Problem learning
The concept of problem-based learning has become widespread, however, there are several approaches to its interpretation.
Problem-based learning is a set of such actions as organizing problem situations, formulating problems, providing students with the necessary assistance in solving problems, checking these solutions, and, finally, managing the process of systematizing and consolidating acquired knowledge (V. Okon, 1975).
Problem-based learning is a type of developmental learning, the content of which is represented by a system of problematic tasks of various levels of complexity, in the process of solving which students acquire new knowledge and methods of action, and through this, creative abilities are formed: productive thinking, imagination, cognitive motivation, intellectual emotions.
Problem-based learning is such an organization of training sessions that involves the creation of problem situations under the guidance of a teacher and the active independent activity of students to resolve them, as a result of which there is a creative mastery of professional knowledge, skills and abilities and the development of mental abilities (G. K. Selevko, 1998).
Problem-based learning is a method of active interaction of the subject with the problem-represented content of learning, organized by the teacher, during which he is attached to the objective contradictions of scientific knowledge and ways to solve them. Learns to think, creatively acquire knowledge.
History of occurrence
Thinking is necessary for a person, first of all, in order to more deeply reflect the continuously changing conditions of life and activity. By virtue of their constant variability, these conditions inevitably turn out to be new, and everything new is necessarily unknown at first. Thus, in the process of searching for and discovering an essentially new person, he deals with the unknown. This determines the main task and at the same time the main difficulty of any thinking. How is it possible to know the unknown if we don't know anything about it yet? Already the philosophers of ancient Greece were seriously aware of this initial and universal difficulty of mental activity. They expressed it in the form of the following paradox of thought: if I (already) know thatOI'm looking for, what else should I look for; What if I (yet) don't know whatOI'm looking, how can I search? Such a paradox partly correctly expresses the most important contradiction of all thinking - the contradiction between the initial and final stages of the thought process. As one of the main mental realities in the study of creative processes of thinking was discoveredproblem situation, which, as psychologists note, is the initial moment of thinking, the source creative thinking]. It is the problem situation that helps to evoke a certain cognitive need in students, to give the necessary direction to their thoughts, and thereby create internal conditions for the assimilation of new material.
Problem-based learning is based on the theoretical principles of the American philosopher, psychologist and educator J. Dewey, who founded an experimental school in Chicago in 1894, in which the curriculum was replaced by play and work activities]. Classes in reading, counting, writing were carried out only in connection with the needs - instincts that arose spontaneously in children, as they matured physiologically. Problem-based learning technology became widespread in the 20-30s in the Soviet and foreign school. The emergence of a didactic system of problem-based learning in Soviet pedagogy is associated with the research of L.V. Zankova (organization of content and construction of the learning process), M.A. Danilova (construction of the learning process), M.N. Skatkina, I.Ya. Lerner (content and teaching methods), N.A. Menchinskaya and E.N. Kabanova-Meller (building a system of methods of cognitive activity), T.V. Kudryavtsev and A.M. Matyushkin (construction of the learning process), V.V. Davydov and D. Bruner (organization of content) and M.I. Makhmutov (construction of the learning process).
Having put forward the idea of a new didactic system, L.V. Zankov presented it as a combination of new didactic principles, built taking into account the laws of correlation between education and development of (younger) schoolchildren, experimentally proved the advantage of the new scheme of the educational process over the traditional one. The new didactic system was further developed in the studies of V. V. Davydov, who substantiated the need to have a new structure of the content of educational material, built on the basis of a combination of modern formal logic with dialectical logic. Having experimentally proved the possibility of forming theoretical thinking in junior schoolchildren, V. V. Davydov formulated a number of principles for the construction of educational subjects and revealed the dialectical connection between the content and teaching methods.
Problem learning- this is the modern level of development of didactics and advanced pedagogical practice. It arose as a result of the achievements of advanced practice and theory of education and upbringing, in combination with the traditional type of education, is an effective means of general and intellectual development of students. The name itself is connected not so much with the etymology of the word as with the essence of the concept. Training is called problematic because the organization of the educational process is based on the principle of problematicity, and the systematic solution of educational problems is a characteristic feature of this type of training. Since the whole system of methods is aimed at the comprehensive development of the student, his cognitive needs, and the formation of an intellectually active personality, problem-based learning is truly developing learning. Based on a generalization of practice and analysis of the results of theoretical studies, the following definition of the concept of "problem learning" can be given:Problem learning- this is a type of developmental education, which combines independent systematic search activity of students with the assimilation of ready-made conclusions of science, and the system of methods is built taking into account goal-setting and the principle of problematicity; the process of interaction between teaching and learning is focused on the formation of the worldview of students, their cognitive independence, stable motives for learning and mental (including creative) abilities in the course of mastering scientific concepts and methods of activity, determined by a system of problem situations.
The problem situation primarily characterizes a certain psychological state of the student that occurs in the process of performing such a task, which requires the discovery (assimilation) of new knowledge about the subject, methods or conditions for performing the task. The main element of the problem situation is the unknown, the new, something that should be open to correct execution tasks to perform the desired action.
Problem-based learning is the leading element modern system developmental education, including the content of training courses, different types training and ways of organizing the educational process at school.
Problem-based learning is characterized by a system of not any methods, namely, methods built taking into account goal-setting and the principle of problematicity. "Problem situation" and "learning problem" are the basic concepts of problem-based learning, which is seen not as a mechanical addition of teaching and learning activities, but as a dialectical interaction and interconnection of these two activities, each of which has its own functional structure. A significant shortcoming in modern practice and theory of problem-based learning is considered to be a limited understanding of the problem statement.
The impact on the emotional-sensory sphere of students creates conditions conducive to active mental activity. In the traditional type of education, the activation of educational activity was largely achieved precisely by increasing the interest of students, arousing their desire, etc. Without underestimating the importance of such motivation, it must be emphasized that it is the problem that is the root cause of active thinking, its immediate stimulus that determines the highest level mental activity. Emotionality and how to create it are an integral element of problem-based learning, but by no means its equivalent.
Features of the technique
Problem-based learning was based on the ideas of an American psychologist, philosopher and teacher (1859-1952), who in 1894 founded an experimental school in which the basis of learning was not the curriculum, but games and labor activity. Methods, techniques, new teaching principles used in this school were not theoretically substantiated and formulated in the form of a concept, but became widespread in the 20-30s of the twentieth century. In they were also used and even considered as revolutionary, but in 1932 they were declared a scheme and banned. The following took an active part in the development of the fundamental provisions of the concept of problem-based learning:, and others. The scheme of problem-based learning is presented as a sequence of procedures, including: setting a learning-problem task by the teacher, creating a problem situation for students; awareness, acceptance and resolution of the problem that has arisen, in the process of which they master generalized ways of acquiring new knowledge; application of these methods for solving specific systems of problems. The theory proclaims the thesis about the need to stimulate the student's creative activity and assist him in the process of research activity and determines the ways of implementation through the formation and presentation of educational material in a special way. The basis of the theory is the idea of using the creative activity of students by setting problem-formulated tasks and activating, due to this, their cognitive interest and, ultimately, all cognitive activity.
Basic psychological conditions for the successful application of problem-based learning
Problem situations should meet the goals of forming a knowledge system.
Be accessible to students and match their cognitive abilities.
Must cause their own cognitive activity and activity.
Tasks should be such that the student could not complete them based on existing knowledge, but sufficient for independent analysis of the problem and finding the unknown.
Human life constantly poses acute and urgent tasks and problems. The emergence of such problems, difficulties, means that in the reality around us there is still a lot of unknown, hidden. Therefore, we need an ever deeper knowledge of the world, the discovery in it of more and more new processes, properties and relationships between people and things. Therefore, no matter what new trends, born by the demands of the time, penetrate the school, no matter how programs and textbooks change, the formation of a culture of intellectual activity of students has always been and remains one of the main general educational and educational tasks. The success of the intellectual development of the student is achieved mainly in the classroom, when the teacher is left alone with his pupils. And the degree of students' interest in learning, the level of knowledge, readiness for constant self-education, i.e. their intellectual development, which convincingly proves modern psychology and pedagogy.
Most scientists admit that the development of schoolchildren's creative abilities and intellectual skills is impossible without problem-based learning. N. A. Menchinskaya, P. Ya. Galperin, N. F. Talyzina, T. V. Kudryavtsev, Yu. K. Babansky, I. Ya. Lerner, M. I. Makhmutov, A. M. Matyushkin, I. S. Yakimanskaya, etc.
Theoretical provisions and examples of the essence of problem-based learning and its structure should be associated with such an important category of didactics as teaching methods. The method is a means of implementing the theory of learning in everyday practice, the main tool in the technology of the learning process. In the history of philosophy, "method" is a means scientific research(F. Engels), the mode of activity (J. Mill), the rules of how to act (I. Kant) and the form of movement of content (G.-W. F. Hegel).
The didactic system includes the following principles for organizing educational material and building the process of problem-based learning:
1) to organize the main part of the educational material from the general to the particular, from the principle to the application in the order of the logical deployment of the initial concepts into the system of concepts of this science;
2) start learning with updating by creating a problem situation by introducing new information;
3) to introduce new concepts and principles both through the activity of students in solving educational problems, and through explaining their essence;
4) to achieve the assimilation of concepts and methods of mental activity by using the corresponding sign systems (words, formulas, statements, diagrams) and images through the analysis of information, solving educational problems and classifying specific objects;
5) to form in students a system of techniques and methods of mental activity for various types of problem situations;
6) provide the student with current information about the results of his own actions, necessary for assessment and self-assessment;
7) provide the student with the necessary sources of information and manage the course of its analysis, systematization and generalization (extraction of new knowledge and methods of activity from it). The nature of the presentation of educational material by the teacher depends on the internal conditions, which are the level of problematic learning and the level of effectiveness of teaching.
Problem situation - the main link of problem-based learning
A problem situation is the central link in problem-based learning, with the help of which a thought, a cognitive need are awakened, thinking is activated, conditions are created for the formation of correct generalizations. The creation of problem situations that determine the initial moment of thinking is a necessary condition for organizing the learning process that contributes to the development of genuine productive thinking in children, their creative abilities.
“In order to create a problematic situation in learning,” notes A.M. Matyushkin, - you need to put the child in front of the need to complete such a task, in which the knowledge to be learned will take the place of the unknown. Let's bring the simplest example(from the experiments of A.M. Matyushkin). Younger students who do not yet know that the sum of the interior angles of a triangle is 180?, but who already know how to build angles of a given size on the drawing, are given tasks to build triangles with angles of strictly defined sizes. First, the teacher selects such values so that they add up to 180?, and in this case, the students successfully complete the tasks. However, then the teacher specifically suggests such angles, the sum of which is greater or less than 180?. Now - unexpectedly for schoolchildren - all their attempts to build given triangles end in failure. So, in the course of their activities, a problematic situation naturally arises, which means that they have come across an obvious, but so far incomprehensible obstacle that hinders their further actions. This obvious problematic situation for students contains a pronounced contradiction between the desire and the inability to continue the previous actions. Thus, it constitutes the necessary initial conditions for thinking: it naturally induces to resolve the contradiction that has arisen, i.e. first of all, to comprehend the reasons for the failures that have begun in the implementation of certain activities. The strongest motivation for thinking is formed precisely in a problem situation. As a result, a person has a desire (motive) to find out, find out, understand the real causes of the difficulties that he unexpectedly encountered. The very fact of encountering a difficulty, the impossibility of completing the proposed task with the help of existing knowledge and methods of action, creates a need for new knowledge. This need is the main condition for the emergence of a problem situation, one of its main components. However, when faced with a difficulty, students may not have a cognitive need if the task, which should reveal the difficulty in children, is given without taking into account their capabilities (intellectual capabilities and the level of knowledge they have achieved). Therefore, as another component of the problem situation, the student's capabilities in the analysis of the conditions of the assigned task and the assimilation (discovery) of new knowledge are singled out. The degree of difficulty of the task should be such that with the help of available knowledge and methods of action, students could not complete it, but this knowledge would be sufficient for independent analysis (understanding) of the content and conditions for completing the task. Only such a task contributes to the creation of a problem situation.
It is problem situations that make it possible to create such a logic of explaining new material that reflects the logic of the relevant science, didactically refracted in relation to the level of thinking of students of a certain age. The correct logic of explaining new material, reflecting the logic of science, contributes to the fact that one situation passes into another in a natural way, based on the interconnection and interdependence of things and phenomena. The process of thinking begins with the analysis of the problem situation. “As a result of its analysis, a task arises, formulated,problemin the proper sense of the word. The emergence of the problem - in contrast to the problem situation - means that now it was possible at least preliminary and approximately to separate the given (known) and the desired (unknown). This division appears in the verbal formulation of the problem. These provisions help to determine the ways of organizing problem-based learning in the school. The problem situation should be created taking into account real, significant for students contradictions. Only in this case it is a powerful source of motivation for the cognitive activity of schoolchildren, activates their thinking, directs them to search for the unknown. This provision is of fundamental importance for the practice of problem-based learning.
Classifications of problem situations, ways and means of their creation
Experience shows that there are already more than 20 classifications of problem situations.
The first class includes those in which the goal (the subject of the action) is the assimilated unknown. In accordance with this, A. M. Matyushkin characterizes this class of problem situations as theoretical.
Example . Lesson "World around". Most rodents feed on solid plant food, which they gnaw off and grind with their teeth. The teeth must wear out, “wear out”, but they are always the same size. How can one explain that a beaver, who sharpens tree trunks all his life, does not lose his teeth and do not become blunt throughout his life? (Answer: Rodent teeth grow throughout life.)
The second class includes such situations in which the assimilated unknown constitutes the mode of action. Problem situations of this kind are widely represented in the assimilation of many subjects that involve the formation of rather complex ways for students to perform certain actions (language, mathematical operations, many practical skills and motor skills). This also includes situations that arise in the process of learning general and specific ways of solving problems in various academic subjects.
Example. Russian language lesson. The word "flycatcher" is written on the board. It is necessary to highlight the root in the word. There are different opinions. On the basis of word-formation analysis, children come to a new way of isolating the root (in compound words).
The third class includes such problem situations in which new conditions of action are unknown. Situations of this kind were most often considered in the study of the formation of skills, that is, at various stages of training a learned action. Especially often situations of this kind are encountered in the teaching of professional skills, when it is necessary to provide not only the main ways of performing professional actions, but also all the conditions in which they will have to be performed.
Example. Lesson "World around". Experience "Measuring the temperature of water." The thermometer reading in water differs from the temperature reading after removing the thermometer from the water. (While the water thermometer is out of the water, it gives an indication of the air temperature.).
This typology allows you to create a system of sequential problem situations. All types of problem situations have different didactic purposes. Thus, situations of the first class (theoretical) are used in the assimilation of new knowledge. Problem situations of the second class are used if the way to perform the action is unknown. The functional basis in this classification is very important, as it helps to identify the features and types of problem situations depending on the specifics. subject. Fundamentally new in this classification is the allocation as the basis of the level of development achieved by students and the intellectual capabilities of the child. This allows you to take into account the age and individual capabilities of students and thereby contribute to their development. Accounting for intellectual capabilities allows you to analyze the conditions for the emergence and solution of problem situations.
A discrepancy, sometimes reaching a contradiction, arises:
between old, already learned knowledge and new facts that are discovered in the course of solving these problems.
Example. Math lesson. The boy wrote down mathematical expressions for tasks: 1) add 5 to 2 and multiply by 3; 2) add 5 times 3 to 2. He got the following entries: 2+5*3=21
2+5*3=17
Find the mistake in the notes.
Correct option: (2+5)*3=21
2+5*3=17
2) between knowledge of the same nature, but of a lower and higher level.
Example. Russian language lesson. The teacher says: “There is an oak by the road. What is the last word? (Oak) What sounds in order do we hear when we say this word? [e][y] [p] Look at how this word is spelled. Compare with the sound composition of the word. The following is an introduction to spelling.
3) between scientific knowledge and pre-scientific, everyday, practical knowledge.Example. Lesson "World around". Theme of the lesson: "Plan and map." Students are invited to draw an apple, a life-size pencil in a notebook. Then the teacher gives the task to depict the house in full size. Since this is not possible, students, under the guidance of a teacher, come to the conclusion that it is necessary to use a scale.
A problematic situation arises when a teacher deliberately confronts students' life ideas with facts that students do not have enough knowledge and life experience to explain.
It is possible to deliberately collide the life ideas of students with scientific facts with the help of not only experience, but also a story about an interesting fact, experience. As a rule, this is connected with an excursion into the history of science.
As a result, not only the assimilation of new knowledge occurs, but also the formation of a cognitive need, without which successful learning and the development of students' thinking are impossible.
It is also possible to deliberately collide the life ideas of students with scientific facts using various visual means, with the help of practical tasks, during the performance of which students will certainly make mistakes. This allows you to cause surprise, sharpen the contradiction in the minds of students and mobilize them to solve the problem.
Methodical methods for creating problem situations:
- the teacher brings students to the contradiction and invites them to find a way to solve it;
- expresses different points of view on the same issue;
- invites the class to consider the phenomenon from different positions (for example, commander, lawyer, financier, teacher);
- encourages students to make comparisons, generalizations, conclusions from the situation, compare facts;
- raises specific questions (for generalization, substantiation, concretization, logic of reasoning);
- defines problematic theoretical and practical tasks (for example: research);
Sets problematic tasks (for example: with insufficient or redundant initial data, with uncertainty in the formulation of the question, with conflicting data, with obviously made mistakes, with a limited solution time, to overcome "psychological inertia", etc.). For the implementation of problematic technology, it is necessary: - selection of the most relevant, essential tasks;
- determination of the features of problem-based learning in various types of educational work;
- building an optimal system of problem-based learning, creating educational and methodological manuals and manuals;
- the personal approach and skill of the teacher, capable of arousing the interest of students in the case.
The task of the teacher is not to form infallible thinking, but to teach students to follow the path of independent finds and discoveries.
At the same time, both the teacher and the students become relatively equal participants in joint educational activities.
So, application in educational process problematic situations helps the teacher to fulfill one of the important tasks set by the reform of the school - to form students' independent, active, creative thinking. The development of such abilities can be carried out only in the creative independent activity of students, specially organized by the teacher in the learning process. Therefore, the teacher must be aware of the conditions in which schoolchildren should be placed in order to stimulate genuine productive thinking. One of these conditions is the creation of problem situations that constitute the necessary regularity of creative thinking, its initial moment. However effective development creative thinking is provided only by the system problematic situations. In addition, the inclusion of schoolchildren in independent search activities under the guidance of a teacher helps them master the elementary methods of science and methods of independent work. The resolution of the system of problem situations teaches schoolchildren to mental stress, without which it is impossible to prepare for life, for work for the benefit of society.
Natural science grade 4 (problem learning)
Subject: Leather
Target:
acquaintance with the meaning of the skin and its structure;
challenge already existing knowledge on the issue under study;
activation of students, motivation for further work.
Equipment: task cards.
DURING THE CLASSES
1. Psychological attitude.
(Students are divided into groups)
Hold hands. Remember, you are one. Respect the opinion of your comrades, know how to listen and not interrupt each other. Remember the “open mic” rule.
2. Challenge of knowledge.
A)What is this?(Work in groups). The children are given task cards.
1 group -It does not get wet in heavy rain, does not absorb moisture, but freely passes water.
2 group -It constantly dies and is constantly reborn. We always fit.
3 group-This is our only clothing given by nature. She does not wrinkle, does not fade. You can wear it for at least 100 years.
4 group -Make a pattern: spine, ribs, skin, skull.
B)What do you think of when you hear the word "skin"?What are your associations? (The teacher writes the answers of the children on the board)
3. Observation and reflection.
A) Examine the skin on your hand, on your fingertips, on the palm of your hand. Tell about your observations (students name, and the teacher makes a diagram-drawing on the board).
B) Work on the textbook.
Look at the picture and read the text.
What else do you know about skin? What have we not said about the skin?
Conclusion:the skin protects us from bumps, scratches, bumps.
C) Drawing up a table “Skin Specialties” (work in a notebook).
Meaning
How does it work?
Protects
From bumps, scratches, bumps
(Reading in commands the text “What else the skin can do” with stops for discussion and filling in the table)
1 card - 1 stop. How do sweat glands work?
Meaning
How does it work?
Cools
Saves from internal overheating
2nd card - 2nd stop. If you collect all the water in a day, can you drink tea 3 times?
Meaning
How does it work?
Removes bitter-salty substances from sweat. Removes unnecessary body substances: salts, lactic acid, nitrogen compounds
3 card - 3 stop. Why is 1 liter of blood stored in the skin?
Meaning
How does it work?
Blood Keeper
During long work
Wound on the body - loss of a large amount of blood
4 card - 4 stop. Why would our bones be fragile and soft without the normal functioning of the skin?
Meaning
How does it work?
Produces vitamin D. The sun produces vitamin D, which helps to absorb calcium. Hence the strong bones.
5 card. What can you now say about the meaning of the skin?
4. Reflection.
Match the “new” information with the “old” information. Look at our "sun". Maybe add something new, change?
5. Game "Detectives".
Since 1905, fingerprints have been used in the investigation of crimes. Find your friend's prints (students receive papers and paints).
6. Homework.
Textbook. Find additional material about the skin. Record new words in a dictionary.
APPLICATION
1 card
Leather- an amazing invention of nature. She has several specialties. You already know about one of them: it is to protect against mechanical, chemical and other influences. Do you want to know about the rest?
As a result of the work of our internal organs, a large number of warmth. This heat could boil about 7 buckets of water! But it's not safe for us to boil! So you need to cool down. They are working on thissweat glands,which are hidden in the deep layer of the skin.
Question:How do sweat glands work?
2 card
They constantly wet the surface of the skin with sweat. Sweat constantly evaporates and at the same time carries away heat. If you're healthy, you don't even notice it. But remember what happened with a cold. You have a fever, i.e. a high temperature. After some time, the skin became moist, in some places (on the forehead, on the upper lip) quite noticeable droplets of water appeared. Following this, the temperature dropped rapidly. Grandmothers and mothers rejoice in such cases: “I sweat, so I’m on the mend!”. Imagine, even when the temperature is normal 36.6, the skin releases almost half a liter of water during the day.
So we figured out the second specialty: the skin saves from overheating.
Question:If you collect all the water in a day, can you drink tea 3 times?
3 card
No you can not. Various substances unnecessary for our body are dissolved in this water: all kinds of salts, lactic acid, various nitrogen compounds. That's whysweatbitter-salty taste. The skin helps the body get rid of these bitter-salty substances. Here is the third specialty of the skin.
There is also a fourth specialty. You know that there are many blood vessels in the deep layer of the skin. They are very thin, sometimes thinner than a hair. But there are many. So many that they can store a whole liter of blood.
Question:Why is 1 liter of blood stored in the skin?
4 card
About stock. When you're watching TV or reading, you certainly don't need this liter of blood. But if you go on a long hike or dig a garden, this blood will have to work. And it is already quite necessary when a person has a wound on his body, and a large amount of blood has been lost. So, the fourth specialty is the storage of blood. And you know that without the normal functioning of the skin, our bones would be fragile.
Question:Why would our bones be fragile and soft without the normal functioning of the skin?
5 card
Required for bone strengthcalcium,and in order for the bone tissue to be able to assimilate, you needvitamin D. So here it isvitamin Dproduces leather. And, only if you visit the sun. Especially a lot of vitamin is formed from the morning rays of the sun. Here is such a fifth specialty of the skin.
Lecture by Minovskaya O.V. (Ph.D., Associate Professor)
The activity of the teacher and the student in problem-based learning.
Problem-based learning became widespread in the 1920s and 1930s in Soviet and foreign schools. It is based on the theoretical principles of the American philosopher, psychologist and educator J. Dewey (1859-1952), who founded an experimental school in Chicago in 1984. Classes in reading, counting, writing were carried out only in connection with the needs that arose spontaneously in children, as they matured physiologically. The child was provided as sources of knowledge: the word, works of art, technical devices, children were involved in the game and practical activities - work. In 1923, the laboratory-team method was introduced in the USSR on the basis of Dewey's ideas. Today under problem learning is understood as such an organization of training sessions, which involves the creation of problem situations under the guidance of a teacher and the active independent activity of students to resolve them, as a result of which there is a creative mastery of professional knowledge, skills, abilities and the development of mental abilities.
The purpose of problem-based learning - mastering not only the results of scientific knowledge, but also the path itself, the process of obtaining these results, the formation of the student's cognitive independence, the development of his creative abilities.
Tasks of problem-based learning:
Development of creative thinking abilities of the student;
Assimilation of ZUN by independent problem solving, as a result, this knowledge of skills is more durable than with traditional learning;
Formation of an active, creative personality, able to put forward and resolve non-standard professional problems.
Basic concepts.
Problem situation- the intellectual difficulty of a person that occurs when he does not know how to explain the phenomenon, fact, process of reality that has arisen, cannot achieve the goal by the method of action known to him.
Problem teaching- the activity of the teacher in creating a system of problem situations by the teacher, presenting the educational material and explaining it, and managing the activities of students in acquiring new knowledge, both in the form of ready-made conclusions, and by independently setting educational problems and solving them.
Problem doctrine- educational and cognitive activity of students in mastering knowledge and methods of activity by perceiving the teacher's explanations in a problem situation, independently (or with the help of a teacher) analyzing problem situations, formulating problems and solving them by putting forward proposals, hypothesizing them and proving them, as well as by checking the correctness of the decision.
Types of problem learning.
|
Scientific creativity |
Practical creativity |
Artistic creativity |
|
theoretical research, that is, the search and discovery for students of a new rule, law, theorem, etc. This type of problem-based learning is based on the formulation and solution of theoretical learning problems. Most often found in the classroom, where there is an individual, group and frontal problem solving. |
search for a practical solution, that is, the search for a way to apply known knowledge in a new situation, design, invention. This type of problem-based learning is based on the formulation and solution of practical learning problems. It is more common in laboratory, practical classes. |
artistic representation of reality based on creative imagination, including literary compositions, drawing, writing a piece of music, playing. It is more common in the classroom and in extracurricular activities. |
Principles of problem-based learning.
1) Principle practical orientation; 2) The principle of activity;
3) The principle of humanism; 4) The principle of cultural conformity;
5) The principle of natural conformity; 6) The principle of accessibility;
7) The principle of unity of the intellectual and emotional; 8) The principle of independence
Problem-Based Learning Methods
|
Problem presentation. |
Search conversation |
Research activities of students |
|
Appropriate in cases when students do not have a sufficient amount of knowledge when they first encounter a phenomenon and cannot establish the necessary associations. In this case, the search is carried out by the teacher himself: raises problematic issues, tasks and solves them himself; students are only mentally included in the process of finding a solution. |
It is applied if schoolchildren have a minimum of knowledge necessary for active participation in the decision learning problem. This is such a conversation, during which students, relying on the material already known to them, under the guidance of a teacher, seek and independently find the answer to the question posed. Problem questions should evoke intelligence. difficulties and purposeful mental search. Hints and leading questions take an important place. The teacher only sums up the results based on the answers of the students. |
It is used when students have sufficient knowledge necessary to make assumptions, as well as the ability to make hypotheses. Assumes self. formulating and solving the problem with the subsequent control of the teacher. Research tasks are supposed to be set: first, pract. work on collecting facts (experiment, experiment, observation, work on a book, collection of materials), then their theories. analysis and generalization. |
Problem situations can be classified within the framework of any subject according to a) focus on acquiring a new one (knowledge, methods of action, the possibility of applying knowledge and skills in new conditions, changing relationships); b) according to the degree of difficulty and severity (depends on the readiness of students); c) by the nature of the contradictions (between worldly and scientific knowledge). In a problem situation, the very fact that students see it is important, so it must be distinguished from problematic questions, for example: why does a nail sink, but a ship made of metal does not?
When do problems arise?
1. if students are faced with the need to use previously acquired knowledge in new practical conditions.
2. if there is a contradiction between the theoretically possible way of solving the problem and the practical impracticability of the chosen method
3. if there is a contradiction between the achieved result of the educational task and the students' lack of knowledge for its theoretical justification.
4. if students do not know how to solve the problem, i.e. in the case of students realizing the insufficiency of previous knowledge to explain the new fact.
To the proposed problem, it is necessary to present several requirements . If at least one of them is not fulfilled, the problem situation will not be created.
1. The problem must be accessible understanding of students. Therefore, it must be formulated in terms known to the student so that all or at least the majority of students understand the essence of the problem posed and the means for solving it.
2. The second requirement is feasibility the problem raised. If the problem put forward by the majority of students cannot be solved, the teacher will have to spend too much time or solve it himself; neither will give the desired effect.
3. The problem statement should interest students. Entertaining form often contributes to the success of problem solving.
4. Plays a significant role naturalness posing the problem. If students are specifically warned that a problematic task will be solved, this may not arouse their interest at the thought that a transition to a more difficult one is ahead.
Techniques for creating problem situations.
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The teacher leads the students to the contradiction and invites them to find a way to resolve it themselves. |
The teacher encourages students to make comparisons, generalizations, conclusions from the situation, to compare facts. |
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The teacher confronts the contradictions of practical activity |
The teacher poses specific questions (for generalization, justification, concretization, logic of reasoning) |
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The teacher gives different points of view on the same question. |
The teacher identifies problematic theoretical and practical tasks(for example research) |
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The teacher invites the class to consider the phenomenon from different positions (for example, commander, lawyer, financier) |
The teacher sets problematic tasks (for example, with uncertainty in the formulation of the question, with conflicting data) |
The student's readiness for problematic teaching is determined primarily by his ability to see the problem, formulate it, find solutions and solve it with effective methods. The main elements of the learning problem are "known" and "unknown" (you need to find a "connection", "relationship" between the known and the unknown).
Student activities problem-based learning involves the following steps:
odiscretion of the problem, its formulation (for example, 2 + 5 x 3 = 17; 2 + 5x3 = 21);
oanalysis of conditions, separation of the known from the unknown; putting forward hypotheses (options) and choosing a solution plan (either based on known methods, or searching for a fundamentally new approach);
oimplementation of the solution plan;
ofinding ways to check the correctness of actions and results.
Depending on the measure of the teacher's participation in the student's independent search, there are several levels of problematic learning. The first level is characterized by the participation of the teacher in the first three stages; for the second - on the first and partially on the second; for the third, which approaches the activities of a scientist, the teacher only directs the research search.
Teacher activity problem-based learning is:
ofinding (thinking about) a way to create a problem situation, enumeration options her decisions by the student;
oleadership of students' perception of the problem; clarification of the problem statement;
ohelping students analyze conditions;
oassistance in choosing a solution plan;
oconsulting in the decision process; help in finding ways of self-control;
oanalysis of individual errors or a general discussion of the solution to the problem.
Benefits of problem-based learning
contributes to the development of the mental strength of students (contradictions make you think about looking for a way out of a problematic situation of difficulty); independence (independent vision of the problem, choice of a solution plan, etc.); development of creative thinking (search for an independent non-standard solution).
problem-based learning also provides a stronger assimilation of knowledge (what is obtained independently is better absorbed and remembered for a long time); develops analytical thinking (an analysis of the conditions is carried out, an assessment of possible solutions), logical thinking(requires proof of the correctness of the chosen solution, argumentation).
problem-based learning equips schoolchildren with methods of cognition of the surrounding reality, develops the skills of appropriate observation, develops the ability to generalize and derive basic patterns with their justification, instills a taste for accessible research work.
students quickly comprehend the essence of the phenomenon under study and give reasonable answers. They develop cognitive needs and interest, a conviction in knowledge is brought up, as students themselves put forward hypotheses and prove them themselves.
Disadvantages of problem-based learning.
it is not always easy to formulate a learning problem,
not all educational material can be built in the form of problems;
problem-based learning does not contribute to the development of skills,
not economical - time consuming.
The essence of problem-based learning
1 Definition of the essence of problem-based learning. its basic concepts.
Problem-based learning is one of the promising areas for enhancing the educational activity of students, developing their cognitive interests, creative abilities of independence, and research skills.
Definition 1. Problem-based learning is a system of methods, techniques, rules of learning and teaching, taking into account the logic of the development of mental operations and the laws of educational and search activity of students.
Definition 2. A special type of interaction between a teacher and students, which is characterized by systematic independent educational and cognitive activity of students in the assimilation of new knowledge and methods of action by solving problematic problems.
Definition 3. (according to M.M. Levina) is a technology of developmental education, the main functions of which are to
stimulate active cognitive process students, their independence in learning;
educate them in a creative, research style of thinking;
to acquaint students with the logic and methods of research of scientific problems.
Problem-based learning corresponds to the goals of educating an active, creative personality.
The main psychological and pedagogical goals of problem-based learning:
development of students' ways of thinking and intellectual abilities;
assimilation by students of knowledge and skills obtained in the course of active scientific research and independent problem solving (at the same time, the acquired knowledge and skills are stronger than in traditional education);
education of an active, creative personality of a student who can see, pose and solve non-standard problems,
development of students' reflective skills and critical thinking.
The essence of problem-based learning
The process of learning, as a creative process, includes, first of all, the discovery of something new: new objects, new knowledge, new problems, new methods of solving. At the same time, problem-based learning as a creative activity is a search for solutions to non-standard problems using non-standard methods. If training tasks are offered to students to consolidate knowledge and develop skills, then problem tasks are always a search for a new way of solving.
The essence of the problematic interpretation of educational material is that the teacher does not communicate knowledge in a finished form, but sets problem tasks for students, prompting them to look for ways and means to solve them. The problem itself paves the way for new knowledge and ways of acting.
Problem-based learning is not an absolutely new type of learning in pedagogical practice; in the past, such famous names as Socrates, Rousseau, Disterve, Ushinsky and others are associated with it. “A bad teacher presents the truth, a good teacher teaches to find it” (Disteweg).
The psychological mechanism of the ongoing processes in problem-based learning is as follows: when confronted with a new, incomprehensible problem, the student experiences a state of bewilderment, surprise; This raises the question: what is the point? Further, the thought process proceeds according to the scheme: hypotheses are put forward, their justification and verification. The student either independently carries out a mental search, the discovery of the unknown, or with the help of a teacher.
The subject-object-subject relations (dialogue, polylogue, discussion) that arise in the collective solution of the problem contribute to the activation of the creative thinking of students in the conditions of problem-based learning.
The most important feature of the meaningful aspect of problem-based learning is the reflection of objective contradictions that naturally arise in the process of scientific knowledge, educational or research activities. It is in connection with this that problem-based learning can be called developing, because its goal is the development of knowledge and generalized skills by students by solving so-called learning problems. In problem-based learning, students are involved in solving a problem situation, while they form the methods of action necessary to solve non-standard problems.
Thus, the essence of problem-based learning is:
organization by the teacher of problem situations in the educational and cognitive work of students;
management of their search activities for the assimilation of new knowledge and methods of action by solving problematic problems.
Basic concepts of problem-based learning:
A problem situation is the conditions that arise when students do not have enough knowledge or known methods of action to comprehend something or perform some necessary operations, i.e. they have an intellectual difficulty.
A problem is a task that does not have a standard solution;
this is a search task aimed at finding the knowledge, ways of thinking and activity that are missing for its solution;
this is a false theoretical or practical question that contains a hidden contradiction that causes different, sometimes contradictory positions in its solution.
this is a task (task or question), the method of which the student does not know in advance, but he has the necessary basic knowledge and skills to implement a complete solution; problematic task causes difficulties for students, surprise, but is feasible.
Examples of problem situations, which are based on the contradictions characteristic of the cognitive process, can serve as:
a problematic situation as a result of contradictions between old knowledge and new facts for students that destroy the previous theory.
understanding of the scientific importance of the problem and the lack of a reliable theoretical basis for its solution;
the variety of concepts and the lack of a reliable theory to explain these facts;
practically accessible result and the absence of its theoretical justification;
the contradiction between a theoretically possible way of solving and its practical inexpediency;
a large amount of factual data and the lack of a method for their processing and analysis.
A problem situation has pedagogical value only when the inclusion of a student in it allows him to distinguish between the known and the unknown and to outline (on his own or with the help of a teacher) ways to solve a problematic problem.
Ways to create a problem situation:
use of educational and life situations;
encouraging students to a theoretical explanation of phenomena or facts, their analysis, generalization, classification;
familiarization of students with facts that seem to be inexplicable;
contradictions between scientific facts;
new conditions for applying the knowledge already available to the student.
3. Based on the analysis, the problem situation is transformed into a problem task. The problematic task involves the formulation of questions: “How to resolve the contradiction that has arisen? How to explain it?" A series of problem questions transforms the problem task into a solution search model, where various ways, methods and means of solution are considered. So, the problem method involves the following steps: problem situation → problem task → solution search model → solution.
In the classification of problematic tasks, tasks with uncertainty of conditions or desired answers, with redundant, contradictory or partially incorrect data are distinguished. The main thing in problem-based learning is the process of finding and choosing the right, optimal solutions, i.e. road work, not an instant solution. Although the teacher knows from the very beginning the shortest path to solving the problem, however, his task is to guide the search process itself, leading students step by step to solving the problem and gaining new knowledge and ways of action.
Problematic tasks perform a triple function:
they are the initial link in the process of assimilation of new knowledge;
provide successful learning conditions;
represent the main means of monitoring to identify the level of learning outcomes.
Thus, the teacher creates a problem situation, inspires and includes students in its resolution, organizes and checks the search for a solution. At the same time, the student becomes the subject of learning, he acquires new knowledge, methods of action. The difficulty of managing problem-based learning lies in the fact that the teacher must have a differentiated approach to creating a problem situation and setting problem tasks and take into account the individual characteristics of students and their readiness for search activities.
2 Motives for learning
The motives of learning activity can be classified depending on what underlies the motivation: motivation or the need for knowledge. The three groups of motives given below are associated with traditional and active types of learning.
In traditional training, students form two groups of motivating motives:
Direct motivators. They can arise in schoolchildren due to the pedagogical skills of the teacher, his passion for science and contribute to the formation of interest in this subject. These external factors reflect rather the interest, but not the motivation of the cognitive plan.
Prospectively motivating motives. So, for example, the teacher explains to the students that without mastering a particular section, it is impossible to master the next section, or the students are motivated to study because of the upcoming exam in the discipline. In this case, cognitive activity is only a means to achieve an end that is outside the cognitive activity itself.
In the conditions of problem-based learning, a completely new group of motives arises - cognitive-motivating motives for the disinterested search for knowledge, truth. Interest in learning arises in connection with a problem and develops in the process of mental work associated with the search and finding a solution to a problematic task or group of tasks. On this basis, an internal interest arises, which, in the words of A.I. Herzen, can be called the "embryology of knowledge".
So, cognitive-motivating motivation appears when a problem situation is deployed, active teaching methods are used, and, having arisen, it turns into a factor in activating the educational process and learning effectiveness. Cognitive motivation encourages a person to develop his inclinations and abilities, contributes to the self-realization of the individual and the disclosure of his creative potential.
But the formation of motives is only one of the tasks of problem-based learning. Its success is determined by the logic and content of the learning and search activities of students.
3 Forms, methods, technological foundations of problem-based learning
In domestic pedagogy, there are three main forms of problem-based learning:
Problematic presentation of educational material in a monologue mode of a lecture or a dialogic mode of a seminar. The problematic presentation of educational material at a lecture involves the formulation by the teacher (teacher) of problematic issues, problematic tasks and the search for their solution; at the same time, students are only mentally included in the process of finding a solution. For example, at the beginning of the lecture “On the Life of Plants”, the problem is posed: “Why do the root and stem grow in opposite directions?”. But the teacher does not give a ready answer, but reveals the essence of scientific research, reports on the hypotheses and experiments that were done to test the hypotheses and the results obtained;
Partial search activity during the experiment, in laboratory work; during problem seminars, heuristic conversations. The teacher thinks over a system of problematic questions, the answers to which are based on the existing knowledge base, but are not contained in the previous knowledge, i.e. questions should cause intellectual difficulties for students and promote mental search. The teacher must come up with possible "indirect clues" and leading questions, he himself sums up the main thing, based on the answers of the students. The partial search method provides productive activity of the third and fourth levels (application and creativity), as well as the third and fourth levels of knowledge (knowledge-skills, knowledge-transformation), in contrast to traditional explanatory and reproductive training, when only knowledge-acquaintances and knowledge is a copy.
Independent research activity, when students independently formulate a problem and solve it (solving a creative problem, developing and defending projects, term papers or diploma work) with the subsequent control of a teacher (teacher), which ensures the productive activity of the fourth level - creativity, as well as the fourth level of the most effective and durable "knowledge-transformations".
A problematic seminar can be held in the form of a business didactic game, when small working groups organized on the basis of a group (class) of students prove to each other the advantages of their hypothesis, concept. The solution of a series of problematic tasks can be taken to the lesson of systematization and generalization of knowledge or to a practical lesson devoted to testing or evaluating a certain theoretical model or methodology. The greatest effectiveness of the problematic approach is realized through educational and research activities, during which the student or student goes through all the stages of the formation of research skills and professional thinking, while at a separate lecture, seminar or practical lesson, one goal or a limited group of goals of problem-based learning is pursued.
The main methods problem-based learning are the method of problem presentation, partial search and research methods.
Method problem statement is transitional from performing to creative activity. At a certain stage of learning, students are not yet able to solve problematic problems on their own, and therefore the teacher shows the way to study the problem, setting out its solution from beginning to end. Although students in this method of teaching are not participants, but only observers of the course of reflection, they receive a good lesson in solving intellectual difficulties.
The essence of the partial search (heuristic) method of teaching is expressed in the following characteristic features:
knowledge is not offered to students in a “ready-made” form, they need to be obtained independently;
the teacher organizes not the communication or presentation of knowledge, but the search for new knowledge with the help of problematic tasks;
under the guidance of a teacher, students independently reason, solve emerging cognitive problems, create and resolve problem situations, analyze, compare, generalize, draw conclusions, etc., as a result of which they form conscious solid knowledge.
The method is called partial search because students cannot always solve a complex problem from beginning to end on their own. Therefore, educational activity develops according to the scheme: teacher - students - teacher - students, etc. Part of the knowledge is communicated by the teacher, and part of the knowledge is obtained by the students on their own, answering the questions posed or solving problematic tasks. One of the modifications of this method is the heuristic conversation.
The essence of the research method of teaching is that:
the teacher, together with the students, formulates a problem, the solution of which is devoted to a period of study time;
knowledge is not communicated to students. Students independently extract them in the process of solving (research) the problem, comparing various options for the answers received. The means to achieve the result are also determined by the students themselves;
the activity of the teacher is reduced to the operational management of the process of solving problematic problems;
the educational process is characterized by high intensity, the teaching is accompanied by increased interest, the knowledge gained is distinguished by depth, strength, and effectiveness.
The research method of teaching provides for the creative assimilation of knowledge. Its disadvantages are the significant time and effort of teachers and students. The application of the research method requires a high level of pedagogical qualification.
T
result
Technological foundations of problem-based learning
To implement a problematic technology, it is necessary:
selection of the most relevant, essential tasks;
identifying and taking into account the features of problem-based learning in various types of educational work;
building an optimal system of problem-based learning, creating educational, teaching aids and recommendations;
application of the personal-activity approach in the educational process;
sufficient level of professional competence of the teacher.
4 Structure of the problem lesson
Stages and conducting a problematic lesson (according to M.I. Makhmutov):
the emergence of a problem situation and the formulation of an educational problem (5-10 minutes);
putting forward proposals and substantiating a hypothesis for solving an educational problem (5-15 min.);
proof of the hypothesis (10-15 min.);
verification of the correctness of the solution of the educational problem.
Approximate structure of the problem lesson:
actualization of previous knowledge - preparation for the perception of new material;
assimilation of new knowledge and methods of action - at this stage a problem situation is created, a problem task is defined, hypotheses are put forward for its resolution, proof of hypotheses, verification of the solution;
the formation of skills, ways of thinking and activity through the application of knowledge gained as a result of solving the problem.
12.5 Conditions for effective implementation of problem-based learning
There are four main conditions for problem-based learning:
ensuring sufficient motivation of students that can arouse interest in the content of the problem;
ensuring the feasibility of the work of students with the problems that arise at each stage (the rational ratio of the known and the unknown);
the significance for the learner of the information obtained in solving the problem;
the need for dialogic, friendly communication with students, when they treat different points of view, hypotheses, suggestions expressed by students with attention and encouragement.
Not every educational material is suitable for problem presentation. Problem situations are easy to create when students are introduced to the history of the subject of science. Solution hypotheses, new scientific data, the crisis of traditional ideas, the search for new approaches to the problem - this is not a complete list of topics suitable for problem presentation. Mastering the logic of search through the history of discoveries is one of the promising ways to form problem thinking. The success of the restructuring of education from traditional to problem-based depends on the "level of problem", which is determined by the following factors:
the degree of complexity of the problem - derived from the ratio of known and unknown students within the framework of this problem;
the share of students' creative participation in solving the problem with a combination of collective and individual forms of education.
Questions and tasks for self-examination
Define the main categories of problem learning.
Explain the essence of problem-based learning?
What are the ways to create a problem situation? Give examples of problematic situations.
Name the main forms and methods of problem-based learning.
What difficulties can arise in the implementation of problem-based learning?
What is the structure of the problem lesson?
Problem-based learning is a way of organizing students' activities based on obtaining new knowledge by solving theoretical and practical problems, problem tasks in the resulting problem situations (V. Okon, M.M. Makhmutov, A.M. Matyushkin, T.V. Kudryavtsev, I.Ya. Lerner and others). There are stages of problem learning: 1). Awareness of the problem situation. 2) Formulation of the problem based on the analysis of situations. 3) Solving the problem, including the promotion, change and testing of hypotheses. 4) Verification of the solution.
The level of difficulty in problem-based learning for students can be different. Depending on what and how many actions to solve the problem they carry out:
1. The teacher poses a problem, formulates it, solves it. The student memorizes the solution to the problem.
2. The teacher poses a problem, formulates it. The student solves the problem.
3. The teacher poses a problem. The student formulates and solves it.
4. The teacher conducts general organization, control, leadership. The student is aware of the problem, formulates and solves the problem.
A problematic situation for a person arises if there is a cognitive need and intellectual ability to solve a problem or there are difficulties, contradictions between the old and the new, the known and the unknown, the given and the desired, conditions and requirements.
Types of problem situations (according to T.V. Kudryavtsev): a situation of discrepancy between the existing knowledge of students and new requirements; the situation of choosing from the available knowledge, the only ones necessary for solving a specific problematic task; the situation of using existing knowledge in new conditions; a situation of contradiction between the possibilities of theoretical substantiation and practical use.
Advantages of problem-based learning:
· Contributes to the formation of a certain worldview of students, tk. high self-sufficiency in the assimilation of knowledge makes it possible to transform them into beliefs.
Forms the personal motivation of the student, his cognitive interests.
Develops the student's thinking skills.
· Helps the formation and development of students' dialectical thinking, provides them with the identification of new connections in the studied phenomena and patterns.
Disadvantages of problem-based learning: to a lesser extent than other types of learning, it is applicable in the formation of practical skills; requires more time to master the same amount of knowledge than other types of learning.
Problem-based learning is based on the analytical and synthetic activity of students, implemented in reasoning, reflection. This is an exploratory type of learning. In problem-based learning, the assimilation of knowledge and First stage the formation of intellectual skills occurs in the process of relatively independent solution of a system of tasks - problems, proceeding under the general guidance of a teacher. The process of problem-based learning turns out to be, as it were, composed of two necessary stages: 1) the stage of setting a practical or theoretical task that causes a situation of difficulty; 2) the stage of searching for the unknown in this problem situation, either by independent research by the student (in high school), or by providing the teacher with the information necessary to complete the problem task. This information constitutes the knowledge acquired by the student.
Problem methods are methods based on the creation of problem situations, active cognitive activity of students, consisting in the search and solution of complex issues that require updating knowledge, analysis. Problem situations can be created at all stages of the learning process: during explanation, consolidation, control. The teacher creates a problem situation, directs students to solve it, organizes the search for a solution. Thus, the child becomes the subject of learning, and as a result, new knowledge is formed in him, he masters new ways of acting.
To implement a problematic technology, it is necessary:
Selection of the most relevant, essential tasks;
Determination of the features of problem-based learning in various types of educational work;
Building an optimal system of problem-based learning, creating educational and methodological manuals and manuals;
The personal approach and skill of the teacher, capable of causing active cognitive activity of the child.
An educational problem situation can be characterized as a mental state of mental interaction of a student, a group of students with a problem under the guidance of a teacher.
The main conditions for successful problem-based learning are identified: students' interest in the content of the problem; ability for students to work with emerging problems; the significance of the information that the student will receive when solving the problem, in the educational and professional terms; a certain style of communication between the teacher and students, when students can freely express their thoughts and views with the teacher's close and benevolent attention to the student's thought process.
An important element problematic situations, without which it is impossible to purposefully create and use them, are the student's capabilities, including both his intellectual abilities and the level of knowledge he has achieved. With the help of the acquired knowledge and methods of action, the student cannot complete the assigned task, but they should be sufficient for independent analysis (understanding) of the content and conditions for performing tasks. The more opportunities a student has, the more general relations can be presented to him in unknown assimilated knowledge. When characterizing a problem situation, the indicator of its difficulty for the student is not the complexity of the task itself, and not the abstract degree of novelty of the acquired knowledge, but the degree of generalization that the student must achieve in the process of searching for the unknown in the problem situation.
The types of problem-based learning are most correctly distinguished by the corresponding types of creativity. On this basis, three types of problem-based learning can be distinguished.
1. The first type (“scientific” creativity) is a theoretical study, that is, the search and discovery for students of a new rule, law, theorem, etc. This type of problem-based learning is based on the formulation and solution of theoretical learning problems.
2. The second type (practical creativity) is the search for a practical solution, that is, the search for a way to apply known knowledge in a new situation, design, invention. This type of problem-based learning is based on the formulation and solution of practical learning problems.
3. The third type (artistic creativity) is an artistic representation of reality based on creative imagination, including literary compositions, drawing, writing a musical work, playing, etc.
All types of problem-based learning are characterized by the presence of a reproductive, productive and creative activity of the student, the presence of a search and a solution to the problem. They can be carried out in various forms of organization. pedagogical process. However, the first type is most often found in the classroom, where there is an individual, group and frontal problem solving. The second - in laboratory, practical classes. The third type is in the classroom and in extracurricular activities.
It is quite clear that each type of problem-based learning, as an internally differentiated activity, has a complex structure, which, depending on many factors, gives different learning outcomes.
Each of the listed types of problem-based learning can proceed with a different degree of cognitive activity of the student. Determining this degree is important for managing the process of forming the cognitive independence of schoolchildren.
Each species corresponds to one of essential conditions problem-based learning - the presence of a certain level of cognitive independence of the student.
Having studied the psychological and pedagogical literature on issues of problem-based learning, it is clear that it is called problem-based not because students learn all the educational material only by independently solving problems and “discovering” new concepts. Here there are explanations of the teacher, and the reproductive activity of the teacher, and the setting of tasks, and the implementation of exercises by students. But the organization of the educational process is based on the principle of problems, and the systematic solution of educational problems is a characteristic feature of this type of education. Since the whole system of methods is aimed at the comprehensive development of the student, the development of his cognitive needs, the formation of an intellectually active personality, problem-based learning is truly developing. Problem-based learning is based on the principle of problematicity, implemented through various types of learning problems and through a combination of reproductive, productive and creative activities of the student.
Should all learning be problem-based?
Not all, if by problem-based learning we mean only the solution of educational problems and only the independent assimilation of all educational material. All learning should be developmental, in which independent assimilation of knowledge by solving educational problems, through discoveries is combined with the reproductive assimilation of knowledge presented by the teacher or student. The student cannot and should not repeat the entire historical path of the development of human knowledge. But he must repeat the principles of this development and the generalized modes of action in order to assimilate them and develop in himself methods of creative activity. Problem-based learning is a type of learning that, in combination with the traditional and the new that has been introduced into pedagogy by many researchers and practitioners, develops the entire set of feelings and mind, the student’s thinking and his memory, the development of a holistic, intellectually active personality. Education cannot be considered developing if the patterns of problem-based learning (principle of problematicness, problem situation) are not used. The problematic type of education does not solve all educational and upbringing tasks, therefore it cannot replace the entire education system, which includes different types, methods, and organization of the educational process. But also the system of education cannot be truly developing without problem-based learning.
Are problem-based learning accessible to all students? Almost everyone. However, the level of problematicness and the degree of cognitive independence will vary greatly depending on the age and individual characteristics of students, on the degree of their training in problem-based learning methods, etc.
We can talk about six didactic ways of organizing the process of problem-based learning, which are three types of presentation of educational material by the teacher and three types of organization of independent learning activities of students. Let's consider them.
· The method of monologue presentation.
The teacher reports the facts in a certain sequence, gives them the necessary explanation, demonstrates experiments in order to confirm them. The use of visual aids and technical teaching aids is accompanied by an explanatory text. The teacher reveals only those connections between phenomena and concepts that are required to understand this material, introducing them in the order of information. The alternation of facts is built in a logical sequence, however, in the course of presenting the attention of students to the analysis of cause-and-effect relationships, it is not specified. The facts "for" and "against" are not given, the correct final conclusions are immediately reported. If problem situations are created, then only in order to attract the attention of students, to interest them. After its creation, the answer to the question “why is this and not otherwise?” is not required from the students, but the actual material is immediately reported.
When using the monologue teaching method, the material is slightly rebuilt. The teacher most often only changes the order of reported facts, demonstrations, experiments, showing visual aids in order to create a problem situation and uses them as additional elements of content. Interesting Facts from the history of the development of the concept under study or facts that tell about the practical application of the acquired knowledge in science and technology.
The role of the student when using this method is rather passive, the level of cognitive independence necessary for working with this method is low.
With such an organization of the process of assimilation of new knowledge, the teacher complies with all the basic requirements for the lesson, implements the didactic principles of clarity, accessibility of presentation, observes a strict sequence in the order of information, maintains students' steady attention to the topic being studied, however, the teaching method he has chosen turns the student into a passive listener, does not activate his cognitive activity. The information-reporting method of teaching used in this case allows achieving only one goal - to replenish the stock of students' knowledge with additional facts.
· Reasoning method of teaching.
If the teacher aims to show an example of the study of the formulation and solution of a holistic problem, then he uses the reasoning method. At the same time, the material is divided into parts, the teacher for each stage provides a system of rhetorical questions of a problematic nature in order to attract students to a mental analysis of problem situations, exposes objective contradictions of the content, uses sentences of a narrative and interrogative type, informational questions (i.e. such questions, answering on which it is necessary to reproduce already known knowledge, to give information about known knowledge) are not set, the narration is in the form of a lecture.
The method of restructuring the material for work by this method differs, first of all, in that a system of rhetorical questions is introduced into the content as an additional structural element. The order of the reported facts is chosen in such a way that the objective contradictions of the content are presented underlined, arouse the cognitive interest of students and the desire to resolve them.
In the presentation of the teacher, it is no longer the categorical nature of the information that prevails, but the elements of reasoning, the search for a way out of the difficulties that arise due to the peculiarities of the construction of the material. The teacher, as suggested by M.I. Makhmutov, "demonstrates the very path of scientific cognition, forcing students to follow the dialectical movement of thought towards the truth", he not only creates problem situations, but poses and solves problems, shows how various hypotheses were put forward and collided.
Having chosen the reasoning method of teaching, the teacher, in the process of organizing the assimilation process, uses the explanatory method of teaching, the essence of which is that it "includes the teacher's communication of the facts of this science, their description and explanation, that is, it reveals the essence of new concepts with the help of words, visualization and practical action."
· Dialogic method of presentation.
If the teacher sets himself the task of involving students in direct participation in the implementation of a method for solving a problem in order to activate them, increase their cognitive interest, draw attention to what is already known in the new material, he, using the same content construction, supplements its structure with information questions, answers to given by students.
The use of the dialogic teaching method provides more high level cognitive activity of students in the process of cognition, since they are already directly involved in solving the problem under the cruel control of the teacher.
· Heuristic method of presentation.
The heuristic method is used where the teacher aims to teach students the individual elements of problem solving, to organize a partial search for new knowledge and ways of action. Using the heuristic method, the teacher applies the same construction of educational material as in the dialogical method, but somewhat supplements its structure by setting cognitive tasks and assignments for students at each individual stage of solving an educational problem. Thus, the form of implementation of this method is a combination of heuristic conversation with the solution of problematic tasks and assignments.
The essence of the heuristic method is that the discovery of a new law, rule, etc. is carried out not by the teacher with the participation of students, but by the students themselves under the guidance and with the help of the teacher.
· research method.
The concept of the research method was most fully revealed by I.Ya. Lerner, who referred to the research method a method that organizes the process of assimilation by solving problems and problematic tasks. Its essence is that the teacher constructs a methodological system of problems and problematic tasks, adapts it to a specific situation of the educational process, presents to students, thereby managing them learning activities and students, solving problems, provide a shift in the structure and level of mental activity, gradually mastering the procedure of creativity, and at the same time creatively assimilating the methods of cognition.
When conducting a lesson using the research method, the same construction of the material is again used, and the elements of the structure of the heuristic method and the order of questions, instructions, tasks are taken. If in the process of implementing the heuristic method these questions, instructions and tasks are of a proactive nature, that is, they are posed before solving the sub-problem that makes up the content of this stage, or in the process of solving it and performs a guiding function in the solution process, then in the case of using the research method, questions are posed in at the end of the stage, after the majority of students have solved the sub-problem.
· Method of programmed tasks.
The method of programmed tasks is the setting by the teacher of a system of programmed tasks. The level of effectiveness of the exercise is determined by the presence of problem situations and the possibility of independent formulation and solution of problems. The application of programmed tasks is as follows: each task consists of individual frame elements; one frame contains part of the studied material, formulated in the form of questions and answers, or in the form of a presentation of new tasks, or in the form of exercises.
According to the degree of cognitive independence of students, problem-based learning is carried out in three main forms: problem presentation; partial search activity; independent research activity.
The least cognitive independence occurs in problematic presentation: the presentation of new material is carried out by the teacher himself. Having posed the problem, the teacher reveals the way to solve it, demonstrates to the students the course of scientific thinking, forcing them to follow the logic of reasoning to the truth. Children are partners in scientific research. With partial search activity, the work is mainly directed by the teacher with the help of questions, the children reason independently, actively looking for the answer to the questions. In the research method, students independently pose a problem and solve it without the help of a teacher (but, as a rule, under his guidance).
The conditions for applying problem-based learning are as follows. Problem-based learning is advisable to apply when the content of the educational material contains cause-and-effect relationships and dependencies, is aimed at the formation of concepts, laws, theories; students are prepared for the problematic study of the topic; students solve problems for the development of independent thinking, the formation of research skills, a creative approach to business; the teacher has time for problematic study of the topic.
Problem-based learning is a factor of intellectual development. Its first and most important feature is the specific intellectual activity of the student in independently mastering new concepts by solving educational problems, which ensures consciousness, depth, strength of knowledge and the formation of logical-theoretical and intuitive thinking. Only solid knowledge becomes the real property of schoolchildren, which they can consciously apply in their further theoretical and practical activities. The second feature is that problem-based learning is the most effective means of forming a worldview, since the features of critical, creative and dialectical thinking are formed in the process of problem-based learning. Independent problem solving by students is also the main condition for the transformation of knowledge into beliefs, since only a dialectical approach to the analysis of all processes and phenomena of reality formulates a system of strong and deep convictions. The third feature follows from the regularities of the relationship between theoretical and practical problems and is determined by the didactic principle of the connection between learning and life. Connection with life serves as the most important means of creating problem situations and a criterion for assessing the correctness of solving educational problems. The fourth feature of problem-based learning is the systematic use by the teacher of the most effective combination of various types and types of independent work students. The specified feature lies in the fact that the teacher organizes the performance of independent work, requiring both the actualization of previously acquired knowledge and the assimilation of new knowledge and methods of activity. The fifth feature is determined by the didactic principle of an individual approach. The essence of the difference between problem-based and traditional learning is that in traditional learning, the need for individualization is a consequence of the dialectical contradiction between the frontal presentation of new knowledge by the teacher and the individual form of their perception and assimilation by the student. In problem-based learning, individualization is mainly due to the presence of educational problems of varying complexity, which are perceived differently by each student. Individual perception of the problem causes a difference in its formulation, putting forward various hypotheses and finding other ways to prove them. The sixth feature of problem-based learning is its dynamism (moving interconnection of its elements). The dynamism of problem-based learning lies in the fact that one situation passes into another in a natural way based on the dialectical law of interconnection and interdependence of all things and phenomena of the material world. As some researchers point out, there is no dynamism in traditional teaching; instead of problematicness, “categorical” prevails there. The seventh feature lies in the high emotional activity of the student, due, firstly, to the fact that the problematic situation itself is the source of its excitation, and secondly, to the fact that the active mental activity of the student is inextricably organically linked with the sensory-emotional sphere of mental activity. Any independent mental activity of a search nature, associated with the individual "acceptance" of an educational problem, causes a personal experience of the student, his emotional activity. In turn, emotional activity determines the activity of mental activity. The eighth feature of problem-based learning is that. It provides a new ratio of induction and deduction (strengthening the significance of the second way of cognition) and a new ratio of reproductive and productive, including creative, assimilation of knowledge, increasing the role of students' creative cognitive activity.
Thus, problem-based learning provides the strength of knowledge and a special type of thinking, the depth of beliefs, creative application knowledge in life.
Problem learning is based on the acquisition by students of new knowledge by solving theoretical and practical problems, tasks in the problem situations created for this.
The well-known Polish scientist V. Okon writes in his book Fundamentals of Problem-Based Learning that the more students strive to get on the path followed by the researcher in the course of their work, the better the results achieved. Domestic psychologists T.V. Kudryavtsev, A.M. Matyushkin, Z.I. Kalmykova and others developed the psychological foundations of the so-called problematic education in its various modifications. Its essence is as follows. The students are given a problem, a cognitive task, and the students (with the direct participation of the teacher or on their own) explore ways and means of solving it. They build a hypothesis, outline and discuss ways to test its truth, argue, conduct experiments, observations, analyze their results, argue, prove. This includes, for example, tasks for the independent “discovery” of rules, laws, formulas, theorems (independent derivation of the law of physics, spelling rules, mathematical formula, discovery of a method for proving a geometric theorem, etc.).
Problem-based learning includes several stages:
1) awareness of the general problem situation;
2) its analysis, formulation of a specific problem;
3) problem solving (promotion, substantiation of hypotheses, their consistent testing);
4) checking the correctness of the solution to the problem.
This process unfolds by analogy with the three phases of the mental act that occurs in a problem situation and
includes awareness of the problem, its solution and the final conclusion. “Thinking,” notes A.V. Brushlinsky, “originates in a problem situation, which means that in the course of his activity a person begins to experience some incomprehensible difficulties that prevent successful progress ... Thus, the problem situation that has arisen turns into a conscious human task".
Therefore, problem-based learning is based on the analytical-synthetic activity of students, implemented in reasoning, reflection. This is a heuristic, exploratory type of learning with great developmental potential.
Distinctive characteristics of problem-based learning are shown in Table 10.
Table 10 Characteristics of informal and problem-based learning (according to V. Okon)
|
Informative learning |
Problem learning |
|
1. The material is given in finished form, the teacher pays attention primarily to the program 2. Gaps, barriers and difficulties arise in the oral presentation of the material or through the textbook, caused by the temporary exclusion of the student from the didactic process. 3. The pace of information transfer is focused on stronger, average or weak students 4. The control of school achievements is only partly related to the learning process; it is not an organic part of it 5. There is no way to provide all students with 100% results; the greatest difficulty is the application of information in practice |
1. Students receive new information in the course of solving theoretical and practical problems 2. In the course of solving the problem, the student overcomes all difficulties, his activity and independence reach a high level here 3. The rate of communication depends on the student or group of students 4. Increased activity of students contributes to the development of positive motives and reduces the need for formal verification of results 5. Teaching outcomes are relatively high and sustainable. Students can more easily apply what they have learned to new situations and at the same time develop their skills and creativity. |
The main concepts of problem-based learning include: “problem situation”, “problem task”, “problem”, “problem-ness” (“levels of problematicity”, “principles of problematicity” and DR-)> “problematization”.
Condition realization of the learning goal is problematic, inherent in any "viable" object and subject, which can exist in a hidden and expressed form, i.e. be internal and external.
way problematic is problematic situation fixing the moment of appropriation by the subject of the object containing the problem.
means creating a problem situation may be problem task, formalized in text data.
mechanism, revealing the problem is problem-ization object and subject, i.e. the process of revealing internal and external contradictions inherent in the object, problems.
unit process is problem - hidden or obvious contradiction inherent in things, phenomena of the material and ideal world.
Problematic - The main thing condition development of the object (the world) and the subject (man) - can be considered as a dialectical category, side by side with others, or as the main feature of these categories in development, or as the main principle of their action, activity, or as the need to act.
Problem situation- way revealing an objectively existing problem, expressed explicitly or implicitly, which manifests itself as a mental state of intellectual difficulty in the interaction of subject and object.
problem task- means creating a problem situation - has a shell, materialized in its formulation (oral or written), focused on the needs and capabilities of the subject.
Problematization is a mechanism underlying the discovery of the problematic nature of the object by the subject, materialized in this problematic task.
Problem- contradiction - a unit of the content and process of movement in the material and ideal space, generating the process of development of the world and man and generated by a developed person. This process is continuous.
According to V. Okon, "the essence of the process of learning by solving problems comes down in each case to creating a situation that forces the student to independently seek a solution" . According to V. Okon, the role of the teacher is to make the Student feel the difficulty of a practical or theoretical nature, to understand the problem posed by the teacher, or to formulate it himself, to want to solve the problem, to solve it.
What is the problem solving process? According to V. Okon, it depends on the nature of the problem and the complexity of its solution. “The nature of the problem is determined by the degree of its complexity. In addition to simple problems, there are those that, before starting to solve
it is necessary to divide into particular ones, and only the solution of the latter makes it possible to solve the main problem. The difficulty of solving the problem is twofold. One is that in order to make a decision, it is necessary to update some part of the previous experience, precisely that without which the decision is impossible. Another is the need to simultaneously find new elements (links) unknown to the student that allow solving the problem.
The didactic foundations of problem-based learning are determined by the content and essence of its concepts. According to M. I. Makhmutov, the basic concepts of the theory of problem-based learning should be “educational problem”, “problem situation”, “hypothesis”, as well as “problem teaching”, “problem teaching”, “problematic content”, “mental search”, “problem question”, “problem statement”.
Learning problem- a subjective phenomenon and exists in the mind of the student in an ideal form, in thought. Task - an objective phenomenon, for the student it exists from the very beginning in a material form (in sounds or signs), and the task turns into a subjective phenomenon only after its perception and awareness. It is also important that the educational problem is the form of implementation of the principle of problem-ness in education.
M. I. Makhmutov offers a didactic classification of educational problems, which is based on the following variables: 1) area and place of origin; 2) role in the learning process; 3) social and political significance; 4) ways of organizing the decision process. The psychological classification of educational problems is based on such indicators as: 1) the nature of the unknown and caused difficulty; 2) solution method; 3) the nature of the content and the relationship between the known and the unknown in the problem.
Defining the problem situation, M. I. Makhmutov notes that it is the initial moment of thinking, causing the cognitive need of the student and creating internal conditions for the active assimilation of new knowledge and methods of activity. At the same time, two types of problem situations can be distinguished that arise in the formulation of both theoretical and practical problems.
The classification of ways to create problem situations is based on the nature of the contradiction that arises in the process of learning: “1. Collision of students with phenomena and facts that require theoretical explanation. 2. The use of educational and life situations that arise when students perform practical tasks. 3. Setting educational problem tasks to explain the phenomenon or find ways to practical application. 4. Encouraging students to analyze facts and phenomena
reality, confronting them with contradictions between worldly ideas and scientific concepts about these facts. 5. Putting forward hypotheses, formulating conclusions and their experimental verification. 6. Encouragement of students to compare, compare and contrast facts, phenomena, rules, actions, as a result of which there is a cognitive difficulty. 7. Encouraging students to a preliminary generalization of new facts. 8. Familiarization of students with facts that seem to be inexplicable and have led in the history of science to the formulation of a scientific problem. 9. Organization of intersubject communications ".
M.I. Makhmutov distinguishes three types of problem-based learning according to the type of creative activity being implemented: 1) scientific creativity; 2) practical creativity; 3) artistic creativity. What underlies each type of learning and creativity? Scientific creativity is based on the formulation and solution of theoretical educational problems. Practical creativity is based on the formulation and solution of practical educational problems. Artistic creativity is "an artistic representation of reality based on creative imagination, including literary compositions, drawing, writing a piece of music, playing, etc." .
The main thing in problem-based learning is the creation problematic situation. Of course, not every question to which the student does not know the answer creates a genuine problem situation. Questions like: “What is the number of inhabitants in Moscow?”, “When was the Battle of Poltava?” or “Which city is the capital of Turkey?”, “What was Gogol’s name?” - are not problems from a psychological and didactic point of view, since the answer can be obtained from a reference book, an encyclopedia without any participation of the thought process. Not a problem and such a task that does not present difficulties for the student (for example, calculate the area of a triangle, if he knows how to do it).
A learning task can cause mental activity under certain conditions. Psychologists see the source of student activity, in particular, in the contradictions between their experience (knowledge, skills) and the problems that arise in solving cognitive learning problems. This contradiction causes active mental activity. For example, a student must solve a particular cognitive problem, but: a) its conditions do not suggest a way to solve it, and b) the student’s past experience does not contain any ready-made solution scheme that could be applied in this case. The student is faced with the need to create a new solution scheme that is not available in his experience, a new system of methods of action.
A problem situation arises in a person if he has a cognitive need and intellectual capabilities to solve a problem in the presence of difficulty, a contradiction between the old and the new, the known and the unknown, the given and the desired, conditions and requirements. Problem situations are differentiated by A. M. Matyushkin according to the criteria: 1) the structure of actions that must be performed when solving a problem (for example, finding a method of action); 2) the level of development of these actions in the person solving the problem; 3) intellectual abilities of the student.
A. M. Matyushkin characterizes the problem situation as a special type of mental interaction between an object and a subject (student), characterized by such a mental state of the subject when solving problems that requires the discovery (discovery or assimilation) of new knowledge or methods of activity previously unknown to the subject. In other words, a problem situation is a situation in which the subject wants to solve problems that are difficult for him, but he does not have enough data, and he must look for them himself.
In the book “Problem situations in thinking and learning”, A. M. Matyushkin presents the following six rules for their creation.
1. In order to create a problematic situation, students should be given a practical or theoretical task, the implementation of which will require the discovery of new knowledge and the acquisition of new skills; here we can talk about a general pattern, a general mode of activity, or general conditions for the implementation of an activity.
2. The task must correspond to the intellectual capabilities of the student. The degree of difficulty of the problem task depends on the level of novelty of the teaching material and on the degree of its generalization.
3. The problematic task is given before the explanation of the material to be learned.
4. Problem tasks can be: a) assimilation, b) wording of the question, c) practical tasks. However, problem tasks and problem situations should not be confused with each other. A problem task can lead to a problem situation only if the above rules are taken into account.
5. The same problem situation can be caused by different types of tasks.
6. The teacher directs a very difficult problematic situation by indicating to the student the reasons for not fulfilling the practical task given to him or the impossibility of explaining certain facts to him.
Problem-based learning can be difficulty level for the student, depending on what and how many actions
actions for the formulation and solution of the problem he carries out himself. V. A. Krutetsky proposed a scheme of levels of problematic learning in comparison with the traditional one based on the separation of the actions of the teacher and the student (Table 11).
Table 11 Scheme of levels of problematic learning (according to V.A. Krutetsky)
|
Number of links kept by the teacher |
The number of links transmitted to the student |
What does a teacher do 9 |
What does student 9 do |
|
|
0 (traditional) |
Sets a problem, formulates it, solves a problem |
Remembers the solution to a problem |
||
|
Sets a problem, formulates it |
Solves the problem |
|||
|
Poses a problem |
Formulates a problem, solves a problem |
|||
|
Carries out general organization, control and skillful leadership |
Realizes problem, formulates it, solves the problem |
The scheme of levels of problem-heuristic learning proceeds from how many and what links are transferred by the teacher to the student. In the traditional form of teaching, the teacher himself formulates and solves the problem (deduces a formula, proves a theorem, etc.). The student must understand and remember someone else's thought, remember the formulation, the principle of decision, the course of reasoning.
There are four levels of difficulty in learning:
1. The teacher himself poses a problem (task) and solves it himself when active listening and student discussion.
2. The teacher poses a problem, the students independently or under his guidance find a solution. The teacher directs the student to independent search for solutions (partial search method). Here there is a detachment from the sample, opens up space for reflection.
3. The student poses a problem, the teacher helps to solve it. The student develops the ability to independently formulate the problem.
4. The student himself poses the problem and solves it himself. The teacher does not even point out the problem: the student must see it on his own, and having seen it, formulate and explore the possibilities and ways to solve it.
As a result, the ability to independently see the problem, independently analyze the problem situation, and independently find the correct answer is brought up.
The third and fourth levels are the research method.
If the teacher feels that students are having difficulty completing a particular task, then he can introduce additional information, thereby reducing the degree of problematicness and transfer students to a lower level of problem-heuristic learning.
In problem-based learning, the teacher is like an experienced conductor organizing this exploratory search. In one case, the teacher himself, with the help of the students, can conduct this search. Having posed a problem, he reveals the way to solve it, argues with the students, makes assumptions, discusses them with the students, refutes objections, proves the truth. In other words, the teacher demonstrates to students the path of scientific thinking, makes students follow the dialectical movement of thought towards the truth, makes them, as it were, accomplices in scientific search.
In another case, the role of the teacher may be minimal - he provides students with the opportunity to independently seek ways to solve problems. But even here the teacher does not take a passive position, but, if necessary, imperceptibly directs the students' thoughts in order to avoid fruitless attempts, unnecessary loss of time. That is why the teaching method associated with the independent search and discoveries of certain truths by schoolchildren is called problem-heuristic, or research, method.
Thus, under the conditions of problem-based learning, the development of activity in the mental activity of students can be characterized as a transition from actions stimulated by the teacher's tasks to independent formulation of questions; from actions related to the choice of already known ways and methods, to independent searches for solving problems, and further - to developing the ability to independently see problems and explore them.
The research method cultivated in problem-based learning is such an organization of educational work in which students get acquainted with scientific methods of obtaining knowledge and, mastering the elements of scientific methods available to them, master the ability to independently obtain new knowledge, plan a search and discover a new dependence or pattern for themselves.
In the learning process, it is important to gradually transfer students to a higher level of problem-heuristics.
academic training. Of course (and this is important to emphasize), the ability to see, formulate and solve a problem does not develop spontaneously, as a spontaneous development of initially laid down tendencies. This is the result of learning. The teacher teaches independent formulation and problem solving, independent thinking develops with the decisive and leading role of the teacher. It is wrong to assume, as D. Dewey did, that the inborn and uncorrupted state of childhood, distinguished by love for experimental research, is very close to scientific thinking.
Among the modern developments of forms of problem-based learning, the experience of its implementation in the methodology and practice of teaching foreign languages deserves attention. One of the latest original "versions" of such a didactic construction is the development of E. V. Kovalevskaya. In her study, devoted to teaching speaking in a foreign language, the task was to form ways to create problem situations at the communicative level. During the experiment, it was found that problem situations for teaching speaking should be based on the inclusion of obstacles to achieving the goal and varying the number of unknown components (place, time, participants in communication), which determines the degree of complexity of the problem situation and the variability of solutions. For example: “You need to be at the institute on time, but you can’t leave because you are waiting for an important phone call...” This situation is problematic because it contains an obstacle to achieving the goal, as well as unknown components (time and communication participants).
Thus, during the experiment, the expediency of introducing stepwise problem situations, which contribute to the stimulation of speech through a series of successively occurring obstacles to achieving the goal. The development of creative activity of students was ensured by involving them in the process of setting and solving problems, individualization of learning based on the choice of problems in accordance with the cognitive and communicative needs and capabilities of each student.
E. V. Kovalevskaya developed “step-by-step” situations in which the goal of the simulated action is complicated not by one, but by a chain of obstacles built in a certain logical sequence. For example: “You need to be at the institute on time, but: 1. You can’t leave because you are waiting for an important phone call ... 2. You ask your neighbor to take you to work, but he refuses because ... 3. You you are traveling by bus, but you don’t have time to get a ticket, the controller enters ... 4. The bus leaves, you stop a taxi, but a person appears who is late for the plane ... 5. You stop the car, but on the way the driver
breaks the rules of the road... 6. You arrive at the institute, but you do not have a wallet (money) to pay for the fare... 7. You manage to pay the fare, but you are late for the lecture... etc.” . Based on the stepwise situations presented orally in a foreign language, the teacher maintains communication, offering more and more new problems to solve.
Further, E.V. Kovalevskaya considers one of the central issues of problem-based learning - the issue of "appropriation" of objective problem situations, provided they correspond to the cognitive and communicative needs and abilities of students and if they are accepted by the teacher.
The appropriation process can be optimized based on the formation of students' skills to resolve problem situations and the skills of teachers to manage this process. The search skills of students and teachers were based on the stages of solving the problem. Students' skills to resolve problem situations include: 1) the ability to see problems and put them on their own; 2) the ability to create a solution hypothesis, evaluate it, moving on to a new one in case the original one is unproductive; 3) the ability to direct and change the course of the decision in accordance with their interests; 4) the ability to evaluate one's own decision and the decisions of interlocutors. The skills of teachers to manage the process of resolving problem situations are as follows: 1) the ability to anticipate possible problems on the way to achieving the goal in a problem situation; 2) the ability to instantly reformulate a problem situation, facilitating or complicating it on the basis of regulating the number of unknown components; 3) the ability to choose problem situations in accordance with the train of thought problem solving; 4) the ability to impartially assess the options for students' decisions, even if the points of view of students and teachers do not coincide.
By analogy with the levels of problematicness for a student, E.V. Kovalevskaya builds levels of problematicity for a teacher: first level, the teacher acquires methodological knowledge in the process of reasoning presentation of the main provisions and concepts of problem-based learning in relation to a foreign language; on second level, the teacher uses problem situations from the textbook in his work; on third level independently thinks through possible problem situations during preparation for the lesson, and also creates them in the lesson; on fourth level becomes the author of a new textbook, methodology, scientific research. In the process of creativity, the teacher becomes the author of his script (textbook), the director of his own performance (lesson), the creator of a new theater (scientific direction). The foregoing made it possible to show the multilevel nature of the problematic idea, its development in space and time.
In conclusion, it is necessary to dwell on the place and role of problem-based learning in the system of a holistic educational process.
According to I.Ya. Lerner, problem-based learning should be carried out only when studying part of the educational material, which allows creative processing of information obtained both in problem-based and non-problem learning.
What are the functions of problem-based learning? There are three of them: 1) the development of creative potentials and the formation of structures of creative activity; 2) creative assimilation of knowledge and methods of activity; 3) creative mastery of the methods of modern science.
At the same time, as I.Ya. Lerner notes, only a few students can see problem situations. In order for the majority of students to see and solve problems, a system of problem situations, problems and problem tasks is needed, included in the fabric of the content of education and the learning process. Indicators of the system of problematic tasks should be the following characteristics: 1) coverage of various features of creative activity; 2) the presence of various degrees of complexity. As for the content of the educational material on which the system of problems should be built, it is subject to the main content principle of the system of problem tasks, based on the identification of “cross-cutting” or “aspect” problems in various fields of science.
According to M. I. Makhmutov, problem-based learning cannot replace all learning, but without the principle of problematic learning, learning cannot be developing. “The problematic type of education,” the author writes, “does not solve all educational and upbringing tasks, therefore it cannot replace the entire education system, which includes different types, methods and forms of organizing the educational process. But also the general system of education cannot be truly developing without problem-based learning, the basis of which is a system of problem situations.
Of course, the problem method cannot be turned into a universal method of teaching. As V. A. Krutetsky noted, “... for some students who do not yet possess the skills of independent thinking, it is somewhat difficult (although other students can be very successful in it: in our experiments, for example, the most capable ones “discovered” for themselves almost entire course of geometry). Yes, and it requires more time than the traditional information-reporting presentation. But the latter circumstance should not be exaggerated. The loss of time at the first stages of the introduction of the problematic method is compensated later, when the student's independent thinking develops sufficiently.
The benefits of problem-based learning are clear. First of all, these are great opportunities for developing attention, observing
activity, activation of thinking, activation of cognitive activity of students; it develops independence, responsibility, criticality and self-criticism, initiative, non-standard thinking, caution and determination, etc. In addition, which is very important, problem-based learning ensures the strength of the acquired knowledge, because they are obtained in independent activity.
Problem-based learning has a number of advantages compared to traditional learning, since: 1) it teaches you to think logically, scientifically, dialectically, creatively; 2) makes the educational material more evidence-based, thereby contributing to the transformation of knowledge into beliefs; 3) as a rule, it evokes deep intellectual feelings more emotionally, including a feeling of joyful satisfaction, a sense of confidence in one’s abilities and strengths, therefore it captivates schoolchildren, forms a serious interest of students in scientific knowledge; 4) it has been established that independently “discovered” truths, patterns are not so easily forgotten, and in case of forgetting, independently acquired knowledge can be restored faster.
Problem-based learning is associated with research and therefore involves a solution of a problem extended in time. The student finds himself in a situation similar to that in which there is an agent who solves a creative task or problem. He constantly thinks about it and does not get out of this state until he solves it. It is due to this incompleteness that solid knowledge, skills and abilities are formed.
The disadvantages of problem-based learning include the fact that it always causes difficulty for the student in the learning process, so it takes much more time to comprehend and find solutions than with traditional learning. In addition, as with programmed learning, the development of problem-based learning technology requires a lot of effort from the teacher. pedagogical excellence and a lot of time. Apparently, it is precisely these circumstances that do not allow the widespread use of problem-based learning. At the same time, problem-based learning meets the requirements of modernity: to teach by researching, to research by teaching. This is the only way to form a creative personality, that is, to realize the main task of pedagogical work.
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1. What are the main trends, varieties and features of modern areas of education?
2. What is the essence of the problem of the relationship between training and development, as well as approaches to its solution?
3. Can training ensure the full development of the personality, what is the essence of the provisions of the concept of L.S. Vygotsky?
4. What are the main provisions of the concept of developmental education by L.V. Zankov (lines and principles of development, distinctive features of developmental education)?
5. What is the peculiarity of building a teaching methodology in primary school according to L.V. Zankov (the structure of the lesson and textbooks, the logic of building a course of study)?
6. What are the features of the formation of educational activities according to the methodology of L. B. Elkonin-V. V. Davydov?
7. What are the scientific background and forms of programmed learning?
8. What is the essence of the algorithmization of learning and the theory of the gradual formation of mental actions by P. Ya. Galperin?
9. What goals and provisions underlie the concept of programming the educational process by N.F. Talyzina?
10. What is the peculiarity of the development of programmed manuals and training programs?
11. What are the essence and didactic characteristics of the organization of problem-based learning?
12. What is the peculiarity and meaning of creating problem situations in learning?
13. What is the characteristic of the levels of problem-based learning and its role in the educational process?
