater power over the addressee. It is manipulative if the initiator achieves a win only for himself, and the addressee is a loser. If the initiator's goal is noble in relation to the addressee, this is positive hidden control. For example, when NLP is used in psychotherapy.

13. Control. Assumes the presence of appropriate status, certain powers, and power. To manage means to lead, to direct the activities of someone. For example, a manager manages subordinates; Parents, educators, teachers guide children.

There is also an approach that distinguishes the following system of methods of psychological influence:

• Psychological attack
• Psychological programming
• Psychological manipulation
• Psychological pressure

Psychological attack is a method of varied, changeable; fast, active; verbose, polysemantic; moving, pantomimic influence on the human psyche in order to turn off logical thinking: creating or irresistible impression, or introducing into a state of confusion, followed by inducing the person to the desired reaction.

Psychological attacks are used by entrepreneurs, traveling salesmen, and distributors; radio and television presenters; during presentation, attraction, etc. The liberocratic style-method of leadership is based on psi-attack.

Psychological programming is a method of monotony, constant; precise, persistent; unambiguous, unique; motionless, inert influence on the human psyche in order to create algorithms for his intellect and form behavioral stereotypes.

Psychological manipulation is a method of duality, composition; deft, decisive; two-valued, ambiguous; an equilibrium, balanced impact on the human psyche in order to put him in the uncomfortable position of having to choose his behavior between two alternatives (between good and bad, good and better, bad and worse, good and neutral, bad and neutral).

Psychological manipulation is used by politicians and ideologists; in the process of discussions, polemics, negotiations, etc. The basis of the democratic style-method of leadership is psi-manipulation.

Psychological pressure is a method of being representative, impressive; strong, intense; pointing, affirmative; a sustainable, stable influence on the human psyche with the aim of forcing him to act and placing him at the bottom level of the social hierarchy.

Psychological pressure is used in the army, government and administrative bodies; in the process of terror, mobbing, etc. The basis of the autocratic style-method of leadership is psi-pressure.

Related combinations are possible: attack + pressure, pressure + programming, programming + manipulation, manipulation + attack.

Paradoxical inclusions are possible: attack with programming elements, programming with attack elements; pressure with elements of manipulation, manipulation with elements of pressure.

True goals of influence

The main goal of psychological pressure is to induce an unconscious desire to quickly complete negotiations, undermine the will to resist, and the ability to think critically and constructively. It is simply unthinkable to list all the methods and techniques used for this purpose. Basically, to implement psychological pressure, methods of creating a stressful situation, threatening and warning of a threatening nature are used. We can distinguish a group of techniques for lowering the status of a partner by influencing the subconscious.

This is repeated repetition of the same false thesis, references to authorities combined with various speculations (from distortion of quotes to references to non-existent sources); manipulation (“game”) of figures and facts to create the appearance of objectivity and accuracy; tendentious selection of illustrative material with an emphasis on the effect of “dramatizing influence”; terrifying " visual illustrations» propaganda views and positions, and other similar techniques designed to create emotional discomfort and neutralize a person’s ability to rationally evaluate the information provided.

An example of psychological pressure is the so-called “Goebbelsian propaganda,” which proceeded from the cynical presumption that lies, in order to be effective, must be massive, large-scale, shameless and continuous. In more subtle versions, psychological pressure involves some element of truth used as a cover for massive disinformation.

When we convince another person of something or instill an idea in him, what are we really trying to achieve? For example, what do we achieve by convincing the director of the company that candidate A should be hired, not B? What are we really striving for when we instill in a child that he should be independent? What goal do we pursue when we encourage students or subordinates to take our example or copy our behavior? The traditional answer to these questions is expressed by two well-known everyday formulas: “this is being done for the benefit of the cause” and “this is being done for the benefit of these people.” But is it? Is the purpose of our influence really to benefit the cause or benefit other people?

With a certain habit of self-analysis, each person can admit that in many cases he tried to convince other people of something or persuade them to a certain line of behavior because it suited his own interests, including material ones.

But there are still cases when the initiator of influence sincerely believes that his goal is to serve the interests of the cause or other people. However, as the famous saying goes, “no one is good enough to teach others.” All human rightness is relative, and people can differ in their views on what is good for a cause, for themselves or for other people. From this point of view, any influence is unjust, since by the very attempt of influence we aim at what is above us - the plan of someone else's soul unknown to us and, in fact, the priorities of various human affairs completely unknown to us. Who can judge which matter is more and which is less important for a given person, for a given enterprise, for society, for the comprehension of universal truth? Only with a certain degree of convention can we assume that marketing research is more important than production, accounting calculations are more important than receiving visitors, reading a book is more important than playing football, etc. In fact, the judgment about priorities is based on the economic concept we have adopted or on our personal value system. But every concept and value system is conditional. However, instead of experiencing this convention and devoting ourselves to searching for something closer to the truth, we strive to convince, inspire, declare something conventional as a role model, etc.

The explanation, apparently, is that the craving for absolute truth in real life is much less inherent in us than the inescapable desire to establish ourselves in the fact of our own existence and in the significance of this existence. The ability to influence others is an undeniable sign that you exist and that this existence matters. By convincing, inspiring, causing the desire to imitate ourselves, we help ourselves to become confident that we exist and that this existence matters. It is obvious that from this point of view, any such influence is selfish, and - for this reason alone - unrighteous. It is dictated by considerations of one’s own benefit, and not “benefit for the cause,” “benefit for others,” or, in general, “the highest benefit.”

In the struggle to gain a sense of self-worth, a person strives to gain attention from others, power over them, and the possibility of revenge for the harm they previously caused him.

People who are able to concentrate on the objective side of the matter and completely distract themselves from establishing their own significance are the exception rather than the rule. Apparently, the reason for this is that in early childhood, any action of the child receives evaluation from adults, while initially the child only needs a description of the action itself. According to Gestalt therapists, for example, a child early age it is necessary for those around him to recognize the fact of his existence and his actions. However, very quickly the child begins to understand that he will receive recognition of the facts of his existence only simultaneously with their assessment. Having mastered this, in the future he begins to focus on assessments and recognition of social significance.

Other human need, which determines attempts to influence others or resist their influence - the desire to save one’s own efforts, which is outwardly expressed as resistance to the new. Energetically much easier to defend own point vision than to give yourself the trouble to listen to other people’s opinions and assimilate them. Resistance to the new is associated with the recognition of oneself as untenable and therefore entitled to be left alone. If refusing to try to do anything or generally react in any way to external influences can be attributed to children’s immature forms of demonstrating inadequacy, then insisting on one’s opinion, on the advantages of one’s own way of thinking, acting, and living are rather “adult” ways of covering up (but in fact - a demonstration) of their inadequacy in the face of the pressure of the new.

So, the true purpose of “selfless” influence is to confirm the significance of one’s own existence. However, there are unintended types of influence that, at first glance, refute this statement. It is typical for some people, for example, to influence others by the mere fact of their presence. Their word is significant, no matter what they say, their gaze humbles or inspires, their laughter and enthusiasm are contagious, you involuntarily want to imitate their behavior, and call their goals your own. This is the effect of a charismatic or charming personality. The Oxford Dictionary defines charisma as psychological attractiveness, the ability to make people committed to one's goals and enthusiastic about achieving them. In the Explanatory Dictionary of S.I. Ozhegov, charm is defined as charm, attractive force. The “mechanism” of this ability to attract people to itself is still unknown and awaits its researchers.

The action of another person may be different. His word may even seem too heavy, and his mere presence can suppress, deprive him of strength, plunge him into the viscous infinity of boredom or the unsteady quagmire of anxiety. Facts like these prove that unintended influence can be a feature of human existence. Man spreads influence, just as some physical objects spread heat or emit radiance. Unintended influence is one of the manifestations of life.

If intentional influence is done for some reason, for something, then unintentional influence acts for some reason. The first has a purpose, and the second has only a reason.

In a similar way, there is a distinction between voluntary and involuntary attention or voluntary and involuntary memory. Essentially, any influence is a tension of our ability, which can manifest itself completely spontaneously, without any effort on our part. This is the ability of psychological radiation, the ability to create an individual, unique field around oneself with a peculiar distribution of forces of attraction and repulsion, warming: cooling, relief and burden, calming and tension, the field can electrify or freeze others, give energy or put them to sleep, cause a feeling of bliss in their soul an irresistible urge to leave immediately.

People undoubtedly differ in their natural gift for unintentionally (involuntary) influencing others. The psychological radiation of some people is so strong that it suppresses the weak radiation of others.

The gift of influence seems to be, to a certain extent, associated in our minds not only with the psychological, but also with the anthropometric characteristics of a person. First of all, this is its physical size. What does the expression “impressive size” mean—a head, an arm, or even a leg? What do they suggest? One might assume that this is respect mixed with fear. This fear of being destroyed or overwhelmed by someone else who is bigger and stronger than us appears to be biologically based. We are all born small, helpless, and then it takes a long time to learn to use our strengths. Throughout the entire period of development, the child experiences the feeling that he is inferior in some way to both his parents and the world as a whole. Due to the immaturity of his organs, his uncertainty and independence, due to his need to rely on stronger natures and due to the often painful feeling of subordination to other people, a feeling of inadequacy develops in the child, which then reveals itself throughout his life.

In this we find a possible explanation for the fact that people feel much more acutely and painfully about their inability to resist the influence of others than about their inability to exert their own influence. The fear of dissolving in other people's rays, of losing the sense of one's own significance, the individuality and originality of one's own existence, of losing one's Self - this is the main drama of human interaction. People with stronger personal radiation are simply better protected from this drama and are not even always aware of it, since it is rather the drama of other people - those who are close to them and experience their radiation. In cases where their unintended but inevitable influence is pointed out to them, they usually do not know what to do about it: “Yes, maybe my field is too rigid. But it's me! What can I do about this? Just stop being, die, and then the action of my field will stop. But if you don't want me to die, bear with me. What else can be done here?

Apparently, it is necessary to recognize that every act of influence, regardless of the degree of its awareness and intentionality, realizes a person’s conscious or unconscious desire to affirm the fact of his existence and the significance of this existence. If we directly acknowledge this, there is no need for a moral and ethical assessment of influence, determining its “righteousness” or “unrighteousness.” We influence because we defend our interests, and not because the absolute truth was revealed to us and we felt entitled to decide for others.

Every person has the right to influence others, but everyone also has the right to reject the influence of others. This also applies to those who seem to us to be lower in terms of mental, moral or professional development. Every person can and will try to influence us in one way or another, because this is one of the ways they express their own needs, and everyone is given an equal right to express their needs and assert them. Thus, any influence is unrighteous, in the sense that it is dictated not by the highest considerations of God's providence, but by one's own needs. On the other hand, any influence is legitimate, because every person has the right to express his needs. It is only important to recognize that mutual influence is the mutual expression of one’s needs, and in this struggle everyone is equally right.

To this it could be objected that the needs of some people are undeveloped or base, while the needs of others are developed and elevated, so the former may be less right than the latter. The influence of the former would need to be limited, and the influence of the latter should be strengthened. However, who in each specific case will determine the degree of development of needs and the preponderance of rightness?

Apparently, the problem of influence from a moral and ethical plane of consideration should be transferred to a psychological one. From a psychological point of view, it would be legitimate to talk not about who has the right to influence and who does not (everyone has the right), but about how constructive certain methods of mutual influence are, i.e. about how useful and creative they are for its participants.

Types of psychological resistance to influence

1. Counterargumentation. A conscious, reasoned response to an attempt to persuade, refuting or challenging the arguments of the initiator of influence.

2. Constructive criticism. A fact-supported discussion of the goals, means or actions of the initiator of influence and justification for their inconsistency with the goals, conditions and requirements of the addressee.

3. Energy mobilization. Resistance of the addressee to attempts to instill or convey to him a certain state, attitude, intention or course of action.

4. Creation. Creation of something new, ignoring or overcoming the influence of a model, example or fashion.

5. Evasion. The desire to avoid any form of interaction with the initiator of the influence, including random personal meetings and collisions.

6. Psychological self-defense. The use of speech formulas and intonation means to maintain presence of mind and gain time to think about further steps in a situation of destructive criticism, manipulation or coercion.

7. Ignoring. Actions that indicate that the addressee deliberately does not notice or does not take into account the words, actions or feelings expressed by the addressee.

8. Confrontation. Open and consistent opposition by the addressee of his position and his demands to the initiator of influence.

9. Refusal. Expression by the addressee of his disagreement to fulfill the request of the initiator of the influence.

Counterargumentation. For a belief to be truly constructive, it must meet certain conditions.

Firstly, the goal of persuasion must be clearly understood by the initiator of influence and openly formulated to the addressee, for example: “I would like to prove to you the advantages of the method of strengthening the powers of subordinates” or “Let me prove to you that it is inappropriate to hire this person.” In cases where we begin an argument without realizing our own goal and/or without communicating it to the addressee, he may perceive our influence as manipulative.

Secondly, before attempting to persuade, it is necessary to obtain the consent of the addressee to listen to us. For example, if to our question: “Do you agree to listen to my arguments?”2 he answers: “Let’s do it in an hour, okay? Otherwise, my head is occupied with other things right now,” then further continuation of the argument immediately at this moment will be perceived by him as coercion. At the same time, he took away “later2,” if it is repeated systematically, it may indicate attempts to ignore. In this case, it is necessary to first resist ignoring, and then, if successful, move on to persuasion. The problem is that persuasion is a constructive way of influencing, but energetically it is not always powerful enough. It requires “emotional calm2 and mental clarity. This often requires a lot of preliminary work. An important point of switching here is the concentration not so much on the log of constructing your own proof, but on the psychology of interaction with the addressee. It is impossible to be convincing at all, objectively. You can be convincing to someone in particular. Persuasiveness is something that arises in the process of interaction.

The most effective are three argumentation techniques:

1. presentation of arguments

2. development of argumentation

3. positive response method.

Counterargumentation also requires “emotional calm.” If the partner gets too excited in the process of presenting his own arguments, his addressee is recommended to first obtain consent to listen to himself. It is pointless to begin counter-argumentation without obtaining such consent. You can only hear counterarguments voluntarily. If we force them to listen, this is no longer counter-argumentation, but coercion, and it will have the corresponding effect.

A logically sound counterargument may be psychologically flawed and therefore ineffective. Her main possible mistake is being too persuasive. If the challenger's evidence is obvious, this indicates that our opinion was erroneous or worthless. The need to admit error or inconsistency of one's reasoning offends many people's sense of self-worth and leads to actualization of the needs for attention, power and revenge. The result may be a change in the subject of discussion, a switch to destructive criticism, an endless prolongation of the discussion, etc.

Psychologically competent counter-argumentation should begin with agreement with the opponent on something, and then continue in the form of an invitation to discuss our doubts. The presentation of new arguments must also carry with it an element of hesitation and doubt. For example: “I agree with you that in the West the idea of ​​a “flat structure” of an organization is now very widespread, when both subordinates and superiors are almost at the same level in terms of their ability to influence the company’s strategy... True, I sometimes I think to what extent is this consistent with our traditions? Or maybe we can ignore traditions? Do you think that maybe this traditional division between superiors and subordinates will disappear on its own?”

The main goal of counterargumentation is to find a solution to the problem, and not at all to convince the opponent. Therefore, the indicator of its effectiveness will be the solution found, and not the feeling of one’s own strength and significance. Even if the solution found is the one that we initially developed, it is psychologically more correct to structure the discussion in such a way that the opponent feels not convinced, but has reached this decision almost independently.

Three counterargumentation techniques are most effective:

1. “turning around” the partner’s arguments

2. dismemberment of partner's arguments

3. counter development of argumentation.

Confrontation. Confrontation is trench warfare. Initially, confrontation was described by Claude Steiner as opposing one's own power maneuver to a partner's power play in order to force him to reckon with us, to stop ignoring us. This method is justified in cases where the initiator of influence uses such unconstructive methods of influence as manipulation, destructive criticism, ignoring or coercion. This is a powerful remedy, and if the recipient of the impact decides to use it; use, it must be consistent and follow through. Confrontation can only be effective if each of its necessary phases is implemented.

The first phase of confrontation is the I-message about the feelings that this behavior of the initiator of influence causes.

Let’s say that the manipulator (a man) deliberately violated the psychological distance between himself and the recipient of his influence (a girl) so that she would experience a feeling of discomfort and would rather agree to fulfill his request. He moves his chair close to hers and, putting his arm around her shoulders, says: “Please give me this manual, I simply need it today.” The recipient girl answers him with an I-message: “When they sit so close to me, I feel anxiety and discomfort.” If the manipulator accepts this I-message of the addressee, apologizes and sits down, the goal is achieved and the confrontation is completed. Only if he does not do this or, having done so, then again repeats attempts to limit the psychological space of the addressee, is it necessary to move on to the second phase.

The second phase of confrontation is the strengthening of the I-message.

In this example, the recipient girl did it like this. “When I say that I am experiencing anxiety and discomfort, and there is no response to this, then I begin to feel sad and sad. Offense. I feel bad, you know?” If the initiator of the influence accepts this I-message and stops his efforts to limit the psychological space, the confrontation can be considered successfully completed. Only if he does not do this should he move on to the next phase.

The third phase of confrontation is the expression of wishes and requests.

For example: “I ask you to sit at approximately this distance from me, not closer. And I also ask you not to slap my hand or touch me at all.” If the request is not fulfilled, it is necessary to move to the fourth phase.

The fourth phase of confrontation is the imposition of sanctions.

Example: “If you pat me on the hand again or sit closer than I am comfortable with, I will, firstly, leave immediately, and secondly, I will move away every time as soon as you approach me. I’ll stop communicating with you, that’s all.” We see that a sanction is a threat, and a threat is an attribute of coercion. If the confrontation has reached this phase, we need to admit to ourselves that we are forcing the manipulator to make a choice: either submit to our demands or refuse the opportunity to interact with us. The manipulator can resist coercion in the form of counter-confrontation. We can go to negotiations and discuss his demands. Only if he continues his actions or we were unable to reach an agreement should we move on to the fifth phase.

The fifth phase of confrontation is the implementation of sanctions. The recipient of the impact must refuse any interaction with the initiator. Break off relations with him if there is no other choice.

We see that confrontation is a method that requires determination to go to the end in asserting one’s psychological freedom, one’s right to resist other people’s influence.

The concept of psychologically constructive influence

In our opinion, a psychologically constructive influence must meet three criteria:

1. it does not destroy the personalities of the people participating in it and their relationships,

2. it is psychologically correct (competent, error-free);

3. it satisfies the needs of both parties.

Psychologically constructive resistance to influence must also meet these three criteria. In reality, influence and resistance to influence are two sides of a single interaction process, so it is more correct to talk about mutual psychological influence.

A psychologically correct (competent, error-free) attempt to influence would be one in which:

- the psychological characteristics of the partner and the current situation are taken into account,

- the “correct” psychological methods of influence are used.

In order for an influence to be considered psychologically constructive, all three of the above criteria must be met. For example, it is obvious that a destructive influence on another person can also be psychologically unmistakable. Therefore, the concepts of psychological constructiveness and psychological correctness (infallibility) are intersecting, but not coinciding.

If the influence exerted meets the criteria of psychological constructiveness, its recipient has two options:

1. to be influenced;

2. constructively resist it using correct psychological means.

Traditionally, behavior described by the formula “to be influenced” is considered in our domestic culture a sign of weakness and immaturity of the individual. It is more common to say “yielded to bad influence” than “yielded to good influence.” They “succumb” to bad influence, but “exert” good influence. Meanwhile, the experience of the author of this article in interviewing applicants for the positions of managers and directors of multinational companies shows that one of the most important abilities of a leader in modern Western business culture is considered to be his flexibility, the ability to be influenced and change his behavior and his assessments. Many questions from Western interviewers are aimed at identifying precisely this ability: “In what cases is it difficult to convince you?” or “How might your decision be influenced by a subordinate?”

The ability to yield to constructive influence is a sign of the predominance of task orientation over the immediate desire to confirm one’s own importance. Ultimately, successfully completing a task will do more to reaffirm your worth than remaining stubborn in an argument.

If our partner’s arguments convince us, we simply agree with him without resorting to counter-argumentation methods; if his goals and requests, as well as the level of competence he has demonstrated, satisfy us, we do not interfere with his self-promotion, but simply hire him. Likewise, we may agree to be infected by someone else's enthusiasm or voluntarily begin to imitate a high-class professional.

And on the contrary, if the influence exerted does not correspond to the norms of psychological constructivity, then only one way will be legitimate - to resist it in psychologically constructive ways. Refusal to resist would mean that the addressee agrees to have his personality suffered more or less serious damage; counteraction using psychologically unconstructive methods will undoubtedly cause damage to the addressee and/or initiator of the influence and/or their relationships.

The table reflects an attempt to determine the degree of constructiveness of different types of influence and types of resistance to influence.

Table. Classification of types of influence and resistance to influence on the basis of psychological constructiveness - non-constructiveness

Type of influence	Characteristics of constructiveness - non-constructiveness	Constructive kinds counter-influences	Non-constructive Kinds counter-influences
Belief	A constructive type of influence, provided that we have clearly and openly formulated to our partner the purpose of our influence	Counterargumentation	Ignoring Compulsion Destructive criticism Manipulation
Self-promotion	A constructive type of influence, provided that we do not use deceptive “tricks” and reveal our true goals and requests	Constructive criticism Refusal	Destructive criticism Ignoring
Suggestion	Controversial type of influence; suggestion is always penetration through the “back door”	Constructive criticism Energy mobilization Evasion	Destructive criticism Manipulation Compulsion Ignoring
Infection	Controversial type of influence; no one can determine how useful it is for the recipient to become infected with this particular feeling or state and right now	Constructive criticism Energy mobilization Evasion	Destructive criticism Manipulation Compulsion Ignoring
Awakening the impulse to imitate	Controversial type of influence; considered acceptable in raising children and in transferring skills from a high-class professional to a young professional	Creation Constructive criticism Evasion	Destructive criticism Ignoring
Building Favor	Controversial type of influence; flattery, imitation as the highest form of flattery and service to the recipient of influence can be manipulation	Constructive criticism Evasion Energy mobilization	Destructive criticism Ignoring
	Controversial type of influence; in Russian culture it is considered destructive for the one who asks; in American culture it is considered justified	Refusal Evasion	Destructive criticism Ignoring
Compulsion	Controversial type of influence; is considered constructive in some pedagogical, political systems and in emergency situations	Confrontation	Destructive criticism Manipulation Retaliatory coercion Ignoring
Destructive criticism	Unconstructive type of influence	Psychological self-defense Evasion	Destructive criticism in response Manipulation Compulsion Ignoring
Manipulation	Unconstructive type of influence	Constructive criticism Confrontation	Counter manipulation Destructive criticism

Characteristics of means of psychological influence

Stimuli oriented to different analyzers

Visual stimuli

It is with this group of means that it is most convenient to demonstrate the diversity of those psychological effects that are associated with their use in the structure of influence.

The first group of effects is a consequence of an orienting reaction, which can be caused by the unevenness of the visual background due to the appearance or disappearance of visual stimuli, or due to the fact that these stimuli stand out in some way from others also in the field of view (differ in color, size, movement against the background objects stably oriented in space, with special illumination; this can be an image of a living object against a background of inanimate ones, a person among animals, a child among adults).

This is how U.S. describes the situation of purposeful arbitrary use of this effect. Maugham in the novel "Theatre". main character– Julia Lambert, trying to change the accents of the mise-en-scène, unexpectedly changed her stage costume and instead of the yellow dress everyone was accustomed to at the dress rehearsal, she appeared at the premiere in a dress made of silver brocade.

“Its shine and the way it reflected the light distracted the audience. Avis's blue dress looked like a faded rag next to him. When they approached the main stage, Julia took out from somewhere, like a magician taking a rabbit out of a hat, a large crimson chiffon scarf and began to play with it. She waved it, she straightened it on her lap, as if she wanted to get a better look, she rolled it into a rope, wiped her forehead with it, gracefully blew her nose into it. The spectators, spellbound, could not take their eyes off the red rag.”

From this excerpt it is very clear that a color spot that “stands out” from the general color context, “fascinating” the audience, contributes to a shift in attention to a character other than what was intended by the director. This helped the actress, who was interested in such an effect, change the director’s decision, allowed her to realize her own artistic vision, and at the same time solve everyday problems.

Specialists working in areas where visual stimulation is used are forced to pay certain attention to the prevention of the occurrence of such effects, so to speak, in an unauthorized version, when they may well reduce the effectiveness of the impact as a whole.

Similar effects are caused by an orienting reaction due to the discrepancy between a visible fragment of an image and a familiar image, a visual stereotype.

Let's give a few more examples demonstrating options for using the effect in question. Thus, drawing the attention of sunbathers to the problem of skin cancer in connection with excesses in the use of sunbathing, the authors place an unusual object (a skeleton sunbathing in a sun lounger) in the image of a familiar context (swimming pool, beach accessories, etc.), accompanying this composition with explanatory text and telephone numbers where you can get Additional information on this issue.

It is clear that this group of effects cannot occur by chance. The task of specialists, if they want to obtain an appropriate result, is to find ways to destroy visual stereotypes.

A special area of ​​​​use of the considered reactions to visual stimuli is their use as a means to facilitate the process of concentration.

These can be small moving objects, luminous points, etc. Due to prolonged fixation of a person’s attention, for example, on a small brightly glowing object, on the contrary, the orienting reaction fades, the level of brain activation decreases and, as a consequence, an altered state of consciousness appears, which can be used for hypnotic suggestion. Quite often, visual stimuli are used in this way by shamans to concentrate attention when immersed in a state of trance.

The next group of effects is due to the emotional reaction arising due to physical characteristics incentives.

These characteristics primarily include the color and brightness of the stimuli. The influence of color on the human psyche has attracted the attention not only of psychologists specializing in the field of perception, but also of professionals who in one way or another understand the origins of human emotional reactions (art critics, artists, writers).

Psychologists are well aware of the research of M. Luscher, which indicates a complex relationship between the current state of the emotional sphere and the attitude towards color.

In itself, the division of the color gamut into warm and cold components indicates a more or less consistently observed connection between color and the level of activation experienced during its perception.

Interesting in this context is the study of A.L. Groysman, aimed at studying the influence of color on a person’s mental state, in which the task was to determine the difference in both physiological reactions and subjective psychological perceptions in individuals who were in different color environments for five minutes. The subjects were 105 students. It turned out that the perception of red color obtained using conventional projection lamps with additional light filters (exposure time - 5 minutes) was associated with negative emotions: limitation, feeling of cramped space, headache. During irradiation in a standing position, a desire arose to retreat or expand the space. Physiological reactions are inconsistent, blood pressure rises irregularly, but the pulse, as a rule, quickens. Apparently, the color red has a stimulating effect on the sympathetic-tonic reactions of the autonomic nervous system. In general, when illuminated with red light, a sympathetic nervous system response was observed.

Here it is appropriate to provide data regarding the perception of color by creative people. Thus, composer and philosopher Richard Wagner created his powerful epic paintings exclusively under red lighting, in the presence of color, which, as he believed, maximally condenses a person’s creative abilities, his passion and thought.

The perception of yellow color in the experiments of A.L. Groysman was associated by the subjects with a feeling of vibration, tension, and motor excitation was observed. Thus, one of them indicated that she felt like a heated spiral. The effect of this color is associated with an increase in pulse blood supply.

When using blue-violet color, physiological reactions tend to slow down, and when using blue-green color, there was a tendency to normalize physiological reactions. In general, with the blue-green spectrum of exposure, a response of the parasympathetic nervous system was observed.

In general, it can be argued that the emotional state of a person exposed to color can be both modified, changed, and updated through certain color preferences.

The next group of effects that are quite often observed during the perception of visual stimuli are reactions, including emotional ones, as well as associations due to the specifics of the gestalt that arises during the perception of a visual stimulus.

The concept of gestalt, widely used in psychology not only to characterize the phenomena of perception, but also to describe physical, physiological and social processes, denotes integral structures, forms, images, whose qualitative originality is not reducible to the sum of individual sensations from their perception.

Researchers working in this paradigm have suggested that individual sensations in the psychological field are linked into stable, simple, “economical” configurations. Psychologists give a special place among the factors that contribute to the “linking” of individual stimuli into Gestalt to the “proximity factor”, “similarity factor”, “continuation factor”, “common fate factor”. Thus, any composition, especially graphic, can form a “good” or “bad” gestalt, not only in accordance with the laws of internal harmony, but also in accordance with the required emotional effect. Specialists take this into account when creating trademarks, logos, emblems, etc.

The next group of effects arises due to the stable attribution within a certain culture of a specific visual stimulus to a certain semantic context.

Examples of such visual objects can be images, for example, Cheburashka and Buratino for children who grew up in Soviet era, Superman for those familiar with the corresponding comics, etc. Not only will the images of Buddha and Shiva not be unambiguously identified by the average Russian test subject, but the associative series that arises when perceiving these images will be completely different, more individualized, than that of subjects who are well acquainted with Indian culture.

Such objects can be placed in a different semantic context, which either achieves a comic effect, or provides conditions for linking the previous and new contexts, if not on a semantic, then at least on an emotional level. An example is a political cartoon aimed at identifying Stalin with Hitler. Stalin, although unsympathetic, is quite recognizable, depicted studying Mein Kampf. By placing such a book in the hands of Stalin, the author of this poster created for the readers of his publication the prerequisites for an emotional “link” between the two political figures.

A slightly different effect occurs in the presence of complex visual compositions that convey a specific situation that has a certain meaning for the bearers of a certain culture. This kind of composition, unlike the previous one, sets the context, providing the element included in it with a certain emotional and semantic load.

An example of this can be posters used in the practice of political struggle. They are made in the form of traditional US posters depicting wanted criminals, where under the call “WANTED!”, made in the graphics adopted for this type of poster, a photograph of a discredited political figure is placed. Both a politician from his own country (before the assassination attempt in Dallas, leaflets with a similar image of J. Kennedy were distributed) and a representative of the enemy country can appear on such a poster.

Let's look at another example from this series. It is known that religious subjects in a pictorial series can have a very special meaning for believers and give it also to what is contextually linked to them. It can even be used in a political poster. Thus, one of these posters depicts a man with facial features traditional for the iconography of Christ and a halo, but with a rifle. When a soldier or revolutionary is identified with God as savior, killing the enemy is a sacred act - the destruction of the enemy of God. The rifle in this context takes on the meaning of an instrument of the Lord.

An indelible impression is made by the leaflet, designed to draw the attention of the British public to the problem of hunger, mortality from hunger and to encourage them to actively support activities aimed at combating this evil, which affects (as the leaflet informs) more than 500 million people on the Earth every day. Its text part makes up only 1/6 of the total area. The rest is a mushroom of a nuclear explosion, but consisting not of a dust mass, but of children’s faces, or rather, children’s skulls, expressing horror and suffering. In the center of the image of the nuclear mushroom is an inset text: “The number of children dying from hunger every week is equivalent to three Hiroshimas.”

The expected psychological effect, as in the previous example, is based on the generalization of the emotional context of a holistic visual composition to a separate introduced element, in this case represented by a message. The attitude towards a nuclear explosion as a tragedy that must be fought should be transferred, according to the creators of the leaflet, to the problem of child mortality from starvation.

A completely special group of effects consists of reactions caused by the symbolic meaning of a specific stimulus, which is the result of a generalization of a person’s natural observations, his direct sensory experience.

It turns out that not only color, but also other characteristics of the visible world are generalized and acquire symbolic meaning in a certain context. Very interesting observations of such symbols were collected by V. Bauer, I. Dyumots, S. Golovin in the “Encyclopedia of Symbols”. Thus, they indicate that a straight line acts as a symbol of the horizon, a passive position, the feminine principle, and a vertical ray as a symbol of the masculine principle, an active element of creation. This kind of symbols can also be more complex images, correlated not only with the passively contemplated world, but with the world perceived in the context of current needs and experiences. The famous researcher of the nature of symbolism, R. Schwaller de Lubicz, called this kind of symbols esoteric. “An isoteric symbol,” he wrote, “is a natural phenomenon or artifact that evokes an extremely general living response, which finds expression at the level of physiology, nervous system, mentality and emotions of organized beings or energy reaction at the level of unorganized existence." Interesting in this sense is W. Reich’s explanation in a book published in 1933 of the attractive effect of the swastika on the masses:

“If we now turn to the swastikas depicted on the previous page, we see a schematic but easily recognizable image of two connected human figures. The swastika located on the left depicts sexual intercourse in a lying position, and the swastika located on the right depicts sexual intercourse in a standing position. From this it can be seen that the swastika symbolizes the basic function of the life process. The impact of the swastika on the unconscious emotionality of the individual does not explain the success of mass propaganda of fascism, but certainly contributes to it. Random testing of men and women of varying ages and social status shows that after looking at the swastika for a while, most people sooner or later come to an intuitive understanding of its meaning. Therefore, it can be assumed that the swastika, depicting two connected figures, has a powerful effect on the deep layers of the psyche, and the strength of its influence is determined by the degree of dissatisfaction and the intensity of the individual’s sexual desire. The perception of the swastika is greatly facilitated when it is presented as an emblem of honesty and fidelity. In this way, the defensive tendencies of the moralistic ego are taken into account.”

Specific trajectories of movement of visual stimuli can also have symbolic meaning: rise, fall, wave-like movements, which is also associated with the generalization of human visual experience.

In this regard, special attention should be paid to considering the use of the symbolic function of visual gestalts, similar to specific trajectories of movement of visual objects that have acquired a symbolic function.

Consider the following example. We are talking about a selection of materials in the newspaper “Moskovsky Komsomolets” dated January 10, 1996 (the height of the presidential election campaign) under the general heading “Communists, go back!” The selection of materials is represented by letters from readers of both pro-communist political orientations and their opponents. In addition, the material is illustrated with three photographs that have a very interesting spatial arrangement for us: they seem to form steps going from the upper left corner to the lower right corner. The top image is titled “Idealism. Communists of the 1920s." In it, the reader sees a group of young men and girls, as is usually written, with very “good”, inspired faces. The middle photo shows an image of a rickety barbed wire fence and an observation tower. Signature: “Practice. Krasnoyarsk camps". And finally, the lower right visual object is “Nostalgia. Communists of the 1990s." – represented by a photograph of G.I. Zyuganov, allowing us to form his image as a gloomy, wary, suspicious person, looking at the world from under his brows.

It is clear that not only the plots of the visual series and the orienting captions to them, but also the visual gestals give rise to an association with the slide from openness and revolutionary romanticism through totalitarianism and repression to wariness and suspicion towards to the outside world and even bitterness in the position of the corresponding forces, personified in the image of G.A. Zyuganov.

Such a composition, along with the used plots and orienting captions, is capable of creating a certain emotional background for the perception of the texts included in this collection, even before becoming familiar with the texts themselves. The visuals are what first catches the eye in this material. This arrangement of text and visual objects makes it possible to emotionally “adjust” readers in the direction required by publishers, which is especially important in the context of an election campaign in relation to persons who do not have specific political preferences.

The symbolic function of such gestalts is reflected in metaphors. Thus, when the situation is hopeless and efforts aimed at overcoming circumstances are futile, they say that a person “is in a vicious circle”, “runs in a circle”; the process develops “downward” or “ascending”, “in a spiral”, etc.

It should be noted that symbolic meaning can arise not only in connection with the generalization of visual experience, but also from other sources. For example, it is known that in some cultures the right and left orientation relative to the body in symbolic meaning are not equivalent. The symbolic meanings of various visual objects are associated with these orientations. Let us give some examples based on the research of E.B. Tylor. So she pointed out that “... the Kalmyk bows and thanks for the good omen when the falcon flies from him to the right, and seeing it on the left side, he turns away and expects disaster. Here we have obvious symbolism of the right and left hands... For us, for example, it is clear why the omen in the form of the cry of a crow should be different on the right and left sides...”

E.B. Tylor also pointed out that symbol systems were not only based on direct perceptions and observations of natural objects, but also on fantasy. An example is the ideas reflected in the parable given by I.P. Sakharov, a researcher of Russian folk beliefs, customs, and legends who lived in the 19th century:

“There is a shield, a hare sits on the shield, a falcon flew in and took the hare, an owl flew onto the shield and sat down instead of the hare.”

“The shield is the earth; there is a hare sitting on the shield, that is, truth on the ground; a falcon flew in and took the hare - then truth was taken from earth to heaven; an owl flew onto the shield instead of a hare - then it sat down on the ground in a lie.”

The perception of a certain visual stimulus in accordance with the existing symbolic meaning of the right-handed relative to the body or the left-handed orientation of objects or some fantastic assumptions is based on the generalization of experience and associative processes. This turns out to be possible due to a certain universality of human experience and need states.

Quite often, images of such objects, endowed with symbolic meaning by representatives of certain communities, are included in the subjects of artistic paintings or in the attributes of ordinary everyday situations.

At the same time, visual stimuli acquire symbolic meaning not only because of the universality of human experience and its basic need states, but also because of their inclusion in a specific cultural context. Thus, a certain visual object, perhaps quite complex, is capable of causing a certain emotional reaction and updating a certain semantic context due to the symbolic meaning of this stimulus within a certain culture, reflecting the experience of specific communities.

Returning to the study of E.B. Tylor, who considered, among other things, the origins of various signs and predictions, we find in her that it is quite clear to her why “a kite means predation, a stork means consent, a pelican means charity, a donkey means hard work, ... why bees - a symbol of a submissive people - can be a favorable omen for the king, and flies that come again, no matter how much they are chased, can be a symbol of bothersomeness and insolence.”

Having the opportunity to observe a specific environment, fauna and flora, members of a certain community, generalizing their experience, attached symbolic meaning to the corresponding objects and manifestations. Perceiving them or their images, the bearers of the corresponding culture could experience certain emotions: satisfaction, inspiration or, conversely, fear, anxiety, depression.

However, the symbolic meaning of some objects will be different in different communities. As an example, consider the image of a five-pointed star. Thus, for the followers of medieval magicians, a pentagram with a human figure inscribed in it was a sign of adepts who believed that thanks to knowledge of the laws of the world, which to most seems four-sided, they could find the path to a happy existence; the pentagram in Gnostic schools is a sign of omnipotence and spiritual self-control; for free masons, the pentagram with the letter G inscribed in it was reminiscent of the two sacred words of the Cabal “gnosis” and “generatio”, and also meant “Great Architect”. It is clear that for a simple Red Army soldier, the star on his budenovka could have a completely different meaning, as well as for US citizens, in connection with the use of this image on their national flag.

An example of a similar discrepancy in understanding the meaning of a certain symbol in different cultures can be the interpretation of the number of flowers in festive and funeral bouquets. In Japan and the USA, unlike the domestic tradition, the holiday bouquet has an even number of flowers. Natalya Petrovna Bekhtereva, a well-known researcher in the field of psychology and physiology, mentioned in a personal conversation with the author that despite the lack of inclination towards superstitions, at first, receiving bouquets with an even number of flowers from American colleagues, she noted that, albeit fleeting, but quite unpleasant feeling.

There are very interesting examples of the use, so to speak, of the matryoshka metaphor to characterize certain stimuli, which, being already carriers of a certain symbolic meaning, acquire additional meaning beyond this. An example is the image of a pelican in medieval painting.

A little earlier we already cited information from the study of E.B. Tylor, regarding the fact that the pelican in the early stages of cultural development among peoples who have the opportunity to observe it acquires the symbolic meaning of good will. As Christianity developed, the motif of the pelican tearing its chest to feed its young with its blood became a symbol of Christ’s sacrifice on the cross. In this meaning, for example, his image can decorate a vessel in a still life. As the famous iconologist D. Hall pointed out: “It is an attribute of personified mercy.”

At the same time, the symbolic meaning of a certain stimulus may be associated in its origin not only with the presence of a specific collective experience, but also with a special personally significant situation in which this stimulus was observed. An example is the analysis of personal experiences carried out by John Davis, a professor of psychology involved in transpersonal psychology, in connection with his use of renewal rituals carried out in natural conditions and serving for personal growth: “... on my first trip I surrounded myself with red objects, sometimes almost unconsciously. I wore the same red neckerchief all week without thinking about it, I drew a red heart in the middle of a picture we painted together, I chose a place for my ritual in the Red Mountains, on the night of my vigil I saw red lights flickering In the woods. But it wasn't until a day or two after I returned that I associated the color red with courage, bravery, and following one's convictions. I found transpersonal support for the decision to transfer my dedication to work into my professional life.”

As a rule, the symbolic meaning of a certain stimulus fixed in this way, being actualized in other situations, is capable of causing certain emotional experiences, for example, inspiration, depression, confidence, readiness to face the worst, etc., which is also reflected in activity regulators.

And finally, a visual object can, to one degree or another, evoke aesthetic experiences that become incentives for one or another activity.

Summarizing the consideration of the reasons that determine the effects caused by visual stimuli, let us once again recall that they act

- causing an indicative reaction due to unexpected observed changes in the visual field, its heterogeneity, destruction of visual stereotypes;

- as additional means for concentrating attention when immersed in altered states of consciousness;

- causing an emotional reaction due to the physical characteristics of stimuli (color, brightness, contrast combinations), i.e. features of color effects on humans;

- causing an emotional reaction and associations due to the specificity of the gestalt that arises on the basis of the visual series;

- due to the stable attribution within a certain culture of a specific visual stimulus to a certain semantic context;

- conveying some specific situation that has or acquires a certain meaning for the recipient;

- due to the symbolic meaning of a given stimulus, originating from a person’s natural observations, his direct sensory experience;

- causing a certain reaction due to the symbolic meaning of a given stimulus within a certain culture, reflecting the experience of specific communities;

- causing a certain reaction due to the symbolic meaning of a given stimulus within personal experience person;

- becoming a source of aesthetic experiences.

Based on the above materials, it becomes clear that there is some inconsistency in information regarding the connection between certain human reactions to color stimuli and the characteristics of the stimulus. This is due to the fact that color stimuli must be considered as if in a three-coordinate system.

The first group of effects is related to the physical nature of the stimulus. We have already mentioned this in some detail.

The second group is the effects that arise as a result of the symbolic meaning of a given stimulus, based on the natural observations of a person, arising from his direct sensory experience, for example, the perception by many generations of people of the light and darkness of the night, blood and fire. In connection with this experience, dark blue is associated with the peace of the night, yellow with daytime worries, and red with situations requiring high activity. Notable in this sense are V. Kandinsky’s remarks regarding the symbolic essence of white, which consists in the fact that white acts as a symbol of “a world where all colors, all material properties and substances have disappeared. This world stands so high above us that not a single sound reaches us. A great silence comes from there, similar in the material image of a cold medium receding into infinity, which cannot be crossed or destroyed. That’s why white acts on our psyche as a silence of such magnitude that it is absolute for us.”

From this passage we see how the symbolic is generated from sensory experience, its comprehension, and association.

The third group of effects is related to cultural traditions. Thus, for Europeans, black represents mourning; for Muslims, on the contrary, mourning is white. At the same time, at a certain stage, among Europeans, white symbolized mourning. This is the information on cultural differences in the symbolic function of color provided by V.G. Zazykin: “Americans associate red with love, yellow with prosperity, ... green with hope, ... white represents purity, calm, peace, and black is a symbol of complexity and emergency. ...in China, red means kindness and courage, black means honesty, and white, which is too unusual for Europeans, means meanness and deceit.”

As we can see, differences in color interpretation vary greatly across cultures. In confirmation of this, let us once again turn to the research of T. Zabozlaeva, according to whose data we can easily trace how symbolism, determined by the generalization of sensory experience, forms the basis of specifically historical symbolism. Let us recall once again how V. Kandinsky characterized the color white. He perceived white as a symbol of absolute silence, absolute emptiness.

From this feeling of color, its use in a situation of mourning naturally follows. White clothes are an early symbol of mourning and, in European tradition, a symbol of undyed clothing as a sign of rejection of all colors that together represent life. White mourning was worn by widowed queens. White was chosen by some monastic orders as their color as a sign of detachment from the colors of life. In Russia, black clothing, as a sign of grief and mourning, came into use only in the seventeenth century.

At the same time, young knights of the Middle Ages and English kings wore white outfits on coronation day. At the Burgundian court in the fifteenth century, it was customary to dress in white if they wanted to show integrity of heart and purity. In Christian symbolism, the color white acts as a symbol of participation in the angelic order and holiness. Thus, detachment and purity, freedom from anything in various conditions become the source of the next layer of associations on which a specific historical symbolic context grows.

In this regard, it seems appropriate to talk about primary and secondary symbolism, although this terminology is used in literature in a slightly different sense - in connection with the symbolism of sign devices. In this case, the primary is considered to be the assignment of a certain symbolic meaning to a sign in a certain culture, and the secondary – at the level of a specific subject – is the linking of the sign with sensory experience. But since sign means, being presented as visual or audio stimuli, act as a means of reflecting sensory and suprasensory experience, then the process of formation of their symbolic meaning as a whole is secondary in relation to the primacy of the process of sensation. Therefore, we considered it possible to use these terms in the sense we indicated.

And, finally, for specific people, a specific color can acquire a symbolic meaning due to its association with a certain personal experience, for example, the happy or unlucky color of a car.

In general, we once again point out that the existing multidimensionality in the assessment of color creates the preconditions for some difficulties in using empirical research data regarding the connection between the color of a stimulus and the emotional reaction to it.

Sound effects

Let us dwell further on the consideration of various options for using sound stimuli as a means of psychological influence. As we have indicated earlier, the main classes of effects they produce are the same as those we have already considered in the analysis of visual stimuli, and there are many types of activities in which they are used.

Thus, a phrase, unlike others, pronounced by an actor in a whisper, allows one to place semantic accents in a certain way in the corresponding remark. An example of the use of such an effect can also be a technique often used in stage practice, when the directors try to indicate the significance of the current moment, the “break” of the situation, by unexpectedly appearing sound, a musical fragment. The basis of such influences will be an indicative reaction. In this regard, changes in timbre, sound duration and other characteristics of audio field elements can play the role of unique markers.

An indicative reaction can also be a consequence of an unexpected violation of the “sound” context, when an unexpected sound fragment appears, another emotional coloring, “not from this opera”; speech is interrupted by specific noise or, conversely, ends in silence.

It is clear that the introduced sound fragment may have a certain emotional load, which is also introduced into the appropriate context. This is actively used, for example, in stage productions and in musical works as a means of creating an image of a certain future and its inevitability.

Sound stimuli, as well as visual ones, are used as a means of concentrating attention.

A significant place among the effects caused by sound stimuli are occupied by those caused by psychophysiological reactions determined by the specifics of the signals, their volume, timbre, and pitch of sounds. Let's remember what effect is caused by the sound produced by scratching metal on glass, the sound of a whistle, etc.

The Gestalt phenomenon has also been studied in relation to the audio field. It is with a holistic perception, not reducible to individual sensations, that the possibility of recognizing a certain musical theme performed on various instruments and in different arrangements is associated. But there are even more general gestalts. Thus, even an inexperienced listener can easily distinguish a sad melody from a cheerful one, a heroic theme from a tragic one, the “crystal” clink of glasses from the “crimson” clink of bells.

Thus, a certain gestalt allows us to identify musical fragments with a certain level of activity and emotional state.

Research into so-called emotional hearing is extremely promising in this context. This term was introduced by V.P. Morozov to denote the ability to adequately perceive, as well as reproduce, emotional information in speech, singing, and music. The psychoacoustic basis of emotional hearing is a subtle analysis and discrimination of timbral (spectral), tempo-rhythmic, dynamic and intonation (sound-pitch) features of the acoustic structure and dynamics of the sound of speech, voice or music, characteristic of a particular emotional coloring and its nuances. In experimental studies V.P. Morozov and E.I. Serebryakova revealed the possibility of differentiating the emotional coloring (joy, sadness, fear, anger) of speech phrases voiced by people. art. USSR O. Basilashvili. It is clear that the psychoacoustic “codes” of specific emotional states are represented by rather complex gestalts, the ability to adequately recognize which (according to V.P. Morozov) can be considered as an individual psychological feature.

Very interesting are the effects based on the symbolic meaning of the stimulus, resulting from the generalization of a person’s direct observations and his sensory experience.

Rolls of thunder as harbingers of an approaching disaster; The crow of a rooster as a symbol of the turning of night to morning with all the ensuing consequences are examples of this type of stimulus.

We find confirmation of the existence of such a level of reactions to sound stimuli, for example, in the description of the features of the conceptual structure of the language and some rituals characteristic of the African Acholi and Luo tribes. For them, night is a time of rest and safety, when the family is protected by a hut. The peace of the night is disturbed only by the “antisocial” creatures “lajoki”, who with their screams foreshadow misfortunes and failures. The crow of a rooster at dawn was interpreted by the Luo as an exclamation of pain, signaling the suffering of the coming day. A rooster that dared to crow in the evening or in the middle of the night was immediately slaughtered. In this example, the crow of a rooster represents the transition to pain and danger and acts as their symbol.

Sound stimuli, or more precisely, their rows, can also be perceived as an element of a certain culture. Examples include various musical traditions. It is clear that depending on whether the listener is a carrier of the corresponding culture or not, the depth and emotional richness of his experiences will be different. Indirect experimental evidence of this position can be obtained from the data obtained by V.M. Tsehansky and N.S. Shugrina when developing a methodology for selecting musical fragments for programs of musical influence on human functional states. These researchers used musical fragments related to various musical traditions: Indian, Japanese, Vietnamese, Chukchi, Altai, Uyghur; Arabic religious music, Russian sacred music, domestic and European classics, and images of modern mass culture were used. The experiment involved 40 people, our compatriots, aged from 20 to 55 years, of different educational levels, belonging to different social groups. It turned out that the greatest “scattering effect”, i.e. an increase in the dispersion of psychophysiological indicators was observed for a fragment corresponding to Japanese musical culture and Arabic cult music. Such data may indicate that such gestalts for listeners are not unambiguously “loaded” with specific emotional content, i.e. This method of “coding” emotions is unusual in our culture; each listener develops purely individual associations and emotions.

In addition, a specific sound series, being an element of culture, can also be considered in the structure of the personal experience of a particular person, due to which certain personal experiences can be associated with it. Thus, the playing of the national anthem may bring tears and a surge of pride to citizens, but not for everyone and not in all situations.

It is clear that all of these factors are most fully expressed in the influence of music on a person. Studies of the psychophysiological aspects of music perception have made it possible to establish not only the fact that individual musical fragments are capable of generating mental states and physiological changes that are adequate to the nature of the stimulus, but also evoke moods and thoughts that lift a person above his experiences, help overcome internal conflicts, i.e. have a cathartic effect. The widest list of those psychological problems that are solved through musical influence is given by V.M. Tsehansky and N.S. Shugrina. Thus, musical creativity is associated with the satisfaction of higher social needs, such as the need for creativity and self-expression; musical influence contributes to the formation and maintenance of social contacts, provides relief from a tense social situation and changes a person’s social activity, and acts as a psychotherapeutic agent.

- the specificity of the gestalt that arises on the basis of the sound series;

- assignment within a certain culture of a specific sound stimulus to a specific semantic context;

- attributing a sound stimulus to a specific situation that has a specific meaning for a specific person;

- the symbolic meaning of a given stimulus, originating from a person’s observations, his direct sensory experience;

- the symbolic meaning of the stimulus within a certain culture, reflecting the experience and traditions of specific communities;

- the symbolic meaning of a given stimulus within a person’s personal experience;

- aesthetic experiences due to the complex influence of musical works;

- direct experiences caused by musical images, as well as their comprehension in the context of one’s own worldview, leading to catharsis.

Tempo and rhythm in psychological influence

Considering the reasons that determine certain psychological effects when exposed to visual and audio stimuli, one cannot fail to mention such characteristics as the tempo and rhythm of their presentation. Researchers note that rhythmic stimuli (music, light and movement) were used in almost all cultures (Hasidic, Greek, African). The role of rhythmic influences as regulators labor activity considered by the German researcher K. Bucher at the end of the last century in his study “Work and Rhythm. Work songs, their origin, aesthetic and economic significance."

Rhythmic stimuli are believed to perform a number of functions:

Sound and visual stimuli, precisely when presented rhythmically, act as a means of concentrating attention during hypnosis, preparing shamans for rituals, in the process of mastering motor skills, and for coordinating physical efforts and dynamic moments of people acting together.

Rhythmic stimuli act as destabilizing factors that cause a change in the current state of consciousness and the transition to altered states. For example, most Western neophytes, while participating in religious rituals, easily entered an altered state of consciousness when drums beat at a frequency of 200-220 beats per minute. In order to change the state of consciousness, rhythmic influence can be carried out not only with the help of sound stimuli, but also through light, color, sound, infrasound, and electromagnetic fields.

Rhythmic stimuli are used as a means to promote more effective emotional contagion. The use of emotional contagion against the background of musical and rhythmic influence in various rituals is widely known. Researchers of ancient religious cults and rituals note that echoes of such practices were observed in Europe in not so distant times. Thus, a “sabbath of witches”, according to a researcher of the 19th century. Monier, was a ritual of those who came to Western Europe from Asia, a cult that existed until the Middle Ages, and in some places survived until a later period. Its participants twirled in a round dance in a spiral to the appropriate music and exclamations incomprehensible to outsiders. The rapid joint movement evoked the feeling that the whole body was filled with vital forces, and the more acute such mental states, the stronger the feeling that an endless fullness of energies was flowing (emanating) from the entire surrounding world.

It can be assumed that a similar situation from a psychological point of view arises in modern discos, when the cumulative psychological effect felt by their visitors is a consequence of rhythmic visual and sound influences, as well as the contagion effect due to the accumulation of a significant number of people involved in rhythmic interaction.

Smells

From life experience we know how great the role of odors is in the process of influencing a person. Sometimes subtle, not always conscious, they can evoke certain associations, revive memories, and signal something very important. Difficult to find literary work, in which the author would not use the direct sensory experience of readers in the field of perception of smells to create an image of the hero or reveal the meaning of a particular situation for the heroes. And if the author writes about the smell of mold and decay, sun and sea, coffee, freshly baked bread and fresh milk, overripe fruit, snow that smells like watermelon, etc., readers will have very specific emotionally charged images.

The use of various aromas to create a certain image or mood has been used since ancient times. The burning of aromatic substances during religious rituals and mysteries allowed their participants not only to create the required emotional background, but, as it turns out, made it easier for them to enter altered states of consciousness. Smells can induce a feeling of calm or help create a cheerful mood, which is currently used in aromatherapy to improve the comfort of work and living spaces.

Thus, odors, as well as audio and visual stimuli, have an effect due to their chemical nature. Of particular note is the symbolic meaning of smells, which arises from the generalization of sensory experience, but colored by the social context.

Thus, many authors describe the smell of expensive perfume and good tobacco as the smell of wealth and prosperity. In Russian classics, the mention of the entrance and stairs, which smelled of rotten sauerkraut and cats, always implied the poverty and hopelessness of the existence of the inhabitants of this home.

Based on this symbolic function of smells, they can also be used as a means of setting certain accents, for example, in fashion. Thus, the creation of special female and male lines in perfumery implies certain trends in the formation of the image of femininity and masculinity, just as the creation of a “unisex” perfume line emphasizes the “unisex” trend in clothing. Considering the fact that fashion is a complex social phenomenon, we can to say that smells contribute to a more complete expression of trends in such a complex phenomenon. Thus, smells can be used as a marker that carries information about general fashion trends.

In relation to smells, as well as in relation to visual and sound stimuli, we can talk about the role of gestalt as the basis of a certain psychological effect.

Thus, there are “cold” and “warm”, “for young girls” and “for mature ladies” perfume compositions. Each category can be represented by a variety of spirits, however, the images arising from them are distinguished by a similar color.

attributing a stimulus to a specific situation that has a specific meaning for a specific person;

- symbolic meaning of a given stimulus, arising from a person’s observations, his direct sensory experience.

- due to the symbolic meaning of a given stimulus within a particular culture, reflecting the experience of specific communities.

- due to the symbolic meaning of a given stimulus within the person's personal experience.

Multimodal gestalts and their symbolic meaning

It seems necessary to consider some of the gestalts formed by a number of stimuli related to various sensory modalities, as well as theoretical approaches that try to reveal them psychological role in the context of problems of psychological impact. We are talking about a person’s reflection of natural phenomena that are not comparable in scale to an individual human being, such as the Universe (sky, space), ocean (sea), natural elements and disasters such as volcanic eruptions, thunderstorms, etc.

Such multimodal gestalts are complex images that arise as a consequence of a specific experience and can be correlated in the mind of an individual with a certain personal meaning, but at the same time for many they will also have a symbolic meaning, the origin of which is not determined, however, only by the experience of a specific commonality, but has, as is considered by a number of researchers, a deeper nature, more precisely, a deep nature associated, for example, according to Jung, with the existence of archetypes, understood as universal images or symbols contained in the collective unconscious and predisposing the individual to experience certain feelings or think in a certain way regarding a given object or situation.

Their impactful nature is also associated with the functioning of “prenatal consciousness”, thanks to which the events of the prenatal period are recorded by the embryo and the results of this non-sensory perception are carried by the person throughout life.

The theories used to explain the essence of this kind of symbols themselves are also distinguished by a certain metaphorical nature, at the same time, they make it possible to build hypotheses regarding the function of symbolic formations of this level. This function is seen as ensuring a deep connection between current impressions and experiences with the essence of man, understood as the unity of the spiritual and natural.

An example of an analysis from precisely these positions of a complex multimodal gestalt, which in certain circumstances performs a symbolic function, is the study of N.V. Toporov “On the “poetic” complex of the sea and its psychophysiological foundations.” The subject of analysis is what is usually designated by the concepts of “ocean” and “sea”. Let's look at this study in more detail.

The existence of the “sea complex”, “oceanic feeling”, as having a deep symbolic meaning, is substantiated by N.V. Toporov based on the analysis of literary texts of domestic and foreign writers, representatives of various literary trends who worked in different eras, as well as on the basis of the analysis of some philosophical and theological positions.

The analysis of texts carried out by this researcher indicates that it is quite possible to distinguish between “natural”, “objective” (in the terms of N.V. Toporov) descriptions of real impressions of the sea elements, so characteristic of European poetry, from those in which the author uses “sea » code for transmitting a “non-marine” message. N.V. Toporov points out that, although in the real experience of the creator of the text there was the fact of contact with this element, in these cases the author describes “... not the sea itself, not only it, but something with the sea, connected as an invisible core, but immeasurably wider and deeper than just the sea; rather, “sea” as a certain element and even, more precisely, the principle of this element, present both in the sea and outside it, primarily in man...” The corresponding descriptions are a kind of deep metaphor that is used to convey such an experience, “... which would return a person to himself, to the essence of himself, which is drowned out by the secondary and does not reflect this essence, to his true inclinations and needs” . This, according to N.V. Toporov, has a certain psychotherapeutic meaning for their authors.

What makes it possible to implement such a function? The author sees it in a certain similarity between the physical essence of man and the ocean, in particular manifested through rhythmic structures, in the specifics of embryogenesis and, perhaps most importantly, in the prenatal experience of man.

One can, to one degree or another, accept or, conversely, try to refute such an understanding of the origins and functions of this kind of symbols, but it is impossible to deny the presence in culture of a huge layer of metaphors that implement the “sea complex”, which in itself is symptomatic of the existence of diverse, multi-level , not always conscious connections and embodiments of individual components of a holistic sensory experience in the context of the image of the world.

We constantly, without thinking about the metaphorical nature of familiar concepts, use them to describe everyday events and facts. Thus, the phrases “the sea is worried,” “the bread or feather grass in the steppe is worried,” “the man is worried” are quite commonplace. However, in order for the “exciting-oscillatory” state (in the terms of N.V. Toporov) of such various objects to be not only identified and realized, but also identified with something in a person that has a nature other than physical, a constant focus on a reflection of this “other” in the context of the natural, and not in an individual person, but as a mass manifestation, as evidenced by the emergence and everyday use of the corresponding linguistic means.

In this context, the presence of such metaphors in the language acts as a diagnostic sign of the existence of a process of “linking” the external physical with the mental and spiritual. There are, apparently, circumstances when this process becomes relevant for a particular person, rising from the operational level (use of a sign) to a higher one, up to the level of activity. In this sense, the level of action corresponds to the search, the creation of a deep artistic metaphor, which serves to more fully embody the creative intention of the creator of the text, the one who is trying to realize and express himself in the corresponding text, and the level of activity corresponds to a worldview understanding of the nature of “external” and “internal”, up to the creation of cosmogonic concepts.

Thus, if we return to the issue of psychological impact, it should be noted that the impact on a person of such complex multimodal gestalts, which are images of large-scale natural phenomena, arises due to:

- the brightness and variety of direct sensory experience that takes place in contact with the corresponding phenomena;

- experiencing a deep connection of one’s human essence (physical, mental and spiritual) with the essence of the corresponding natural phenomenon (possibly due to prenatal experience or manifestations of the collective unconscious);

- understanding the experience of deep connections with the world and reflecting this in the image of the world and worldview concept.

Such a diverse and profound impact of large-scale natural factors could not but be used for influence purposes, in particular in psychotherapeutic practice. Sea travel has long been considered the best cure for the blues. Communication with nature for many people is a source of self-regulation resources, “tuning into the required wavelength.” Modern psychotherapy uses these factors to optimize meaning-making processes.